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DetailedContents
Preface
AbouttheAuthor
PartI:FoundationsofCrimeAnalysis
Chapter1:CrimeAnalysisandtheProfession
DefinitionofCrimeAnalysis
FoundationoftheDefinition
CrimeAnalysisDefinition
DefinitionsofGISandCrimeMapping
HistoryofCrimeAnalysis
BeginningsofCrimeAnalysis
UnitedStates:1900to1970
UnitedStates:1970to2000
HistoryofCrimeMapping
BeginningsofCrimeMapping
UnitedStates:1900to1970
UnitedStates:1970to2000
ResearchonCrimeAnalysisandCrimeMapping:2000toPresent CrimeAnalysisasaCareerTrack
CrimeAnalystQualificationsandJobDescriptions Interns/Volunteers
CrimeAnalysisAssistant/Technician
Entry-LevelCrimeAnalyst
ExperiencedCrimeAnalyst
SpecialtyCrimeAnalyst
CrimeAnalysisSupervisor
EmbeddedCriminologist
CAUOrganizationalChart
DevelopingandImprovingaCrimeAnalysisUnit CrimeAnalysisProfiles
ChallengesandtheFutureofCrimeAnalysis
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter2:TheoreticalFoundationsofCrimeAnalysis
EnvironmentalCriminology
ProblemAnalysisTriangle
RationalChoiceTheory
CrimePatternTheory
RoutineActivitiesTheory
LawofCrimeConcentration
RepeatVictimization,NearRepeats,andthe80/20Rule
SituationalCrimePrevention
DisplacementandDiffusionofBenefits
DisplacementofCrime
DiffusionofBenefits
Opportunity
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter3:Evidence-BasedPolicingandtheRoleofCrimeAnalysis
ResearchonCrimeAnalysisandCrimeReduction
StandardModelofPolicing
CommunityPolicing
Problem-OrientedPolicing
HotSpotsPolicing
FocusedDeterrence
DisorderPolicing
Compstat
Intelligence-LedPolicing
PredictivePolicing
ConclusionsAboutPoliceEffectivenessandCrimeAnalysis
StratifiedPolicing:FrameworkforCrimeAnalysis
ProblemStratification
ImmediateProblems
Short-TermProblems
Long-TermProblems
StratificationofPoliceResponsibility
StratificationofAccountabilityandEvaluation
Conclusion
SummaryPoints
Exercises
PartII:CrimeAnalysisProcess,Data,andPurpose
Chapter4:CrimeAnalysisProcessandApplication
TheCrimeAnalysisProcess Collection
Collation Analysis
DataModificationSubcycle
Dissemination
Feedback Summary
TypesofCrimeAnalysis
CrimeIntelligenceAnalysis
TacticalCrimeAnalysis
StrategicCrimeAnalysis
AdministrativeCrimeAnalysis
NotTypesofCrimeAnalysis
CrimeMappingbyTypeofAnalysis
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter5:CrimeAnalysisDataandTechnology
KeyTerms
DataMatrix
Database
GeographicData
TabularData
SecondaryData
PrimaryData
Computer-AidedDispatchSystem
RecordsManagementSystem
AgencyManagementSystem
Information-SharingPlatforms
JailManagementSystem(JMS)
CriminalJusticeInformationServices(CJIS)
NationalCrimeInformationCenter(NCIC)
GeographicDataSystem
DatabasesUsedinCrimeAnalysis
CrimeIncidents
Arrests
CallsforService
TrafficCrashes
OtherDatabases
PrimaryDataCollection
DataConsiderations
“Reported”Activity
LocalandFederalCrimeDataStandards
UsingCallforServiceDatatoStudyCrimeProblems
UsingArrestDatatoStudyCrimeProblemsandOffenders
DataIntegrity
HardwareandSoftwareConsiderations
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter6:GeographicDataandCrimeMapping
GeographicData
VectorData
RasterData
Projections
CoordinateSystems
Scale
GettingEventsonaMap
CrimeMappingTechniques
TypesofDescriptiveCrimeMapping
Single-SymbolMapping
Buffers
GraduatedMapping
ChartMapping
InteractiveCrimeMapping
MethodsforDescriptiveCrimeMapping
ByCategory
ByStatisticalClassification
ByManualMethod
ClassificationGuidelinesandSummary
AnalyticalMapping:DensityMapping
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter7:CrimeAnalysisPurposeandAudience
CrimeAnalysisPurpose
SituationalAwareness
CrimeReduction
ContrastingthePurposesofCrimeAnalysisResults
CrimeAnalysisAudiences
CrimeAnalysisTypology
SituationalAwarenessExamples
Immediate
Operational Management Command
Short-Term
Operational
Management Command
Long-Term
Operational Management Command
CrimeReductionExamples
Immediate
Operational Management Command
Short-Term
Operational Management Command
Long-Term
Operational Management Command
SummaryPoints
Exercises
PartIII:TacticalCrimeAnalysis
Chapter8:RepeatIncidentsandTacticalDataCollection
RepeatIncidents
RepeatIncidentData
RepeatIncidentLocationReport
Summary
CollectionandCollationofTacticalCrimeAnalysisData
CrimeReportData
ModusOperandi
PersonsInvolvedintheCrime
VehicleInvolvedintheCrime
FieldInformation
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter9:PatternIdentificationProcess
PatternIdentificationMethodology
TypesofPatterns
DeductionandInduction
InitialPatternIdentification
PatternFinalization
IdentifyingthePrincipalCase
IdentifyingOtherKeyCasesinthePattern
IdentifyingAdditionalRelatedCases
IdentifyingInvestigativeLeads
ClearingCases
Conclusion
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter10:IdentifyingMeaningfulandUsefulPatterns
PersonsCrimeandPropertyCrime
PotentialResponsestoPatternsbyPolice
PersonsCrime
PropertyCrime
IdentifyingMeaningfulPatterns
PersonsCrimePatternKeyCharacteristicsandExamples
RobberyPatterns
SexualCrime–RelatedPatterns
PropertyCrimePatternKeyCharacteristicsandExamples
TheftfromVehiclePatterns
VehicleTheftPatterns
ResidentialBurglaryPatterns
CommercialBurglaryPatterns
HotProductPatterns
Conclusion
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter11:DescribingandDisseminatingKnownPatterns
DescribingKnownPatterns
ModusOperandiSummary
SuspectandVehicleDescriptions
TimeSeriesAnalysis
ExactTime
ExactDayofWeek
ExactTimeofDayandDayofWeek
ExactDate:IntervalsBetweenEvents
WeightedTimeSpanAnalysis
SpatialAnalysisofPatterns
PatternBulletins
SummaryPoints
Exercises
PartIV:StrategicCrimeAnalysis
Chapter12:AnalyzingProblems,ProcessandStatistics
Methodology:SARAProcess
ScanningandIdentifyingaProblem
Analysis
ResearchRelatedtotheProblem
LocalContextoftheProblem:AgencyandCommunity DevelopingandTestingHypotheses
Response:RoleofAnalysis
Assessment
BasicStatisticsUsedinCrimeAnalysis
Frequency
Cross-Tabulation
Percent
Cross-TabulationPercent
Percentile
Rate
MeanandStandardDeviation
Conclusion
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter13:AnalyzingProblems,ApplicationofTechniques,PartI
WhatIstheNatureoftheProblem?
HowFrequentlyIstheProblemOccurring?
FrequencyandPercent
Rate
MeanandStandardDeviation
HastheProblemIncreasedorDecreased?
ByYear
ByMonthorQuarter
ByWeek
PercentChange
AnticipatoryBenefit
WhenIstheProblemHappening?
Seasonality
TimeofDayandDayofWeek
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter14:AnalyzingProblems,ApplicationofTechniques,PartII
WhereIstheProblemOccurring?
IdentifyingandAnalyzingProblemLocations
IdentifyingProblemAreas
ManualMethod
Graduated-ColorMapping
Ellipses
DensityMapping
SummaryofProblemAreaIdentificationMethods
WhoAretheVictimsandDoesRepeatVictimizationExist?
WhoAretheOffendersandDoesRepeatOffendingExist?
WhyIstheProblemOccurring?
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Chapter15:StrategicCrimeAnalysisResultsandDissemination
ChoosingAnalysisInformationtoDisseminate InitialAnalysisResults
ProblemAnalysisResults
StrategicCrimeAnalysisProducts TypesofProducts
UsingEmailforDissemination GuidelinesforProductContents
GuidelinesforTableandChartContents GuidelinesforMapContents
PracticalExamples
SummaryPoints
Exercises
PartV:AdministrativeCrimeAnalysis
Chapter16:AdministrativeCrimeAnalysis:CrimeAnalysisforAccountability
CrimeReductionAccountability
CrimeReductionGoalDevelopment
CrimeAnalysisforWeeklyAction-OrientedAccountabilityMeetings
CrimeAnalysisforMonthlyEvaluation-OrientedAccountabilityMeetings
CrimeandDisorderMonthlyTrendCharts
ProblemComparisonChart
CrimePatternTrendMap
CrimeAnalysisforAssessmentofAgencyGoals
PerformanceIndicator(Output)Products
SuccessIndicator(Outcome)Products
CrimeandDisorderLong-TermTrendCharts
CrimeTrendComparisonCharts
YearlyComparisonMaps
SummaryPoints
Exercises
Glossary
References
Index
Preface
Crimeanalysisisafieldofstudyandpracticeincriminaljusticethatusessystematicresearchmethodsand data,supportsthemissionofpoliceagencies,andprovidesinformationtoarangeofaudiences Crime mappingisasubsetofcrimeanalysisthatfocusesonunderstandingthegeographicnatureofcrimeandother activity Crimeanalysisisarelativelynewtopicincriminaljusticeeducation,andthisbookisoneofthefirst tobringcrimeanalysisandcrimemappingtoanundergraduateaudience Aclassincrimeanalysisprovides studentswithopportunitiestoapplytheory,researchmethods,andstatisticslearnedinothercourses,aswell aspresentsinformationonaviablecareerpathforcriminaljusticemajors
Mypurposeinthisbookistoprovideanintroductiontocrimeanalysiswithcrimemappingthrough discussionoftheconcepts,theories,practices,data,analysistechniques,andtheroleofcrimeanalysisin policingassociatedwiththisfieldofstudy.Mypurposeisnottocovercurrentgeneralorspecificcrime analysissoftwareproductsortechnology Thisisbecausetherateofchangeofsoftwareproductsand technologyishigh,eventhoughthefoundationsandfundamentalsofcrimeanalysispracticehaveremained thesameovertime.
Inthisfourthedition,Ihaveupdatedandaddedtothecontent,sothebookreflectscurrentcrimeanalysis practiceintheUnitedStatesandinternationally Newtothiseditionareperspectivesfromcrimeanalysts fromcountriesoutsidetheUnitedStates,fromNorthAmerica,Europe,andSouthAmerica.These internationalcrimeanalystsprovideinsightintocrimeanalysispracticesastheyareconductedacrossthe world Thisbookwillnotserveallpurposesforthegrowingfieldofundergraduateeducationincrime analysis,butitisnecessaryforclassesinwhichanoverviewofthefieldandfundamentaltechniquesare taught Thebook’swebsite[http://wwwsagepubcom/bobasantos4e]providesstudentswithaplethoraof practicalexamplescontributedbyworkingcrimeanalysts,aswellasopportunitiestoconductcrimeanalyses themselvesthroughavarietyofexercises.
Thebookisdividedintofiveparts PartIcoversthefoundationsofcrimeanalysis,includingkeydefinitions,a descriptionofthecrimeanalysisprofessionanditsfuture,theoreticalfoundationsofcrimeanalysis,andthe roleofcrimeanalysisinevidence-basedpolicingstrategies.PartIIaddressesthedataandprocessesusedin crimeanalysis,geographicdataandcrimemappingtechniques,andthepurposeofcrimeanalysisproducts PartIIIcoversthemethodsandtechniquesoftacticalcrimeanalysis PartIVlooksatthemethodsand techniquesofstrategiccrimeanalysis.PartVincludesachapteroncrimeanalysisforcrimereduction accountability–animportanttopicwithinadministrativecrimeanalysis
ThechaptersinPartIlaythefoundationfortherestofthebook Chapter1presentsdefinitionsofcrime analysisanddiscussesthehistoryandfutureofcrimeanalysisandcrimemapping;italsoincludesinformation oncrimeanalysiscareeropportunities.In2014,theInternationalAssociationofCrimeAnalysts(IACA) developedastandardizeddefinitionofcrimeanalysisaswellasitstypes,sothosearenewtothisedition Chapter2providesanoverviewofthecriminologicaltheoriesthathelptoguidethepracticeofcrimeanalysis
TheillustrationinChapter3ofthepolicingcontextinwhichcrimeanalysisisconductedandthediscussion oftheroleofcrimeanalysisineffectivepolicingstrategieshasbeenupdatedwithcurrentresearchinthis edition.
ThefourchaptersthatmakeupPartIIaredevotedtothetopicsofthedataandprocessesusedincrime analysis,geographicdataandcrimemappingtechniques,andatypologyforcrimeanalysisresults Chapter4 discussesthecrimeanalysisprocessandthedifferenttypesofcrimeanalysis(whichwerestandardizedby IACAin2014).Chapter5providesareviewofkeyterms,adiscussionofthekindsofdatacommonlyused anddatabasescommonlyaccessedincrimeanalysis(eg,crime,arrests,callsforservice,trafficcrashes,and primarydata),informationonwhatanalystsmustconsiderwhenusingdifferentkindsofdataforanalysis,and abriefoverviewofsomeofthehardwareandsoftwarecommonlyusedincrimeanalysis.Chapter6covers,in moredetail,geographicdata,typesofgeographicfeatures,geocoding,descriptivecrimemappingmethods, anddensitymapping Chapter7outlinesatypologythatcategorizescrimeanalysisresultsbytypeofproblem examined,purposeoftheanalysis,andtypeofaudienceforwhichtheanalysisresultsareproduced.
ThechaptersinPartIIIdescribethedata,methodologies,techniques,andproductsoftacticalcrimeanalysis Chapter8containsdetailsofdataandanalysisofrepeatincidentsaswellasdatacollectedspecificallyfor tacticalcrimeanalysisandpatternidentification.Chapter9coversthemethodologiesanalystsemployin identifyingandfinalizingpatterns Chapter10discusseshowpolicerespondtopatternsandprovidescurrent examplesofcommonlyidentifiedpatternsofpersonsandpropertycrime Chapter11highlightsspecific analytic,temporal,andspatialtechniquesthatanalystsusetoidentifyandunderstandcrimepatterns.The chaptercloseswithguidelinesforcreatingpatternbulletinsandabulletintemplateexample
ThechaptersinPartIVconcentrateonthetechniquesthatanalystsuseinanalyzinglong-termcrimeand disorderproblemsandprovidecaseexamplesofhowthetechniqueshavebeenusedinpractice Chapter12is anoverviewoftheproblem-solvingprocessandcoversthekeystatisticsusedinstrategiccrimeanalysis. Chapters13and14illustratethestrategicanalysisofproblemsbydemonstratingvarioustechniquesthat answerkeyanalysisquestions Chapter15discussesthetypesofstrategiccrimeanalysisproductsandprovides guidelinesforthesubstantiveandformativedevelopmentofsuchproducts.
Finally,PartVhasbeensignificantlychangedinthisedition Itcontainsonenewchapterthatcoversone aspectofadministrativecrimeanalysis:crimeanalysisforcrimereductionaccountability Chapter16focuses onthefoundationofandproductsthatsupportapolicedepartment’saccountabilitystructure,whichensures thatcrimereductionactivitiesaretakingplaceandareeffective
Bynomeansdoesthisbookcoverallfacetsofcrimeanalysis;however,itdoeslayasolidfoundationfor students’understandingoftheconceptualnatureandpracticeofcrimeanalysisthatassistspoliceinpreventing andreducingcrimeanddisorder.Itprovidesanin-depthdescriptionofthisemergingfieldandguidelinesfor thepracticeofcrimeanalysisthatarebasedonresearch,practice,andrecentinnovations,aswellaspreviously availableandnewinformation.Italsoprovidesopportunitiesforstudentstoexplorepossiblefuturecareers thatsupportandenhancetheeffectivenessofmodernpolicing.
StudentStudySite
ThisfreestudentstudysiteprovidesadditionalsupporttostudentsusingCrimeAnalysisWithCrimeMapping, 4thEdition Practicalcrimeanalysisproducts,exercises,suggestedwebresources,andSAGEjournalarticles withdiscussionquestionsareincludedonthissitetoprovidestudentswithadditionalinformationand supportandtogetstudentsintooriginalresearch.Visitthestudysiteat http://wwwsagepubcom/bobasantos4e
InstructorTeachingSite
Thissetofinstructor’sresourcesprovidesanumberofhelpfulteachingaidsforprofessorstouseCrime AnalysisWithCrimeMapping,4thEdition IncludedonthissitearePowerPointslides,chapteroutlines,test questionsandanswers,asamplesyllabus,andsuggestedwebresourcesforeachpartofthetext
Acknowledgments
Iwouldliketothankallthereviewerswhohavehelpedmemakeimprovementsinthisfourthedition.Thank youtoSAGEreviewersDr StephanieJ Bennett,UniversityofPortsmouth;DonGardiner,GovernorsState University;CharlesJ Kocher,CumberlandCountyCollege,NewJersey;andJonathanAllenKringen, UniversityofNewHaven.Iwouldalsoliketoshowappreciationtothefollowingpoliceagenciesandtheir crimeanalystswhocontributedproductsandexamplesusedinthiseditionand/orinthebook’sresource materials Theyincludethefollowing:
DetectiveDanBenz,Seattle(Washington)PoliceDepartment
MarkBridge,Fredrick(Maryland)PoliceDepartment
RachelCarson,InspiredActs,Ltd,UnitedKingdom
MichelleChitolie,PortSt.Lucie(Florida)PoliceDepartment
DawnClausius,Olathe(Kansas)PoliceDepartment
Prof Dr JoãoApolináriodaSilva,PresidentedaAgênciaBrasileiradeAnáliseCriminal
CherylDavis,PortSt.Lucie(Florida)PoliceDepartment
ChisenGoto,RoyalCanadianMountedPolice
KendahlHearn,Salisbury(Maryland)PoliceDepartment
KatrineHolt,Oslo(Norway)PoliceDistrict
BrandonInscore,Greensboro(NorthCarolina)PoliceDepartment
ErickaJackson,Gainesville(Florida)PoliceDepartment
CarolaJersonsky,MetropolitanPoliceofBuenosAires(Argentina)
JessicaLaBlanc,FairfaxCounty(Virginia)PoliceDepartment
AprilLee,FortPierce(Florida)PoliceDepartment
BrianMcGrew,Adventos
MattisMichaelsen,Oslo(Norway)PoliceDistrict
TamaraOtley,Fullerton,California,PoliceDepartment
DanielPolans,Milwaukee(Wisconsin)PoliceDepartment
KarinSchmerler,ChulaVista(California)PoliceDepartment
AlexSchneider,Arlington(Texas)PoliceDepartment
TyrSteffensen,Oslo(Norway)PoliceDepartment
Dr.ShefaliTripathi,Gainesville(Florida)PoliceDepartment
JulieWartell,onbehalfofSanDiego(California)DistrictAttorney’soffice
MichelleWentz,PortSt Lucie(Florida)PoliceDepartment
DamienWilliams,Rockhill(SouthCarolina)PoliceDepartment
AlishaWilson,Roanoke(Virginia)PoliceDepartment
AlysonYaraskovitch,Ottawa(Ontario)PoliceService
IwouldliketoextendmyappreciationtomembersoftheSAGEpublishingteamfortheirsupportand assistance–JerryWestbyforhisfaithinmyfirsteditionandencouragementforthenextthreeeditions,Amy
Harris,LibbyLarson,JessicaMiller,andLauraKirkhuff
AbouttheAuthor
RachelBobaSantos
isaprofessoratRadfordUniversityintheDepartmentofCriminalJustice Sheworkswithpolice departmentsaroundtheworldassistingtheminimprovingtheircrimereductionefforts,dataandcrime analysis,accountability,andcommunitypartnerships Herresearchfocusesonenvironmental criminology,theeffectivenessofcrimereductioneffortsbypolice,policeaccountability,andcrime analysis.
PartIFoundationsofCrimeAnalysis
PartIcontainsthreechaptersthatprovideapracticalandtheoreticalfoundationforthefieldofcrimeanalysis
Chapter1definescrimeanalysisaswellascrimemappingandgeographicinformationsystems(GIS),describes thehistoryofthecrimeanalysisprofession,andendswithspecificsaboutcrimeanalysisasacareertrack.
Chapter2outlinesthetheoreticalconceptsthataremostrelevantforcrimeanalysisbyfocusingon understandingtheopportunitiesforcrimeinimmediatecrimesettings Chapter3providesthepolicing contextinwhichcrimeanalysisisconductedbyreviewingtheresearchoneffectivestrategiesofpolicingfor preventingandcontrollingcrime,discussingtheroleofcrimeanalysisineachstrategy,andprovidinga stratifiedstructureforimplementingcrimeanalysis,problemsolving,andaccountabilityinpolice departments.
Chapter1CrimeAnalysisandtheProfession
Thischapterservesasafoundationforthedisciplineofcrimeanalysisbyprovidingdefinitionsofcrime analysisandcrimemapping,alongwithanoverviewofthecrimeanalysisprofessionintheUnitedStates The overviewincludestheprofession’shistory,thecurrentresearchfindingsaboutcrimeanalysis,descriptionsof potentialcareerpathsforcrimeanalysts,andwaystodevelopandimproveacrimeanalysisunit Finally,the chapterendswithcrimeanalysisprofilesanddiscussionofthefutureofcrimeanalysis
DefinitionofCrimeAnalysis
In2011,theInternationalAssociationofCrimeAnalysts(IACA)createdaseriesofcommitteesunderthe umbrellaoftheStandards,Methods,andTechnologyCommittee(SMT)forthepurposeofdefining “analyticalmethodologies,technologies,andcoreconceptsrelevanttotheprofessionofcrimeanalysis”(“The SMTMission,”n.d.).ThisquotecomesfromthemissionstatementaswrittenintheinitialStandards, Methods,andTechnologyStrategicPlancompletedApril2011 ThepurposeoftheStandardsCommitteeis toproducedefinitionsthatareusedasthe“standard”forthecrimeanalysisprofession Themethodologyfor formulatingthesestandardsincludesthe1)creationofadraftpaperthroughin-depthmeetingsand discussionsofsubjectmatterexperts;2)reviewandfeedbackbytheIACAExecutiveBoard;3)reviewand feedbackfromanindependenteditorwithknowledgeofcrimeanalysis;and4)reviewandfeedbackbyIACA membersfacilitatedthroughtheIACAwebsite.In2014,Iwasamemberofthesubjectmatterexpert committeethatproducedthewhitepapertitled“DefinitionandTypesofCrimeAnalysis”(IACA,2014b) Becauseofthisdevelopment,thedefinitionsofcrimeanalysisandthetypesofcrimeanalysishavebeen updatedinChapter1andChapter4ofthiseditiontothenewIACAdefinitions.Thefollowingdiscussion hasbeenadaptedfromthewhitepaper(IACA,2014b)
FoundationoftheDefinition
Itisimportanttounderstandthatthefieldof“crimeanalysis”includesmuchmorethantheanalysisofcrime. Thatis,crimeanalysisexaminesmuchmorethancrime,includingmanytypesofinformationthatarerelevant topolice,suchasdisorder,callsforservice,quality-of-lifeissues,trafficcrashes,criticalincidents,and,less often,fireandemergencymedicalincidents.Becausethetermcrimeanalysishasbeenusedhistorically,IACA haskeptitasthestandard,butitisimportanttounderstandthatitsprocessesandtypesofcrimeanalysis applytomorethanjustcrime
Thediscussionofcrimeanalysisthroughoutthisbookreferstocrimeanalystsasservingpoliceagencies.This termencompassesagencieswithgenerallawenforcementauthority(ie,withpatrol,investigative,emergency response,prevention,andcommunityservicefunctions) Thesetypesofagenciesincludemunicipalandlocal policedepartments,metropolitanpolicedepartments,countypolicedepartments,countysheriffoffices,state policeagencies,anduniversitypoliceagencieswithintheUnitedStates.Italsoincludesnational,provincial, andregionalpoliceagencieswithlocal-levelpoliceresponsibilitiesinternationally Whilestateandfederal investigativeagencies,intelligenceagencies,researchers,statisticalanalysiscenters,andcorporatesecurity departmentsmightuseaspectsofcrimeanalysis,theywillnotsystematicallyusethemajorityoftypesand techniquesofcrimeanalysisdiscussedinthisbook
CrimeAnalysisDefinition
AccordingtotheIACA(2014b,p.2),crimeanalysisisdefinedasthefollowing:
Aprofessionandprocessinwhichasetofquantitativeandqualitativetechniquesareusedtoanalyzedata valuabletopoliceagenciesandtheircommunities Itincludestheanalysisofcrimeandcriminals,crime victims,disorder,qualityoflifeissues,trafficissues,andinternalpoliceoperations,anditsresultssupport criminalinvestigationandprosecution,patrolactivities,crimepreventionandreductionstrategies, problemsolving,andtheevaluationofpoliceefforts
Inaddition,theIACA(2014b)definescrimeanalysisasalltypesofanalysisperformedwithinapoliceagency, withtheexceptionofevidenceanalysis(e.g.,DNA,stolenproperty),humanresources–relatedadministrative analysis(e.g.,budgeting,overtime,sickandvacationleave,salary),andanalysisofsuppliesandequipment.
Importantly,theIACAdoesnotdistinguishbetweencrimeanalysisandcrimeintelligenceanalysisperformed withinapoliceorganization.Thetermintelligenceisonethatisusedinavarietyofcontextsinthecrime analysisprofessionwithsomeinconsistency.Thetermisusedtodescribeinformationaboutanenemy, typicallygatheredcovertly,resultinginmorespecifictermssuchasmilitaryintelligence,criminalintelligence, andintelligenceanalysis.Morerecently,thetermhasbeenusedtodescribeinformationofoperationalvalue forexample,asaproductratherthanasourceofanalysis.Thus,theIACAadoptsadefinitionofcrime intelligenceanalysis(discussedinChapter4)toreflectafocusoncriminaloffendersasopposedtocrime informationingeneral.Whilecertainanalystsmayspecializeinparticularfunctions,theIACAdefinescrime intelligenceanalysisasasetoftechniquesperformedbycrimeanalysts.
Crimeanalysisisnothaphazardoranecdotal;rather,itisbasedintheoryandinvolvestheapplicationofsocial sciencedatacollectionprocedures,analyticalmethods,andstatisticaltechniques Morespecifically,crime analysisemploysbothqualitativeandquantitativedataandmethods.Crimeanalystsusequalitativedataand methodswhentheyexaminenonnumericaldataforthepurposeofdiscoveringunderlyingcausesofcrime Thequalitativemethodsspecifictocrimeanalysisincludefieldresearch(suchasobservingcharacteristicsof locationsandtalkingtoindividualswithspecificknowledgeaboutaparticulartypeofcrime)andcontent analysis(suchasexaminingpolicereportnarratives) Crimeanalystsusequantitativedataandmethodswhen theyconductstatisticalanalysesofnumericalorcategoricaldata Althoughmuchoftheworkincrimeanalysis isquantitative,crimeanalystsprimarilyusefundamentalstatisticalmethods,suchasfrequencies,percentages, means,andrates
Thecentralfocusofcrimeanalysisisthestudyofcrime(eg,rape,robbery,andburglary)anddisorder problems(e.g.,noisecomplaints,burglaralarms,andsuspiciousactivity)andinformationrelatedtothenature ofincidents,offenders,andvictimsortargets(ie,inanimateobjects,suchasbuildingsorproperty)ofthese problems Crimeanalystsalsostudyotherpolice-relatedoperationalissues,suchasstaffingneedsandareasof policeservice.Althoughmanydifferentcharacteristicsofcrimeanddisorderarerelevantincrimeanalysis, threekeytypesofinformationthatcrimeanalystsusearesociodemographic,spatial,andtemporal.
Sociodemographicinformationconsistsofthepersonalcharacteristicsofindividualsandgroups,suchassex, race,income,age,andeducation Onanindividuallevel,crimeanalystsusesociodemographicinformationto searchforandidentifycrimesuspectsandvictims.Onabroaderlevel,theyusesuchinformationtodetermine thecharacteristicsofgroupsandhowthesegroupcharacteristicsarerelatedtocrime.Forexample,analysts mayusesociodemographicinformationtoanswerthequestion“Isthereawhite,malesuspect,30to35years ofage,withbrownhairandbrowneyestolinktoaparticularrobbery?”or“Candemographiccharacteristics explainwhythepeopleinonegrouparevictimizedmoreoftenthanpeopleinanothergroupinaparticular area?”
Thespatialnatureofcrime,disorder,andotherpolice-relatedissuesiscentraltounderstandingthenatureof aproblem.Advancedcomputertechnologyandtheavailabilityofelectronicdatahavefacilitatedalargerole forspatialanalysisincrimeanalysis Visualdisplaysofcrimeanddisorderlocations(maps)andtheir relationshiptoothereventsandgeographicfeaturesareessentialtounderstandingthenatureofcrimeand disorder.Inaddition,resultsfromcriminologicalresearchwithinanareacalled“crimeandplace”(Eck& Weisburd,1995)encouragecrimeanalyststofocusongeographicpatternsofcrimebyexaminingsituationsin whichvictimsandoffenderscometogetherintimeandspace
Thetemporalnatureofcrime,disorder,andotherpolice-relatedissuesisamajorcomponentofcrime analysis Crimeanalystsconductseverallevelsoftemporalanalysis,includingexaminationoflong-termtrends ofcrimeanddisorderoverseveralyears,byseason,andbydayofweekandtimeofday Thisbookwilltakea closelookatspecificanalysistechniquesusedtoexaminethetemporalnatureofcrimeateachoftheselevels.
Theprimarypurposeofcrimeanalysisistosupportredundanttheoperationsofapolicedepartment.These functionsincludecriminalinvestigation,apprehension,andprosecution;patrolactivities;crimepreventionand reductionstrategies;problemsolving;andtheevaluationandaccountabilityofpoliceefforts Withoutpolice, crimeanalysiswouldnotexist.Althoughgeneral,thedefinitionencompassesawiderangeofactivitiesin whichcrimeanalystsassistpolice ApublicationbytheBureauofJusticeAssistance(BJA)providesan overviewofhowananalyticalfunctionbenefitslawenforcementagenciesinnineways(BureauofJustice Assistance,2005,p.1):
1 Helpssolvecriminalinvestigations Theanalyticalfunctiondevelopsavarietyofintelligenceproductsto assistinvestigatorsindetecting,preventing,andrespondingtocriminalandterrorismactivities Analyticalpersonnelinitiateinquiries,conductinformationsearches,andactasacentralpointfor informationgathered
2 Increasestheabilitytoprosecutecriminals Personnelassignedtotheanalyticalfunctiondevelopsummary tables,charts,maps,andothergraphicsforuseinagrandjuryortrial.Analystsprovidefactualand experttestimonyandorganizeevidenceforpresentationincourt
3 Supportsthechiefexecutiveandtheagency’smission Bymaximizingtheanalyticalfunction,thechief executivecanobtainimportantinformationandintelligencetopossiblypreventfuturecriminal activities Personnelcanpreparematerialstoassistinallocatingresources;developingbudgetand resourcerequests;andpreparingdepartmentalreports,investigativebriefings,andpressreleases
4. Proactivelyinformslawenforcementofficersofcrimetrendsanddevelopsthreat,vulnerability,andrisk assessments Theanalyticalfunctionprovidessupporttotacticalandstrategicoperations Personnel analyzecrimereports,identifycrimehotspots,developcrimebulletinsandsummaries,studyserial crimedata,andforecastfuturecrime.Theanalyticalfunctiondevelopsproactiveintelligenceproducts thatassessthepotentialthreatsofcrimegroupsorcriminalactivitiesandrecommendsmethodsto interveneinthesethreats.
5. Trainslawenforcementandotherintelligencepersonnel.Staffdevelopcoursemodulesonintelligenceand analyticmethodsandprovideawarenessandmethodologytrainingtoagencymembers,executives,and managers.
6. Assistsinthedevelopmentofcomputerizeddatabasestoorganizeinformationandintelligence.Personnel withintheanalyticalfunctionhelpinthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofsystemsthatcollect,collate, retrieve,anddisseminateinformation.Analyticalstaffparticipateindepartmentaltestingand acquisitionofinvestigative,intelligence,andanalyticalsoftware.
7 Fostersmeaningfulrelationshipswithotherlawenforcementpersonnel Analyticalstaffinteractwithother lawenforcementagenciesandbuildrelationshipswithpeers,allowingthemtoquicklyobtain informationandefficientlyassistinmultijurisdictionalorcomplexcases.Throughcontactwithnational programsandprofessionalassociations,personnelareabletoascertainnationalissuesthatmayaffect localagencies
8. Ensurescompliancewithlocal,state,tribal,andfederallawsandregulations.Analyticalpersonnelprovide expertiseandknowledgeinthedevelopmentofprotocolstoensurecompliancewithlocal,state,tribal, andfederallawsandrulesthatgovernintelligencesharing,privacy,andcivilliberties
9. Providessupporttofusioncenters.Personnelprovidesupporttolocal,state,orregionalfusioncentersby performingintelligenceservicessuchascrimepattern,association,telephonetoll,andfinancialanalysis Theycreateintelligencereports,briefs,threatassessments,andotherintelligenceproductstoaidinthe preventionanddeterrenceofcrime,includingterrorism.
DefinitionsofGISandCrimeMapping
Eversincemapshavebeenavailablethatdepictthegeographicfeaturesofcommunities,suchasstreetsand cityboundaries,policedepartmentshaveusedsuchmapstodeterminepatrolareasandemergencyroutesand toassistpatrolofficersinfindingspecificaddresses Policeandcrimeanalystsalsousemapsasakeytoolfor crimeanalysis,aprocessthat,historically,involvedthemanualplacementofpinsonhand-drawnwallmaps. Sincethe1990s,significantimprovementsintechnology,software,electronicdatabases,andtheInternet alongwithpoliceinnovationhavemadecrimemappingbypolicedepartmentsextremelycommon Every crimeanalystusesamappingprogramtovisualizethespatialnatureofcrime.Becauseofthis,crimemapping playsakeyroleinthisbookasanimportanttoolusedincrimeanalysis;thus,itisimportanttodefinekey termsbeforeproceeding
Ageographicinformationsystem(GIS)isacombinationofsoftwaretoolsthatallowthecrimeanalystto mapcrimeinmanydifferentways,fromasimplepointmaptoathree-dimensionalvisualizationofspatialor temporaldata Forthepurposesofthisbook,thedefinitionofaGISisasfollows:
AGISisasetofcomputer-basedtoolsthatallowstheusertomodify,visualize,query,andanalyze geographicandtabulardata.
AGISissimilartoaspreadsheetorwordprocessingprograminthatthesoftwareprovidesaframeworkand templatesfordatacollection,collation,andanalysis Itisuptotheusertodecidewhatpartsofthesystemto useandhowtousethem AGISdoesmorethanenableuserstoproducepapermaps;italsoallowsthemto viewthedatabehindgeographicfeatures,combinevariousfeatures,manipulatethedataandmaps,and performstatisticalfunctions
Crimemappingisatermusedinpolicingtorefertotheprocessofconductingspatialanalysiswithincrime analysis.Forthepurposesofthisbook,thedefinitionofcrimemappingisasfollows:
Crimemappingistheprocessofusingageographicinformationsystemtoconductspatialanalysisof crimeanddisorderproblemsaswellasotherpolice-relatedissues
Clarifyingwheredifferenttypesofcrimeandothertypesofincidentsoccurisoneofthemanyimportant functionsofcrimeanalysis Becauseoftheuniquenatureofthesoftwareusedandtheprominenceof geographicdataincrimemapping,manypeopleoftendiscussthistypeofanalysisasthoughitisdistinctfrom crimeanalysis;inreality,however,crimemappingisatechniqueusedalongwithothertechniquesincrime analysis Crimemappingservesthreemainfunctionswithincrimeanalysis:
1. Itfacilitatesvisualandstatisticalanalysesofthespatialnatureofcrimeandothertypesofevents.
2 Itallowsanalyststolinkunlikedatasourcesbasedoncommongeographicvariables(eg,linkingcensus information,schoolinformation,andcrimedataforacommonarea)
