ContentiousCompliance
CourtenayR.Conrad
AssociateProfessorofPoliticalScience UniversityofCalifornia,Merced
EmilyHenckenRitter
AssociateProfessorofPoliticalScience VanderbiltUniversity
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Names:Conrad,CourtenayR.,author. | Ritter,EmilyHencken,author. Title:Contentiouscompliance:dissentandrepressionunderinternational humanrightslaw/CourtenayR.Conrad,EmilyHenckenRitter. Description:Oxford[UK];NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress,[] Identifiers:LCCN | ISBN(pbk.) | ISBN(hardcover) Subjects:LCSH:Internationallawandhumanrights. | Humanrights. | Treaties. | Politicalpersecution. | Dissenters—Legalstatus,laws,etc. | Government,Resistanceto. | Protestmovements.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xi
1.DoHumanRightsTreatiesProtectRights? 1
1.1.TreatiesandtheIncentivetoViolateHumanRights 5
1.2.ContentiousCompliance:TheArgument 7
1.3.ContributionstoScienceandPractice 12
1.3.1.HumanRightsTreatiesandRepression 17
1.3.2.HumanRightsTreatiesandDissent 20
1.3.3.HumanRightsTreatiesandtheLaw 23
1.3.4.HumanRightsTreatiesandAdvocacy 25
1.4.OrganizationoftheBook 26
PARTI:ATheoryofConflictandTreatyConstraint
2.AModelofConflictandConstraint 31
2.1.Institutions,Conflict,andDecision-Making 34
2.2.AModelofTreatyObligations,Courts,andConflict 36
2.2.1.TheEffectsandCostsofRepressionandDissent 39
2.2.2.TheExpectedValueofPowerandtheConsequencesof PolicyControl 45
2.2.3.InstitutionalConsequencesforGovernment Repression 49
2.2.4.SummaryofTheoreticalAssumptions 56
2.3.EquilibriumBehavior 57
2.4.Appendix1:ProofsofFormalTheory 59
2.4.1.ProofofEquilibriumBehavior 59
2.4.2.ComparativeStatics 60
3.EmpiricalImplicationsofTreatyEffectsonConflict 63
3.1.EstablishingtheBaseline:ConflictBehaviorsintheAbsenceofa Treaty 64
3.2.AFormalComparison:ConflictBehaviorsUnderaHumanRights Treaty 70
3.3.UnderstandingTreatyEffects 73
3.4.CommitmenttoHumanRightsTreatiesinExpectationof Constraint 78
3.5.SummarizingtheTheory 83
PARTII:AnEmpiricalInvestigationofConflict&TreatyConstraint
4.AnalyzingtheEffectofTreatiesonRepressionandDissent 87
4.1.MovingfromConceptstoMeasures 89
4.1.1.InternationalHumanRightsTreatyObligation 90
4.1.2.GovernmentRepression 93
4.1.3.MobilizedDissent 99
4.1.4.ExpectedValueofLeaderRetention 101
4.1.5.ProbabilityofDomesticLitigationConsequences 104
4.1.6.OperationalHypotheses 106
4.2.StructuralRequirementsofEmpiricalAnalysis 107
4.2.1.CounterfactualComparison 107
4.2.2.SelectionBias 110
4.2.3.TheSolution:ATwo-StageTreatmentEstimator 114
4.2.4.EstimatingSimultaneousConflictBehaviors 117
5.SubstantiveEmpiricalResults:GovernmentRepression 119
5.1.PresentingResultsBasedonCounterfactuals 121
5.2.EffectofCATObligationonGovernmentRepression 125
5.2.1.AdditionalTest:EffectofOPCATonGovernment Torture 129
5.3.EffectofICCPRObligationonGovernmentRepression 133
5.3.1.AdditionalTest:EffectofICCPRonPolitical Imprisonment 136
5.4.EffectofCEDAWObligationonGovernmentRepression 139
5.4.1.AdditionalTest:EffectofCEDAWonWomen’sSocial Rights 142
5.5.SummaryofFindings:GovernmentRepression 145
5.6.Appendix2:EmpiricalResultsforGovernmentRepression 148
6.SubstantiveEmpiricalResults:MobilizedDissent 151
6.1.LevelsofAnalysis&theStudyofMobilizedDissent 154
6.2.EffectofCATObligationonMobilizedDissent 157
6.2.1.AdditionalTest:AlternativeMeasureofLeader Security 162
6.3.EffectofICCPRObligationonMobilizedDissent 166
6.3.1.AdditionalTest:AlternativeExclusionRestriction Specification 170
6.4.EffectofCEDAWObligationonMobilizedDissent 174
6.4.1.AdditionalTest:AlternativeMeasureofMobilized Dissent 176
6.5.SummaryofFindings:MobilizedDissent 181
6.6.Appendix3:EmpiricalResultsforMobilizedDissent 183
PARTIII:Conclusion
7.Conclusion:HumanRightsTreaties(Sometimes)ProtectRights 193
7.1.A(More)CompletePictureofDomesticConflict 196
7.1.1.HumanRightsTreatiesandConflict 197
7.1.2.TreatyConstraintDespiteSelection 199
7.2.TheEffectofTreatyStatusonPopularExpectations 205
7.2.1.TheConditioningEffectofPoliticalSurvival 209
7.3.ExtendingtheTheory 214
7.3.1.VarianceinTreatyEffectiveness 217
7.3.2.OtherDomesticInstitutionalConstraints 218
7.3.3.OtherInternationalInstitutionalConstraints 220
7.4.AFinalNoteonPolicyPrescriptions 221
PARTIV:Appendix
AppendixtoChapters4,5,6:SummaryofOnlineRobustness Checks 227
A4.1.GovernmentRepression 227
A4.2.MobilizedDissent 229
Bibliography 231 Index 251
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Theprogressofsciencereliesoncommunity.Webuildonthecareful workofotherscholars.Wepresentourresearchpublicly,openingitto critique,suggestion,andimprovement.Wedependonorganizationsand universitiesforthetime,space,andresourcestothink,process,write,fail, andsucceed.Weleanonacommunityofcolleagues—fromgraduateschool advisorstoseniorcolleagues,fromfriendsinthedisciplinetoeditorswho supporttheresearch—foradviceandencouragement.Wecontributetothe community,addingourideastothebodyofknowledgeinthehopesthey willassistothersinprovinguswrongandthinkingdifferentlyaboutsocial scientificoutcomes.Wethankourcommunityhere.
PROFESSIONALACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thetwoofusfirstmetin2008atasmallworkshoponcourtsandhuman rightsorganizedbyWillMooreandJeffStatonandsponsoredbyFlorida StateUniversityandEmoryUniversity.Althoughtheworkshopwasfilled withprominentseniorscholars(manyofwhomwethankbelow),this finallyforthcomingprojectdevelopedinpajamasandoverthecourseofcar rides,asFSUgraduatestudentCourtenayhostedEmorygraduatestudent Emilyonanairmattressforthedurationoftheconference.Thankyou, WillandJeff,forstartingusonajourneythatwillendurethroughoutour careers.
Likeallgoodgraduatestudents,wefinishedourrespectivedissertations beforewereallygotstartedonthisproject,whichbeganwithapuzzle andamodelandgrewfromthere.Theformaltheoryanditsimplications forgovernmentrepressionwerepublishedinthe JournalofPolitics in 2013.Theimplicationsandevidenceformobilizeddissentwerepublished inthe ReviewofInternationalOrganizations in2016afterbeingawarded theBestPaperinInternationalRelationsattheAnnualMeetingofthe
MidwestPoliticalScienceAssociationin2012.Apublicpresentationof someoftheargumentscontainedinthisbookwerepublishedin the WashingtonPost’sMonkeyCageBlogin2017.Weappreciatetheeditorsandreviewerswhoexamined,attacked,dismantled,praised,and improvedthesemanuscripts—includingatthemanyjournalswherethey wererejected.Thankyou,especially,toOxfordUniversityPress,oureditor DavidMcBride,andthreeveryhelpfulanonymousreviewers.Reviewing evenaportionofabookmanuscriptisnosmalltask,andweappreciate everyone’seffortstowardmakingthisonebetter.
Somanyoftheideascontainedinthisbook—itsconcepts,interpretations,scope,alternatives,relationships,andexamples—emergedfrom thevarietyofscholarstowhomwehavepresentedthisprojectinits variousforms.Inadditiontorefiningtheargumentswithourcolleagues attheUniversityofCalifornia,Merced,weshareditinconferences,online workshops,graduateseminars,andinvitedresearchtalks,benefitingfrom newquestionsandideasallthewhile.Thankyoutotheparticipantsin seminarsatBinghamtonUniversity;theStateUniversityofNewYorkat Buffalo;theUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley;theUniversityofCalifornia, Merced;DukeUniversity;EmoryUniversity;FloridaStateUniversity; GeorgeWashingtonUniversity;UniversitätHamburg;theUniversityofIllinois;theUniversityofIndiana;theUniversityofIowa;theLondonSchool ofEconomics;theUniversityofMaryland;theUniversityofMichigan;the UniversityofMississippi;theUniversityofNebraska;theUniversityof Pennsylvania;PennsylvaniaStateUniversity;theUniversityofPittsburgh; PrincetonUniversity;RiceUniversity;theUniversityofSouthCarolina; TexasA&MUniversity;theUniversityofTexas;TexasTechUniversity; StanfordUniversity;VanderbiltUniversity;andYaleUniversity.Thankyou alsotoconferenceparticipantsatPrincetonUniversity,theMultiRights SummerInstituteattheUniversityofOslo,PoliticalEconomyofInternationalOrganizations,VisionsinMethodology,andtheannualmeetingsof severalnationalandinternationalpoliticalscienceorganizations.
Inspring2016,wehostedabookconferenceattheUniversityof California,Merced.AlthoughwepromisedourparticipantsCalifornia sunshine,itrainedfortheduration,includingduringapostworkshopvisit toYosemiteNationalPark.Overthecourseofthatrainyweekend,we werefortunatetohavesomeextremelyintelligent,creative,andgenerous scholarstearourprojectdownandthenbuilditbackupagain.Thankyouto KathleenCunningham,JamesHollyer,YonLupu,HeatherElkoMcKibben, WillMoore,JeffStaton,andScottWolfordformakingthetriptoMerced andbringingwiththemtheirverybestideastoshapeourmanuscript.Allof ourcolleaguesandgraduatestudentsatUCMercedwentoutoftheirwayto
Acknowledgments(xiii)
makeourguestsfeelwelcome,especiallyPeterCarey,JaredOestman,and AesilWoo,whotookdetailednotesandhelpedwithconferencelogistics; TomHansford,whoablyledourraincoat-cladgroupthroughYosemite Valley;andNateMonroeandDarickRitter,whooffereduslogisticaland psychologicalsupportinourattemptstofeedandhouseourcolleaguesfor severaldays.Bookconferencesareexpensive;wearegratefultothePolitical ScienceDepartment,theSchoolofSocialSciences,Humanities,andArts atUCMerced,andtheTonyCoehloEndowedChairofPublicPolicyfor fundingtheworkshop.
Manygenerousmentorsandcolleaguesofferedustheirtimeandexpertiseintheformofinvaluablecomments,critiques,anddiscussionson variouspartsofthismanuscript.Priortothebookworkshop,Christian Davenport,EmilieHafner-Burton,andJeffStatonservedasmembers ofabookadvisorycommittee,commentingonchaptersandoffering counselaboutthebookpublishingprocess.Inadditiontothepeople namedabove—manyofwhomwecouldthankineveryparagraphof ouracknowledgments—webenefittedfromtheexpertiseandthoughtful suggestionsofPaulAlmeida,PhilArena,SamBell,TomClark,Chad Clay,JustinConrad,DannyHill,YukariIwanami,AmandaLicht,Carolina Mercado,AmandaMurdie,MonikaNalepa,RobO’Reilly,HongMinPark, CesareRomano,BethSimmons,JensSteffek,ChrisSullivan,JayUlfelder, JohannesUrpelainen,ErikVoeten,JanavonStein,JimVreeland,Geoff Wallace,JimWalsh,andJoeYoung.ExtraspecialthankstoYonLupu, WillMoore,andScottWolford,whoreadmorebadanddecentdrafts ofthearticlesandbookmanuscriptthanapersonshouldeverhaveto doforacolleagueorfriend.WearegratefultoEllenCutrone,Jeanette Hencken,DanielHoffmann,andSusanNavarroSmelcerforcopyeditingthe manuscriptatitsinterimstagesandtoHeathSledge(http://heathsledge. com)forquickandablecopyeditingwhileweworkedtomeetourfinal deadlines.Overthecourseofourpresentationsofthiswork,wearegrateful tohavehadhundredsofadditionalhelpfulconversationsthatimproved ourargumentsimmensely.Wecertainlyhaveforgottentolistsomeone importantbyname,notbecauseweareungrateful,butbecauseweare overwhelmedwithgratitudeforthewealthofexpertiseonwhichwehave beenfortunateenoughtodraw.
DarickRitter(www.sequentialpotential.com),whoisanincrediblytalentedartist,tookourformalmodel—basedonmathematicalequationsand socialscientificjargon—andturneditintoaworkofartthatconveysthe maincontributionsofthisbooktowideaudiences.Wearethrilledthat Oxfordagreedtopublishhiswork,Figure3.1,incolor,asitsuccinctly summarizes(andbringstolife!)thedynamicsofwhatsometimesfeelslike
averycomplicatedstory.Darickalsodesignedandillustratedourbeautiful bookcover,whichwelove.Becauseourtheoryisbasedoncounterfactual analysis,itissimilarlychallengingtolocateillustrativeexamplesofits dynamics;tothatend,wearealsogratefultoPeterCarey,IshitaChaudhry, ChrisMedina,andgraduatestudentsatUniversitätHamburgforhelping usfindexamplestocolorourprose.
DEDICATION
WededicatethisbooktothememoryofWillMoore,whosework servesastheintellectualfoundationonwhichwebaseourarguments andwhowasanadvisor,amentor,andafriend.Overthecourse ofhiscareer,Will’sresearchtendedtowardtwomaintopics:the dissent-repression“nexus”andtheeffectofinstitutionsongovernment respect(orlackofrespect)forhumanrights.Theframeworkforthetheory andempiricalteststhatwepresentinthisbook—ourcontentionthat scholarsshouldtaketheconflictseriouslywhentheyinvestigatethe effectofinstitutionsonhumanrightsoutcomes—wasbornofWill’s influence.
Perhapsasaresultofthisinfluence,helikedthebook.Atleast,we think helikedit;heinvestedinitbydismantlingmultipleversionsofitmultiple times.Hecelebratedwhenwefinishedthefirstdraft,andhecelebrated whenitwassentoutforreview.Willdiedoneyearagotoday,thedayon whichwepenthisdedication.Hedidnotlivetocelebratewithuswhenthe bookwasacceptedforpublication,ashehadwhensomanyofourother publicationswereputinprint.Wehopethefinalversionoftheproject wouldmakehimproud.
InadditiontobeinginfluencedbyWill’sscholarship,wewerealso incalculablyfortunatetobetherecipientsofhistime,hisenergy,and hismentorship.Willwasinsatiablycuriousandintellectuallytireless. Heinvestedheavilyinbothofourcareers,spendinghoursuponhours guidingusandpushingustoimproveourwork.Hemodeledthepractice ofdoingthingsnotbecauseit’showotherscholarsdoitbutbecause it’sfascinating,bold,weird,inviting,andmaybewrong.Hetaught ustobuildinstitutionswherenoneexisttosolveaproblem,towrite non-positivistarticlesifyouhaveanideatoshare,andtoaskquestions innewanddifferentways.Becausehewasabuilderofcommunity,Will alsoencouragedustobefiercelysupportiveofoneanotherandofother scholarsinourcommunity.IndedicationtoWill,wepromisetopayit forward.
PERSONALACKNOWLEDGMENTS:COURTENAY
Ihavebeenfortunatetohavemanygenerousmentors,colleagues,and friendstodirectmeinthisprofessionandtoredirectmewhenIwanderedoffcourse.ButWillMoorestandsaloneasthemostimportant drivinginfluenceinmybecoming—andcontinuingtoworkas—apolitical scientist.Willwasmydissertationadvisorandmycoauthor.Hewasan irreplaceablesourceofsupportandadviceuntilhisdeath;Irarelymake aprofessionaldecisiontodaywithoutfirstaskingmyselfwhatWillwould do,whatWillwouldsay.(Askingthosequestionssometimesresultsinmy doingtheoppositeofwhathewouldhavesuggested,butIknowhewould understand.)Willisnotsimplyresponsibleforinfluencingmywork;Iama politicalscientistbecauseofWillMoore.Imisshimimmensely.AndIhope toonedaybeevenhalfthescholarthathetaughtmetobe.
Mymostimportantpersonalthank-youistingedwithprofessional gratitude.Myhusband,Nate,makesmylifeimmeasurablybetterevery day—byfillingmydayswithjoyandlaughter,byworkinghardtobuilda Homewithme,andbymakingmeaspiretobeabetterscholar.I’mgrateful tohavehisfingerprintsonmylifeandonmywork.ThankyoutoAbby andWillforembracingmeasfamilyandremindingme(daily!)aboutthe importanceofwork-lifebalance.Iloveyoubothverymuchandcannot waittoseeyouwithyournewsister,Charlie—who,thankfully,seemsto havedelayedherarrivaljustlongenoughforustocompletethisbook.Iam endlesslygratefultomyparents,BillandCharlotte,whoinstilledinmea greatloveoflearning,alwaysmaintainedhighexpectationsformeinspite ofmyfailures,andreassuredmetirelesslyalongtheway.Thankyoutothe restofmyfamily—Matt,Elaina,Mary,Keith,Amy,Dean,Dylan,Sadie, andPapa—forprovidingnecessarydiversionsfrommyworkandalways seeminginterestedinthisproject,evenwhenitfeltlikewemightnever finishit.Finally,anenormousdebtofgratitudegoestoEmily,whosets thebarincrediblyhighforcoauthors.Ithasbeen eight yearssincewefirst startedtalkingaboutthisproject;IcannotimagineanyonewithwhomI’d ratherhavecelebrateditssuccessesorcriedaboutitssetbacks.
PERSONALACKNOWLEDGMENTS:EMILY
Ihadbeenadvisedoverandoveragainnottowriteabookbeforetenure becauseoftheuncertaintyofitstimeline.Ididsobecausetheideasinour headsweretoobigforarticles.Itneededtobeabook.SooftenIwishedI hadtakenmycolleagues’advice,andsooftenIwasgladIhadn’t.Though Ididnotheedtheirwarningsonthisparticularpoint,Iconstantlylean
onmentors,colleagues,andfriendsforadvice,reassurance,examples,and encouragement.
Ihaveboundlessgratitudeformypoliticalsciencecolleaguesatthe UniversityofCalifornia,Merced.Iammovingtoanewuniversitythisyear afterfiveyearsatMerced,andthelossofthesecolleaguesleavesacrater inme.AtMerced,Ilearnedhowtothinkdeeplyandacrosscontexts.I learnedthevalueofbothlikenessanddiversityofthought.Ilearnedhow tobuildnewinstitutionsfromscratchanddisagreerespectfully.Ilearned howtomentorothersfromthosewhomentoredme.AndIlearnedhow tohonorandpracticework-lifebalanceandequityofexperience.Iam indebtedtomyUCMcolleagues,finepeopleandresearchersall:Aditya Dasgupta,DanieldeKadt,DavidFortunato,MattHibbing,HaifengHuang, BradLeVeck,MelissaSands,andAlexTheodoridis.Iamespeciallygrateful tothefoundersofthismagnificentdepartment,whosooftenbearmore service,responsibility,andkindnessthantheyshouldhaveto,sothat thejuniorfacultycansucceed,allwhileadvancingtowardasteadyvision andpublishingtheirownbrilliantwork.Thankyou,TomHansford,Nate Monroe,SteveNicholson,and(myseniormentor!)JessicaTrounstine. YourexamplewillfollowmeasIdevelopmyownroleasaseniorscholar. Imustofcoursethankthemanysteadfastandsupportivementorson whomIrelyinmakingsomanycareerdecisions.WarrenRosenblumwasa keysupporterandcriticwhileIwasafledglingundergraduatescholarand remainsoneofmyloudestcheerleadersnow.DavidDavis,JeffStaton,Jen Gandhi,TomClark,DaniReiter,andespeciallyCliffCarrubbacontinually actasacademicfamilytome,steppingasidetowatchmegrowwhile continuingtoanswermycalls,longafterIlefttheEmorynest.Christian DavenportandWillMooreidentifiedmeasapersonwithpotentiallong beforeIwouldhaveknownit,andtheyinvitedmeintotheirfold.They shapedwhoIamasathinker,colleague,mentor,andparticipatorin academia.Ihopetosomedaybethekindofmentortosomeoneelse thattheyhavebeentome.ThankyouespeciallytoScottWolford,whose discerningeyeisoneverythingIwrite.IwouldnotbethescholarIamif notforyou.
Finally,Imustthankmyfamily—thoserelatedbyblood,marriage,or friendship.Mymom,Jeanette,taughtmefairnessandrespectforallpeople,andshepassedtometheexcitementofdiscoveryandunderstanding. Mydad,Tom,taughtmehowthingsworkandthemechanismsofcause andeffectinthegarage.Thankyou,both,formakingmeascientist.Thank youtothemanypeoplewholoveandrootformeinmyfamily—mysister, myin-laws,myaunts,uncles,cousins,grandparents—wearealargebrood ofloudlove.Thankyoutomybeautifulfriends:LindseyBarrow,Jessica
Acknowledgments(xvii)
Braithwaite,CassyDorff,KaraGibson,CarissaHansford,DanielHoffman, RyanLouis,DougMackay,AlexMain,AmieMedley,StephanieRaczkowski, TobyRider,SaraSchumacher,SusanNavarroSmelcer,JakanaThomas, JamesWilson,andScottWolford.Ioftenneedpullingupbymyarmpits andatriptotheoutdoorstofindmyselfagain,andyouarethepeoplewho findmewhenIamtoolosttodoitonmyown.AndtoCourtenay,with whomIamsoinsyncthatwemightbeofone(verydetail-oriented)mind: Icannotwaitforahundredmoreretreatsofcreating,writing,laughing, andcryingwithyou.
MygreatestlovesareDarickandHenryRitter.Thankyouforgivingme wings,pushingmetofly,andremindingmetocomebackhome.Youare myeverything.
DoHumanRightsTreaties ProtectRights?
Everyonewantstobesafefromgovernmentviolence.Unfortunately, billionsofpeopleexperiencehumanrightsabusesasawayoflife.More peopledieatthehandsoftheirowngovernmentthaninwar.Minority groupsareexcludedfrompower,peoplearedeniedaccesstoeducation, dissidentsarebeaten,prisonersaretortured.Accordingtoannualreports onhumanrightspracticespublishedbyAmnestyInternational(AI)andthe U.S.DepartmentofState,everygovernmentviolatestherightsofsome ofitscitizensineveryyear.Duringthelasttwodecadesofthetwentieth century,over70percentofgovernmentshaveengagedintortureineach year.1 In2012alone,overahundredcountrieswereaccusedoflimiting theircitizens’rightstofreedomofexpression,andthesecurityforces offiftycountrieswerereportedtohaveunlawfullykilledcitizens.2 The mostfrequentvictimsofrepressionaremembersofvulnerablegroups: womenandchildren,elderlypersons,indigenouscultures,andimpoverishedpopulations.3 In2011,forexample,AIreportedthatindigenous peoplesintheAmericasstruggledforgovernmentrecognitionoftheir landrights,andinEuropeandCentralAsia,migrants,theRoma,and lesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender(LGBT+)individualscontinued tofacewidespreaddiscrimination.4 Violationsofhumanrightscanhave
1.Cingranelli,Richards,andClay2014;Conrad,Haglund,andMoore2013. 2.AmnestyInternational2013. 3.See,e.g.,Conrad,Haglund,andMoore2013;Rejali2007. 4.AmnestyInternational2012.
widespread,direconsequences:Restrictionsofindividuallibertiesareassociatedwithpovertyandinequality,societalconflict,andnondemocratic governance.
Inthefaceofsuchabuses,individualsallovertheworlddemandthe righttospeaktheirmindsandchallengetheirgovernmentswithoutfear ofdiscriminationorviolentreprisal.Groupsofpeoplewhoopposeexisting policiesorresourceallocationscanworktogethertopressurethegovernmentforchange,peacefullyorviolently;authoritiescanendordeterthe popularthreatbyrepressing,accommodating,oradaptinginoneofmany otherways.Evenindemocracies,majoritiesandotherpowerfulgroupsmay supportrepressionbecausetheyderivepowerfrommaintainingthestatus quo.5 Asininternationalconflict,domesticdiscriminationandviolenceare extensionsofbargainingoverdisputedpoliciesandresources.Manypeople seegovernmentrepressionasanaturalpartofpolitics.
Victims,humanrightsadvocates,andpolicymakerscontinuallysearch forwaystoendgovernmentabusesandtheirheinousindividualandsocial consequences.Theremedymostoftensuggestedislaw.Governmentsand internationalorganizationsaliketurntolawsandcourtstoidentify,stop, andpreventviolationsofhumanrights.Lawsdefineindividualrights, layingoutthegovernment’sobligationswithregardtopeople’ssecurity; courtsadjudicateviolationswhentheyoccursothattheycanberectified.6 Unlikemanyotherdemocraticinstitutions,theruleoflawisintendedto protectminoritiesfromthewill(andabuse)ofthemajority,andlawand courtsarethusidealforprotectingvulnerablepopulationsfromviolations ofhumanrights.7
Thisisthedrivingideabehindinternationalhumanrightstreaties (HRTs),designedinthewakeofWorldWarIItoprotectcitizenrightsfrom governmentintrusion.8 Inratifyinganinternationalhumanrightstreaty, nationalgovernmentspubliclycommitthemselvestoprotecttherightsof personsundertheirdomesticrule.Theselawsexplicitlydefinetherights towhichpeopleareentitled,aswellasthelegaldutiesoftheratifying countriestoprotectpeoplefromtheinfringementofthoserights.Some treatiesarebroad,governingawideswathofhumanrightsandrelevant populations(liketheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights). Othersaremorespecific,definingtherightsandobligationswithregardto
5.Conrad,Hill,andMoore2017.
6.See,e.g.,Cross1999;Hathaway2005;Keith2002b;Moustafa2007;Powelland Staton2009.
7.Conrad,Hill,andMoore2017.
8.Anumberofprominentscholarshavewrittendetailed,informativeaccounts ofthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheinternationalhumanrightsregime,including Simmons(2009,Chapter2)andHafner-Burton(2013,Chapter4).
oneviolation(liketorture,asintheUNConventionAgainstTortureand OtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment)oroffering specificprotectionstoonegroup(likechildren,asintheUNConventionon theRightsoftheChild).
Governmentleadersfacedomesticandinternationalpressuretoobligate themselvestointernationalhumanrightslaw.Domesticactors,including nongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs),unions,andpoliticalopposition parties,encourageheadsofstatetosignhumanrightstreaties.9 Internationalleadersandinstitutionsalsopressuregovernments,usingavariety ofpunishmentsandrewardstoencouragethemtocommittointernational standardsbasedonanassumptionthattreatieswillpositivelyinfluence governmentalrightsprotections.10 Victimsandadvocatesoftenactas iftreatieshavethelegalandpoliticalstrengthtobindauthoritieswho wouldviolaterights.Theyrefertointernationalobligationstoprotectin domesticcourtcases,inprotests,innewsreports,andinsocialmovement campaigns.
Butdoesinternationalhumanrightslawactuallyreducegovernment repression?Althoughhumanrightstreatiesclearlydefineobligations andarelegallybinding,theyrarelyincludemechanismsfordomestic orinternationalenforcement.Signatorygovernmentsmustrestrain themselvesandtheiragents,eitherbycreatingdomesticinstitutions thatpunishrightsviolationsorchoosingontheirownnotto repress.
Withoutinherentenforcement,scholars,policymakers,andevendissidentsexpecthumanrightstreatiesto“work”onlywhensignatorieswould notviolaterightsanyway;inotherwords,treatiesconstrainrepression onlyintheabsenceofadomesticthreattopower.Governmentauthoritieswillallowthemselvestobeconstrainedbytreatiesonlywhenthey canusetacticsotherthanrepressiontoeffectivelycontrolchallenges. Institutionsthatallowforpeacefulleaderreplacement,forinstance,are morelikelytoprotectrightswhenoppositiongroupspushforelectoral turnover.11
If,instead,theypredominantlyrepresswhenchallenged,governments ignoretheirinternationalobligations.Autocraticregimesarefrequently signatoriestointernationalhumanrightstreatieswhileviolatingthe treaties’termswithimpunity.Forexample,countriesincludingtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,China,Egypt,Syria,andmanyothershaveratified
9.Hafner-Burton2009.
10.FinnemoreandSikkink1998;KeckandSikkink1998;Risse,Ropp,andSikkink 1999.
11.Hafner-Burton,Hyde,andJablonski2014.
