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PracticeModelsandEvidence-BasedPractice749 17 Evidence-BasedPracticeandAdditionalSocialWorkPracticeModels750

CHAPTER1

AnInteractionalApproachtoHelping2

ProblematicSocialWorkEncountersinEarlySessions2

TheInteractionalSocialWorkPracticeTheory4 ElementsofaPracticeTheory5 Models,Skills,andEmpiricalSupport6

TheClient–SystemInteraction7

TheMedicalModelandtheParadigmShift7 FirstInterviewWithaDepressedClient9 IntegratingAssessmentandEngagement:Behavioras Communication10

DynamicSystemsTheory:TheVISACenterExample11 Intersectionality,InterlockingOppressions,andSocialLocation16 Fanon:TheOppressorWithinandtheOppressorWithout16 UnderlyingAssumptionsintheInteractionalModel18

AssumptionofSymbiosis19

AssumptionofObstaclesintheEngagement22

AssumptionofStrengthforChange27

TheSocialWorkProfession:ABriefHistoricalPerspective29 TheRootsoftheProfession29

TheFunctionoftheSocialWorkProfession32 SocialWorkSkillandtheWorkingRelationship35 TheIntegrationofPersonalandProfessionalSelves39 ResearchFindings42 StudyDesign43

DescriptionofStudyParticipants43 StudyLimitations43

ValuesandEthicsinSocialWorkPractice44

DefinitionsofValuesandEthics44

NationalAssociationofSocialWorkersCodeofEthics45 EthicalProblemsandDilemmas46

FactorsThatMayAffectEthicalDecisionMaking47

ChapterSummary49

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities50 CompetencyNotes50

CHAPTER2

OppressionPsychology,Resilience,andSocial WorkPractice51

OppressionPsychology52

TheOppressionPsychologyofFrantzFanon52

InternalizedNegativeSelf-Images53

OppressionModelsandInter-andIntraculturalPractice54 IndicatorsofOppression54

ResilienceTheoryandResearch59

DevelopmentalPsychologyTheoryandResearch60 ResilienceandLife-SpanTheory64 CognitiveHardiness65

ImplicationsforSocialWorkPractice66

OlderPeople’sStrategiesandWaysofCoping66

ChapterSummary71

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities71 CompetencyNotes72

PARTIISocialWorkWithIndividuals73

CHAPTER3

ThePreliminaryPhaseofWork74

CommunicationsinPractice75 ObstaclestoDirectCommunication75

ExamplesofIndirectCommunicationinPractice76

PreliminaryPhase:TuningIntotheSelfandtotheClient78 TuningIntotheAuthorityTheme79

TheImpactofDiversityandCulturallyCompetentPractice83

InterculturalPractice:TheLatinoExample86 IntraculturalPractice87

ElementsoftheWorkingRelationship:TheTherapeuticAlliance87

MakingandCatchingMistakes:FirstSessionofaParents’ Group89

AffectiveVersusIntellectualTuningIn91

UseofSupervisioninLearningtoTuneIn91

TuningIntoOne’sOwnFeelings93

DifferentLevelsofTuningIn94

RespondingDirectlytoIndirectCues99

MyResearchFindings102

TheImpactofAgencyCulture:The AgencyClient 103

AvoidingStereotyping:The AgencyClient 104

StereotypingaGroupofClients104

ChapterSummary106

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities106

CompetencyNotes106

CHAPTER4

BeginningsandtheContractingSkills108

“TheFirstMeetingIsReallyImportant,YouKnow!” 109

TheDynamicsofNewRelationships110

FactorsAffectingFirstInterviews113

ContractinginFirstSessions116

TheImpactofContextonPractice116

SomeAdditionalVariantElementsinContracting119

Author’sResearchFindingsonContracting120

ContractingOverTime121

ContractingWithResistantClients123

ModelsforAssessmentintheBeginningPhase137

SocialWork’sApproachtoAssessmentandDiagnosis137

AlternativeAssessmentApproaches138

TheImpactoftheUseofStructuredAssessmentInstruments139 AModelforAssessingAssessmentModels140

CulturallyDiversePracticeintheBeginningPhase141

WorkingWithMexicanAmericans143

WorkingWithAfricanAmericans145

WorkingWithAmericanIndians149

WorkingWithCanadianIndians150

CounselingMuslimAmericans151

IssuesinCross-RacialPractice153

EducationandTrainingforCulturallySensitivePractice154

EthicalandLegalConsiderationsintheBeginningPhase155

InformedConsent155

ConfidentialityandPrivilegedCommunications156

ChapterSummary159

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities159

CompetencyNotes159

CHAPTER5

SkillsintheWorkPhase161

AModeloftheWorkPhaseInterview162

WorkPhaseSummary163

PreliminaryPhase(Sessional)163

BeginningPhase(Sessional)163

MiddlePhase(Sessional)164

EndingsandTransitions(Sessional)166

SessionalTuning-InSkills167

TuningIntotheClient’sSenseofUrgency167

TuningIntotheWorker’sOwnFeelings169

TuningIntotheMeaningoftheClient’sStruggle171

TuningInandtheWorker’sRealitiesofTimeandStress172

TuningIntotheWorker’sOwnLifeExperiences173

SessionalContractingSkills174

WorkingFromtheClient’sSenseofUrgency174

ResearchonSessionalContracting176

ImpactoftheMedicalParadigmonSessionalContracting177

ElaboratingSkills178

Containment178

MovingFromtheGeneraltotheSpecific180

FocusedListening:TheComplexCommunicationProcess181 Questioning182

ReachingInsideofSilences183

EmpathicSkills186

ReachingforFeelings190

DisplayingUnderstandingoftheClient’sFeelings191

PuttingtheClient’sFeelingsIntoWords192

ResearchonEmpathy193

SharingtheWorker’sFeelings196

IntegratingthePersonalandtheProfessional196

WhentheWorkerIsAngryWiththeClient197

AWorker’sInvestmentintheSuccessoftheClient199

AWorkerSharingFeelingsAssociatedWithLifeExperiences200

BoundaryIssuesinSharingtheWorker’sFeelings200

SexualTransferenceandCountertransferenceFeelings202

ResearchonSharingFeelings203

MakingaDemandforWork204

ClientAmbivalenceandResistance205

IntegratingSupportandConfrontation:TheEmpathicDemandfor Work207

PartializingClientConcerns208

HoldingtoFocus210

CheckingforUnderlyingAmbivalence211

ChallengingtheIllusionofWork212

PointingoutObstacles213

SupportingClientsinTabooAreas214

DealingWiththeAuthorityTheme218

IdentifyingProcessandContentConnections221

ProcessandContentThatAddresstheAuthorityTheme221

ImpactoftheWorker’sEmotions222

SharingData225

ProvidingRelevantData226

ProvidingDatainaWayThatIsOpentoExaminationand Challenge227

ProvidingDataasaPersonalView228

HelpingtheClientSeeLifeinNewWays229

SessionalEndingandTransitionSkills230

Summarizing231

Generalizing232

IdentifyingtheNextSteps233

Rehearsing233

Identifying “Doorknob” Communications235

EthicalandLegalIssuesintheMiddlePhase236

EthicalIssuesinWithholdingInformation237

TheDutytoWarn239

StayingUp-to-DateWithEvolvingCircumstancesandtheLaw239

ChapterSummary240

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities241 CompetencyNotes241 CHAPTER6

EndingsandTransitions242

MakingtheThirdDecision242

GeneralDifficultyinEndingImportantRelationships243

EndingtheWorker–ClientRelationship243

TheDynamicsandSkillsofEndings244

FlowofAffectintheEndingPhase244

TimingandtheEndingPhase245

StagesoftheEndingPhase246

Denial246

IndirectandDirectExpressionsofAnger248 Mourning251

TryingItonforSize254

TheFarewell-PartySyndrome255

TheSkillsofTransitions255

IdentificationofMajorLearning256

IdentificationofAreasforFutureWork259

SynthesizingtheEndingProcessandContent261

TransitionstoNewExperiencesandSupportSystems262

VariationsonEndings263

EndingaRelationshipThatNeverReallyBegan263 EndingsCausedbytheTerminationoftheWorker’sJob267 EndingsCausedbytheDeathoftheClient269

SuicideonaCaseload271

EthicalIssuesAssociatedWithEnd-of-LifeDecisions276 ChapterSummary277

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities278 CompetencyNotes278

PARTIIISocialWorkWithFamilies279 CHAPTER7

ThePreliminaryandBeginningPhasesin FamilyPractice280

WhatConstitutesaFamily?281

SocialWorkWithFamilies:FamilySupportandFamilyCounseling282 Setting SpecificWorkWithFamilies283

TheUniqueIssuesAssociatedWithFamilyDynamics283 IntegratingOtherModelsandApproachesIntoFamilyPractice284 SelectedConceptsFromFamilyTherapyTheory284 PsychodynamicApproach284

BowenFamilySystemsTheory286

Freeman’sImplementationoftheBowenModelandtheStagesof Practice286

Person-CenteredApproach287

Cognitive-BehavioralFamilyTherapy287

MultisystemicTherapyModel288

GLBTClientsandTheirFamiliesofOrigin289

CoreConceptsAcrossTheories290

FamilyAssessmentModels291

FamiliesandtheOrganismicorSystemsModel291

FamilyAssessmentTools292

ThePreliminaryPhase—TuningIntotheFamily294

TuningIntoaRecentlyImmigratedGreekFamily295

TheTwo-ClientConceptandtheWorker’sRole296

TheMediationRolefortheSocialWorker297

CountertransferenceinWorkingWithFamilies299

TheBeginningPhase:ContractingWiththeFamily299

TheProblem-OrientedFirstFamilyInterviewfortheBeginner300 DiscussionofThisFirstFamilySession304

TheImpactofCultureandCommunity306 WorkingWiththeCulture307

Racism,Oppression,andtheNativeAmericanFamily308 ResearchFindingsonRaceandPracticeWiththeNative Population308

Oppression,Resilience,andthePsychologyandSociologyofPeople ofColor309

ChapterSummary317

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities317 CompetencyNotes317

CHAPTER8

TheMiddleandEndingPhasesinFamily Practice319

TheMiddlePhaseinFamilyPractice319 AFrameworkforAnalyzingaFamilySession320 TheWorkPhaseModel320

DealingWithFamilySecrets322 AMother’sDegenerativeIllness:TheFamilySecret323

AMiddlePhaseFamilySession324

TheRecord-of-ServiceDevice324

TheEndingandTransitionPhaseofFamilyPractice333

GoalsoftheEnding/TransitionPhase333

EmotionalReactionstotheEndingProcessinFamilyCounseling334

EndingtheSessionsBeforeTheyAreFinished334

TheImpactofIgnoringIssuesofRace,Class,andCultureintheEnding PhaseofFamilyPractice335

EndingaRelationshipWithaFamilyBecauseofaChangeinthe Worker’sJobStatus336

ChapterSummary337

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities337 CompetencyNotes337

CHAPTER9

TheImpactofSettingandService340

AFamily’sFearofInvasivePractice:SubvertingtheContract340 RuralAreasandLimitedServices341

TheChildWelfareSetting341

WorkWithFosterParents341

PotentialProblemAreasinWorkWithFosterParents342

WorkWithChildreninResidentialCare349

WorkWithTeenParentsandTheirFamiliesofOrigin354

FamilyPracticeintheSchoolSetting356

WorkWithaSingle-ParentFamily363

PracticeWithArmedForcesFamilies:OnBase,Predeployment,and Postdeployment364

ChapterSummary367

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities367 CompetencyNotes367 PARTIVSocialWorkWithGroups369

CHAPTER10

ThePreliminaryPhaseinGroupPractice:The GroupasaMutual-AidSystem370

WhatIsMutualAid?371 TheDynamicsofMutualAid372 SharingData372 TheDialecticalProcess373 DiscussingaTabooArea374

The “All-in-the-Same-Boat” Phenomenon376 DevelopingaUniversalPerspective376 MutualSupport377

MutualDemand378

IndividualProblemSolving379

Rehearsal380

The “Strength-in-Numbers” Phenomenon383

SummaryoftheDynamicsofMutualAid383

ObstaclestoMutualAid384

IdentifyingtheCommonGround384

TheComplexityoftheGroup-as-a-Whole384 DifficultyofOpenCommunicationsinTabooAreas385

TheRoleoftheGroupLeader385

PreparingforGroupPractice387

EngagingOtherProfessionalsinDevelopingtheGroup387

AchievingConsensusontheService388 IdentifyingGroupTypeandStructure391 GroupVersusIndividualCounseling391 AgencyorSettingSupportforGroups393

GroupComposition,Timing,andStructure394

GroupMemberSelection396

GroupTiming401

GroupStructure,Setting,andRules403 SectionSummary404

InterviewingProspectiveMembers405 StrategizingforEffectiveReferrals405 GroupLeaderSkillsintheInitialInterviews407

ScreeningCriteriaforGroupPractice409

EthicalIssuesinGroupPractice411 GuidelinesforPracticeinGroupWork412

ConfidentialityandGroupCounseling:UniqueDilemmas416 ChapterSummary417

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities417 CompetencyNotes418

CHAPTER11

TheBeginningPhaseWithGroups419

TheDynamicsofFirstGroupSessions420 WhatDoWeKnowAboutFirstGroupSessions?420 WhatWouldWeLiketoAchieve OurValuedOutcomes?422

TheContractingSkills:EstablishingaStructureforWork423 IllustrationofaFirstGroupSession:TheCouples’ Group426

TheInitialStageoftheFirstSession426

TheMiddleStageoftheFirstSession438

TheEndingandTransitionStageoftheFirstSession444

RecontractingAftertheFirstSession448

RecontractingWithYourOwnGroup448

ColeadershipinGroups453

ReflectivePracticeinGroupColeadership454

PositivePotentialinColeadership455

SkillinDealingWithColeaderConflictsintheGroup456

AFinalCommentonColeadership459

Open-Ended,Single-Session,andInternetOnlineGroups460

TheOpen-EndedGroup460

TheSingle-SessionGroup463

InternetOnlineGroups466

Telephone-MediatedGroupWork469

SinglePurposeGroups:BullyingintheSchoolasanExample470

ChapterSummary472

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities473

CompetencyNotes473

CHAPTER12

TheMiddlePhaseofGroupWork474

TheMiddleorWorkPhaseinGroupWork474

TheRoleoftheGroupLeader476

ReachingforIndividualCommunicationintheGroup476

ReachingfortheGroupResponsetotheIndividual480

ReachingfortheWorkWhenObstaclesThreaten484

AvoidingIndividualCounselingintheGroup485

GroupWorkSkillFactorsintheMiddlePhase486

ThePreliminaryStage487

SessionalTuningIn487

TheBeginningStage488

SessionalContracting488

TheMiddleStage489

FlowofAffectBetweentheGroupMembersandtheLeader(s)490

ElaboratingSkills490

EmpathicSkills496

SharingtheGroupLeader’sFeelings501

MakingaDemandforWork503

SupportingGroupMembersinTabooAreas510

IdentifyingProcessandContentConnections515

SharingData517

HelpingtheGroupMembersSeeLifeinNewWays522

TheEndingandTransitionStage522

Summarizing523

Generalizing523

IdentifyingtheNextSteps524

Rehearsing524

Identifying “Doorknob” Communications525

ActivityinGroups527

FunctionsofActivityinaGroup528

TwoCategoriesofActivityGroups528

ActivityGroupsWheretheActivityIsthePurpose529

ActivityGroupsWithDirectTherapeuticorEducational Purposes530

ChapterSummary543

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities543

CompetencyNotes544

CHAPTER13

WorkingWiththeIndividualandthe Group545

TheConceptofRoleinaDynamicSystem546

TheImpactofOppressiononSocialRole546

FormalandInformalRolesintheGroup547

TheScapegoat548

StrategiesforAddressingtheScapegoatingPattern555

The “Deviant” Member556

ExtremeVersusMildDeviance557

ReachingfortheUnderlyingMessageofDeviantBehavior558

DeviantBehaviorasaFunctionalRole559

TheInternalLeader561

TheGatekeeper565

TheDefensiveMember567

TheQuietMember569

GroupLeaderStrategies570

TheMonopolizer574

TheGroup-as-a-Whole576

DescribingtheGroup-as-a-Whole577

TheGroupasanOrganism578

DevelopmentalTasksfortheGroup579

TheRelationshiptotheLeader:TheAuthorityTheme581

TheBennisandShepardModel TheIssueofAuthority581

TheGroupLeaderastheOutsider584

TheGroupLeader’sDemandforWork585

TheGroupLeader’sLimitations591

TheGroupLeaderasaCaringandGivingPerson592

AuthorityThemeSummary593

GroupMemberRelationships:TheIntimacyTheme594

CohesionandAlliancetotheGroup-as-a-Whole594

TheBennisandShepardModel595

TheStoneCenter:IntimacyandtheRelationalModel599

DevelopingaCultureforWork608

NormsandTaboos608

Bion’sEmotionalityTheory609

HelpingMemberstoDevelopaStructureforWork614

HelpingGroupMemberstoNegotiatetheEnvironment616

TheHomansSocialSystemsModel Relatingtothe Environment618

ChapterSummary619

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities620

CompetencyNotes620

CHAPTER14

EndingsandTransitionsWithGroups622

TheEndingPhaseofGroupPractice622

TheDynamicsandSkillsofEndings624

FlowofAffectintheEndingPhase624

TimingandtheEndingPhase626

StagesoftheEndingProcess626

Denial627

Anger627

Mourning628

TryingItonforSize629

Farewell-PartySyndrome629

GroupLeaderStrategiesWithRegardtoEnding630

GroupLeaderStrategiesWithRegardtoTransition630

TheGroupLeaderTakesaLeaveofAbsence:Transitioningtoan InterimLeader631

IndividualizingtheEndingandTransitiontoMeetIndividual Needs632

ThreeAdditionalGroupIllustrations633

EthicalIssuesRelatedtoEndings647

ChapterSummary648

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities649 CompetencyNotes649

PARTVMacroSocialWorkPractice:Impacting theAgency/Setting,theCommunity, andEffectingSocialChange651

CHAPTER15

ProfessionalImpactandHelpingClients NegotiatetheSystem653

MacroPractice653

ASocialSystemsApproach655 TowardaUnifiedSocialWorkPracticeTheory656 TheIndividual–SystemInteraction657

MediatingtheIndividual–SystemEngagement658 Confrontation,SocialPressure,andAdvocacy669 EstablishingaWorkingRelationshipWiththeSystem674 ProfessionalImpactontheSystem675

FactorsThatMakeProfessionalImpactDifficult676 FromIndividualProblemstoSocialAction678 IllustrationsofAgencyChange679 ProfessionalImpactandInterstaffRelationships684

TheAgencyasaSocialSystem685

ProblemsAssociatedWith “Process-Focused” StaffMeetings687 DealingWithProcessinRelationtoaProblemorIssue687 ImpactonRelationsWithStaffatOtherAgencies694 ChapterSummary697

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities698 CompetencyNotes698

CHAPTER16

SocialWorkPracticeintheCommunity Philosophy,Models,Principles,andPractice699

TheDevelopmentofCommunitySocialWorkPractice700 Empowerment-OrientedandProgressivePracticeModels701

PrinciplesofEffectiveCommunityOrganizing702

CommunityOrganizingPhilosophyandModels703

GrassrootsCommunityOrganizing704

ThePhasesofWorkinGrassrootsCommunityPractice706

ThePreliminaryandBeginningPhaseofCommunityPractice706

Rural-BasedCommunityOrganizationPractice709

TheUseoftheInternetinCommunityPractice710

TheNeighborhoodasCommunity712

TheRoleoftheWorkerintheCommunity713

TheMiddleorWorkPhaseofPractice714

TheEnding/TransitionPhaseofPractice:TheMilieuas Community734

SocialWorkersandSocialAction743

SocialActionintheCommunity743

AdvocacyGroupsandPoliticalActivity746

ChapterSummary747

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities747

CompetencyNotes747

PARTVIPracticeModelsandEvidence-Based Practice749

CHAPTER17

Evidence-BasedPracticeandAdditionalSocial WorkPracticeModels750

Evidence-BasedPractice(EBP)752

EthicalConsiderations,ClinicalJudgments,andPractice Wisdom752

ManualizedInterventions,aNoteofCaution,andtheIssueof Sustainability753

MotivationalInterviewing(MI)754

StagesofChange755

MIInterventions756

MIResearch757

Solution-FocusedPractice(SFP)764

MajorAssumptionsontheNatureoftheHelpingRelationship764

RoleoftheSolution-FocusedGroupLeader766

DefiningTechniques766

Cognitive-BehavioralTherapy(CBT)768

MajorAssumptionsontheNatureoftheHelpingRelationship768

OtherModelsandTheories771

FeministPractice771

FeministPracticeTypology771

TheNewPsychologyofWomenandtheRelationalModel772

IndicatorsofOppressioninaFeministPracticeModel775

FeministPerspectivesonWorkWithOtherPopulations779

ResearchandPracticeinWomen’sGroups780

WorkingWithLesbians,Gays,Bisexuals,andTransgenderClients781 TheOppressionPerspective781

StrategiesforGLBTSensitivePractice:TheSchoolSocialWorker Example782

GroupWorkWithGay,Lesbian,Bisexual,Transgender,Queer,and QuestioningClients784

ReligionandSpirituality791

Definitions791

InterventionExamples:TheSpiritual/ReligiousAutobiography794 OtherInterventionExamples794

PracticeinResponsetoTraumaandExtremeEvents795

TheImpactofaTraumaticEvent:AStrengthsPerspective796

CrisisTheoryandCrisisIntervention797

CrisisInterventionStressManagement:AGroupExample798 TraumaGroups799

TraumaPracticeWiththeActiveMilitaryandVeterans:Addressing PosttraumaticStress802

ImpactofTraumaontheProfessional:VicariousandSecondary TraumaticStress(STS)804

ASingle-SessionVicariousTraumatizationModelforTrauma Workers804

SecondaryTraumaticStress(STS)inChildWelfarePractice805

ImpactofSTSonDeliveryofServices:TheChildWelfare Example807

ChapterSummary811

RelatedOnlineContentandActivities811

CouncilonSocialWork EducationEducational PolicyandAccreditation StandardsbyChapter

Insocialwork,thewords competence and practicebehavior haveauniquemeaning beyondthetypicaldictionarydefinitions. Competence intheusualsensemeans thatapersonpossessessuitableskillsandabilitiestodoaspecifictask.Competentsocialworkersshouldbeabletodoanumberofjob-relatedduties,thinkcritically,andunderstandthecontextoftheirwork.

TheSkillsofHelpingIndividuals,Families,Groups,andCommunities,Eighth Edition,includesexplicitreferencestotheEducationalPolicyandAccreditation Standards’ (EPAS)10corecompetenciesand41recommendedpracticebehaviors. Thecolumnontherightinformsthereaderinwhichchapterstheiconsappear.

The10Competenciesand41Recommended PracticeBehaviors(EPAS2008)

2.1.1Identifyasaprofessionalsocialworkerandconduct oneselfaccordingly

Chapter(s)Where Referenced

a.Advocateforclientaccesstotheservicesofsocialwork 1,4,5,6,9,13,and15

b.Practicepersonalreflectionandself-correctiontoassure continualprofessionaldevelopment 1,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,and13

c.Attendtoprofessionalrolesandboundaries 1,5,10,and16

d.Demonstrateprofessionaldemeanorinbehavior,appearance, andcommunication 4and5

e.Engageincareer-longlearning 5and12

f.Usesupervisionandconsultation 3,5,6,9,12,and17

2.1.2Applysocialworkethicalprinciplestoguideprofessional practice

a.Recognizeandmanagepersonalvaluesinawaythatallows professionalvaluestoguidepractice 1,4,5,and10

b.MakeethicaldecisionsbyapplyingstandardsoftheNational AssociationofSocialWorkersCodeofEthicsand,asapplicable, oftheInternationalFederationofSocialWorkers/International AssociationofSchoolsofSocialWorkEthicsinSocialWork, StatementofPrinciples 1,4,10,11,12,and17

c.Tolerateambiguityinresolvingethicalconflicts 1,4,and5

d.Applystrategiesofethicalreasoningtoarriveatprincipled decisions 1,4,and10

2.1.3Applycriticalthinkingtoinformandcommunicate professionaljudgments

a.Distinguish,appraise,andintegratemultiplesourcesofknowledge, includingresearch-basedknowledgeandpracticewisdom 2,7,13,14,16,and17

b.Analyzemodelsofassessment,prevention,intervention,and evaluation 2,3,5,7,13,15,and16

c.Demonstrateeffectiveoralandwrittencommunicationin workingwithindividuals,families,groups,organizations,communities,andcolleagues 3,5,and15

2.1.4Engagediversityanddifferenceinpractice

a.Recognizetheextenttowhichaculture’sstructuresand valuesmayoppress,marginalize,alienate,orcreateor enhanceprivilegeandpower

b.Gainsufficientself-awarenesstoeliminatetheinfluenceof personalbiasesandvaluesinworkingwithdiversegroups

c.Recognizeandcommunicatetheirunderstandingofthe importanceofdifferenceinshapinglifeexperiences

1,2,3,4,7,9,10,11,13,15,16, and17

1,2,3,4,7,15,and17

1,2,3,4,7,8,10,13,14,and15

d.Viewthemselvesaslearnersandengagethosewithwhom theyworkasinformants 1,4,6,7,8,10,11,and13

2.1.5Advancehumanrightsandsocialandeconomicjustice

a.Understandformsandmechanismsofoppressionand discrimination 2,7,8,10,13,14,15,16,and17

b.Advocateforhumanrightsandsocialandeconomicjustice 1,2,14,and16

c.Engageinpracticesthatadvancesocialandeconomicjustice1,14,and15

2.1.6Engageinresearch-informedpracticeandpractice-informed research

a.Usepracticeexperiencetoinformscientificinquiry 1,2,4,10,and17

b.Useresearchevidencetoinformpractice 1,2,3,4,9,11,12,13,16,and17

2.1.7Applyknowledgeofhumanbehaviorandthesocial environment

a.Utilizeconceptualframeworkstoguidetheprocessof assessment,intervention,andevaluation

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12, 13,and17

b.Critiqueandapplyknowledgetounderstandpersonand environment 1,2,3,5,7,9,10,13,and15

2.1.8Engageinpolicypracticetoadvancesocialandeconomic well-beingandtodelivereffectivesocialworkservices

a.Analyze,formulate,andadvocateforpoliciesthatadvancesocial well-being 15

b.Collaboratewithcolleaguesandclientsforeffectivepolicyaction9,10,11,and15

2.1.9Respondtocontextsthatshapepractice

a.Continuouslydiscover,appraise,andattendtochanginglocales, populations,scientificandtechnologicaldevelopments,and emergingsocietaltrendstoproviderelevantservices 1,15,and17

b.Provideleadershipinpromotingsustainablechangesinservice deliveryandpracticetoimprovethequalityofsocialservices 9,10,and15

2.1.10Engage,assess,intervene,andevaluatewithindividuals, families,groups,organizations,andcommunities

a.Substantivelyandaffectivelyprepareforactionwithindividuals, families,groups,organizations,andcommunities

b.Useempathyandotherinterpersonalskills

c.Developamutuallyagreed-onfocusofworkanddesired outcomes

d.Collect,organize,andinterpretclientdata

1,3,4,5,7,8,10,11,12,and14

1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12, 13,and14

4,5,7,8,9,10,11,15,and17

3,4,5,7,8,11,and12

e.Assessclientstrengthsandlimitations 3,5,7,9,10,12,14,16,and17

f.Developmutuallyagreed-oninterventiongoalsandobjectives4,5,6,7,9,11,and12

g.Selectappropriateinterventionstrategies 3,7,10,11,and13

h.Initiateactionstoachieveorganizationalgoals 15

i.Implementpreventioninterventionsthatenhanceclient capacities 3,5,and16

j.Helpclientsresolveproblems 7

k.Negotiate,mediate,andadvocateforclients 6,7,15,and16

l.Facilitatetransitionsandendings 5,12,and14

m.Criticallyanalyze,monitor,andevaluateinterventions 5,11,13,and14

Preface

IntroductionandUnderlyingAssumptions

Thefocusofthisbookismethod whatsocialworkersdoastheirpartinthe helpingprocess.Ibelievethatthedynamicsofgivingandtakinghelparenot mysteriousprocessesincapableofbeingexplained.Helpingskillscanbedefined, illustrated,andtaught.Thehelpingprocessiscomplex;itmustbepresented clearlyandbrokendownintomanageablesegments.Theoriesandsimplemodels needtobedevelopedtoprovidetoolsforunderstandingandguiding interventions.

Thisbookrepresentsanefforttoconceptualizeandillustrateageneralistpracticemodelwithoutlosingthedetailofthespecificwaysthatsocialworkerspractice.Theterm generalist hasbeenusedindifferentwaysovertheyears,sometimes torefertopracticemodelssoabstractandonsuchahightheoreticallevelthat onehasdifficultyfindingthesocialworkerorclientinthedescription.The focushereisnotjustonwhatiscommonaboutwhatweknow,value,andaspire to,noronourcommonmodelsfordescribingclients(e.g.,systems,strengthsperspective,cognitive-behavioral,ecological,orpsychodynamictheory),butonthe commonelementsandskillsofthehelpingpersoninaction.

Underlyingthisapproachisthebeliefthatsocialworkersneedtobeprepared toofferclientsserviceinthemodality(individual,group,family,community) thatismostsuitabletotheclient,ratherthantheonethatismostcomfortable fortheworker.Onegoalofthisbookistohelpthereaderappreciatethatoncea levelofskillisdevelopedinworkingwithindividuals,itispossibletoexpandon thatunderstandingandelaboratethatskillwhenworkingwithmorethanone personatatime(e.g.,family,group,orcommunityorganization).Anumberof additionalassumptionsfollow.

TheAssumptionofaCore(Constant)ElementtotheHelping Process

Thisbookisbasedontheassumptionthatwecanidentifyanunderlyingprocess inallhelpingrelationships.Thisprocessanditsassociatedsetofcoreskillscanbe observedwheneveronepersonattemptstohelpanother.Thesedynamicsand skillsarereferredtoastheconstantelementsofthehelpingprocess.Thereader willnotehowcentralconceptsandskillsappearfirstinthechaptersonworking withindividualsandthenreappearasthefocusshiftstofamilies,groups,communities,organizations,agencies,andevensocialactionactivityinpursuitof

socialpolicychangeintheagency,inthecommunity,andonStateandnational levels.

Forexample,theimportanceofdevelopingapositiveworkingrelationship, sometimesreferredtoasthe “therapeuticalliance” inclinicalpractice,andthe interactionalskillsrequiredtodevelopthisrelationshipcutacrossmodalitiesof intervention(e.g.,individual,family,orgroupwork)aswellastheoreticalorientation(e.g.,solution-focusedtherapy,cognitive-behavioraltherapy,ormotivational interviewing).

Theimpactoftimeonthehelpingrelationshipaswellasoneachindividual contactalsointroducesconstantelements.Understandingthehelpinginteraction tohavepreparatory,beginning,middle,andendingphaseshelpstoexplaincertaindynamics,suchastheindirectwaysclientsmayraisedifficultissuesatthe startofasessionaswellasthephenomenonknownas “doorknobtherapy”— whenclientsrevealapowerfulissueattheendofthesession,sometimesliterally astheyleavetheoffice.

VariantElementstotheHelpingProcess

Asyoureadthisbook,thesecommonelementsandskillswillbecomeclearerand willbeobservableinanysituationinwhichyouseeasocialworkerinaction. Althoughthereisaconstantcoretohelping,therearealsovariantelements introducedbyanumberoffactors.

Forexample,thereaderwillnotetheimportanceoftheconceptandskillof contractinginfirstsessionsthatiscentraltoallhelpingrelationships.Theskills ofclarifyingpurposeandthesocialworker’srole,reachingforclientfeedback, findingthecommongroundbetweenthetwo,andaddressingissuesofauthority areofcrucialimportancetodevelopaninitialstructurethatfreestheclientto beginthework.Theideathatonemustchoosestructureversusfreedomisone ofanumberoffalsedichotomies wherewethinkweneedtomakeachoice betweentwooppositeideas.Inreality,agoodstructure throughstepssuchas contractingwithaclient shouldcreatefreedomforthesocialworkerandtheclient,notrestrictit.

Whilethisisacoreorconstantelementtopractice,themannerinwhichthe contractingtakesplaceandtheissues orwhatIwillcall “themesofconcern” to theclient willvaryaccordingtotheimpactofthesevariantelements.

Theseelementscanincludethefollowing:

• Thesettingfortheengagement(e.g.,school,hospital,familycounseling agency,childwelfareagency,orcommunity-action–focusedorganization)

• Themodalityofpractice(e.g.,individualorfamilycounseling,grouppractice,communityorganizing,orpolicyadvocacy)

• Theageandstageoftheclient’slifecycle(e.g.,child,teenager,young adult,orelderlyandretired)

• Theparticularlifeissuestheclientbringstotheencounter(e.g.,emotional and/orphysicalhealthissues,addiction,unemployment,physicalorsexualabuse,poverty,posttraumaticstressfrommilitaryorothertraumatic involvements,orparentingconcerns)

• Whethertheclientisparticipatingvoluntarilyorinvoluntarily(e.g.,the differencebetweenavoluntarygroupforparentsofteenagersseekinghelp

indealingwiththeirkidsandaDWIgroupforclientsmandatedtoattend bythecourtbecauseofadriving-while-intoxicatedconviction)

• Demographicelementsthatmayinteractwiththesocialand/oremotional problems(e.g.,race,ethnicity,sexualorientation,physicalability,oreconomicclass)

• Whethertheclientisbeingseeninanagencyorhostsetting(e.g.,school orhospital)orinaprivatepracticesetting

Thediscussionofspecificanddetailedexamplesofpracticeinaction,notjust generalcasepresentations,willhelpthereadertoseeboththeconstantandvariantelementsinalloftheseexamplesaswellasmanyothersthatarecommonto ourpractice.

Thesocialworkeralsobringspersonalelementstotheprocessrelatedtosuch factorsaseducationandexperience,personallifeevents,andtheeffectivenessof thesupportandsupervisionavailabletotheworker.Forexample,thereissome benefittohavingbeenaparentwhenoneisleadingaparentinggroup.However, askilledworkerwhounderstandsthattheprocessofmutualaidinvolvesgroup membershelpingoneanother,andthatthegroupleaderlearnsatleastasmuch fromthegroupmembersasheorsheteaches,canstilleffectivelyleadsucha group.Asocialworkerdoesnothavetohave “walkedthewalk” and “talkedthe talk” (i.e.,beeninrecoveryandparticipatedinrecoverygroupssuchasAlcoholics Anonymous[AA])inordertobehelpfultoaclientstrugglingtobeginormaintaintherecoveryprocessaslongasthesocialworkerisopentonewlearning fromarangeofsources(e.g.,literature,supervision,workshops)aswellaslearningfromtheclient.

Despitethevaryingaspectsofpractice,whenweexamineinteractionsclosely, thesimilaraspectsbecomeapparent.Thisbookaddressesarangeofhelpingsituationsinthebeliefthateachsocialworkercanincorporatethemodelintohisor herownworkcontext.Inaddition,findingsdrawnfrommystudiesofsocial workpractice,supervision,management,andmedicalpractice aswellasthe researchofothers provideempiricalsupportfortheimportanceofthecoreskills thatmakeuptheconstantelementsofpractice.Thebooknotonlyreviews “evidence-based” practicemodels,whenavailable,butalsodrawsonpractice wisdom whatIrefertoasemergingmodels thatstillawaitsresearchsupport thatwouldqualifytheseapproachestobeformallydescribedasevidence-based.

TheSkillsofProfessionalImpact

Anadditionalassumptioninthistextistheexistenceofcommonelementsthat helpmakeusmoreeffectivewhenweworkwithotherprofessionals.Thisareaof skilldevelopmentistermed professionalimpact.Theargumentwillbemade,and illustratedusingnumerousexamples,thattheskillsofdirectpractice(e.g.,contracting,listening,theabilitytoempathize,andbeinghonestwithone’sown feelings)arejustasimportantinworkwithotherprofessionals(e.g.,teachers, doctors,judges,othersocialworkers)andsystems(e.g.,schools,hospitals,courts, agencies)astheyareinworkwithourclients.

Theseskillsandothersareimportantwhenoneismediatingaclient–system engagement(e.g.,thehighschoolstudentinconflictwithateacher)orisactively advocatingforaclienttoreceiveservices(e.g.,thosewithheldbyahealthinsurancecompany).Infact,theseskillstakeonanincreasedimportancewhen

workingwithotherprofessionals.Asocialworkerwhowantsanotherprofessional,perhapsfromanotherdiscipline,tounderstandandemphasizewithaclientcanbemoreeffectiveiftheworkercanunderstandandempathizewiththe otherprofessional.Theargumentwillbemadeinthisbookthatonemustat times “speakloudly,” thatis,confrontothersystems,whilealsobeingprepared to “speaksoftly,” thatis,workeffectivelywithotherprofessionals.Arangeof encountersillustratestheprofessionalimpactskillmodeldevelopedinthisbook. Althoughthesubjectofprofessionalimpactisaddressedandillustratedin detailinChapter15dealingwithmacropractice(workingwithlargersystems), itisnotpossibletoaddresspracticewithindividuals,families,andgroupswithoutintroducingtheimportanceofthesocialworker’sroleindealingwiththesystem.Therefore,theideaofthesystem(e.g.,agency,school,hospital)asthe “secondclient” isathemeinallofthechaptersleadinguptothemoredetailed discussioninChapter15.

OrganizationoftheBook

Tosimplifythecomplextaskofdescribingthecoremethodology,asingleframe ofreferencedescribedastheinteractionalmodel(IM)ispresented.Includedisa descriptionofatheoryofthehelpingprocess,severalmodels(middle-range descriptions)thatconnecttheoryandpractice,theidentificationofskillsneeded toputtheframeworkintoaction,andempiricaldatathatsupportthemajorelementsoftheframework.Asummaryofothermodels,bothevidence-basedand emergingmodels,isprovidedinChapter17tohelpplacetheinteractional modelintocontext.ElementsofotherpracticemodelsinChapter17arealso referencedthroughoutthetextasexamplesofhowconceptscanbeintegrated intoasingleframeworktobothelaborateandstrengthentheapproachto practice.

Inconsideringhowtoorganizethisbookontheissueofwheretopresenttheory,anargumentcouldbemadetoplacethecontentofChapter17,atheory chapter,inPartI.Ontheotherhand,acasecouldalsobemadeforincluding lesstheoryinPartIwhilemovingasquicklyaspossibletothepracticeskillsand illustrations.Baseduponmyownexperiencesasapracticeteacher,Idecidedto addgreateremphasisintheearlychaptersonbriefdescriptionsoftheothermodelsasIdrewuponthemfortheirusefulconceptsandinterventions.Thereader willhavetowaituntilChapter17forafullerdiscussionoftheevidence-based andemergingmodelsnowavailabletosocialworkers;however,itisquitepossible forsomeonetoreadChapter17earlier.

OrganizationoftheSixPartsoftheBook

PartIofthebookconsistsoftwochaptersthatintroducethemajortheoretical constructsoftheinteractionalmodelandsetthestageforthetext.Anintroductiontotheimpactofvalues,ethics,law,andsoforthonpracticeisalsoprovided, asisadiscussionofthetypesofethicaldilemmasasocialworkermayfaceand methodsforresolvingthemifpossible.ThefourchaptersinPartIIfocuson workwithindividuals,examiningthisprocessagainstthebackdropofthephases ofwork:preliminary,beginning,work,andending/transitionphases.Illustrations