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BernardBolzano BernardBolzano HisLifeandWork PaulRusnockandJan Šebestík
1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Paul Rusnock and Jan Šebestík 2019
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
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ISBN 978–0–19–882368–1
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
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C ONTENTS 4PhilosophyofReligion 139
1.Bolzano’sConceptofReligion.................143
2.FigurativeorSymbolicDoctrines................152
3.SourcesofReligiousBelief:NaturalandRevealedReligion..157
4.TheConceptofRevelation...................158
5.Conclusion............................164
5CatholicismandtheCatholicChurch167
1.NaturalReligion.........................167
2.Catholicism...........................169
3.HowistheContentofCatholicismDetermined?........170
4.RevelationandMiracles.....................174
5.UniversalConsensusandRevelation..............177
6.AuthorityintheChurch.....................181
7.Conclusion............................184
6Logic 187
1.Bolzano’sLogicalWritings...................190
2.TheScopeofBolzano’sLogic.................191
3.LogicalObjects.........................193
4.PropositionsandIdeas......................206
5.TheNatureofIdeas.......................210
(a)IdeasandtheirObjects...................215
(b)TheIndividuationofIdeas.................217
(c)TheLogicofClasses....................219
(d)SimpleandComplexIdeas.................221
(e)ObjectlessIdeas.......................222
(f)IntuitionsandConcepts...................224
(g)RepresentingIndividuals..................232
(h)RepresentingNaturalKinds.................238
(i)Conclusion.........................242
6.ContributionstotheAnalysisofPropositions......... .243
(a)OntheFormandContentofPropositions.........245
(b)TheSubject–PredicateForm................249
(c)Truth.............................250
(d)TemporalDeterminations..................253
(e)Relations..........................255
(f)ExistenceandObjectuality.................259
(g)Negation...........................261
(h)CategoricalStatementForms................265 (i)DisjunctionsandConditionals...............267
(j)PurelyConceptualandIntuitionalPropositions...... 271 (k)Necessity,Possibility,andContingency..........272 (l)Conclusion.........................273
7.Bolzano’sVariationLogic....................274 (a)Introduction.........................274 (b)Variation,Substitution,andForm..............281 (c)AnalyticityandRelatedNotions..............295 (d)ConsequenceandRelatedNotions.............301
8.Ground–ConsequenceandtheObjectiveConnection betweenTruths.........................327
9.SciencesandtheirTreatises:TheTheoryofScienceProper..331 10.Conclusion............................334
7TheoryofKnowledge 337
1.TheElementsofBolzano’sTheoryofKnowledge.......342 (a)SubjectiveIdeasandJudgments..............342 (b)IntuitionsandConcepts...................346 (c)Individuation;EqualIdeas;Clarity,Distinctness,and Vividness..........................348 (d)Judgments..........................351 (e)MediatedandImmediateJudgments............352 (f) Apriori andEmpiricalJudgments.............356
2.Knowledge,Ignorance,Error..................357
3.Certainty,Probability,andConfidence;Knowledgeand Belief..............................362
4. Wissen ..............................365
5.JudgmentsofExperience....................367
6.BolzanoonKant.........................373
7.Conclusion............................398
8OntologyandMetaphysics 1.ObjectsinGeneral........................407 2.Attributes............................408
3.Collections............................416 (a)Origins:UniversalMathematics(1810)..........417 (b)Bolzano’sLaterTheoryofCollections...........422
4.Identity,Equality,Similarity..................442
5.BolzanoonsomeTraditionalOntologicalTheses.......444
6.ActualandNon-actualObjects.................449
7.SubstanceandAdherence....................450
8.TimeandSpace.........................458
9.FromMetaphysicstoPhysics:Bolzano’sAtomsand Leibniz’sMonads........................470
10.Non-actualObjects.......................474
11.Necessity,Possibility,Contingency............... 475
12.AProofoftheExistenceofGod................495
13.TheWorld............................497
9Mathematics 502
1.OnMathematicalMethod....................503 (a)TheAncientIdeal......................503 (b)Bolzano’sPosition.....................507 (c)DefinitionsandExplications................509 (d)Proofs,ObjectiveandSubjective..............510 (e)FoundationsandFoundationalResearch..........513
2.AdventuresintheInfinite:ASampleofBolzano’s MathematicalWork.......................515 (a)InfiniteSeries........................515 (b)Bolzano’sAnalysisofContinuity..............520 (c) ParadoxesoftheInfinite ..................533
3.Conclusion............................540
10Aesthetics,theScienceofBeauty544 1.Introduction...........................544
2.WorksonAesthetics.......................548
3.OnLaughter...........................549
4.TheConceptofAesthetics...................551
5.TheConceptoftheBeautiful..................552 (a)ConceptualAnalysis....................552 (b)TheBeautiful........................556 (c)OtherDefinitions......................570
6.OntheClassificationoftheFineArts..............578 (a)TheDivisionoftheArts..................580 (b)ArtsofPureThought....................581 (c)ArtsoftheExternalSenses:theTonalArts.........584 (d)TheVisualArts.......................586 (e)PanoramaoftheFineArts.................589 x
AN OTEON C ITATIONS Abibliographyisprovidedtowardstheendofthisbook(pp.599ff.).Inour footnotes,weusethefollowingabbreviations:
BBGA BernardBolzano-Gesamtausgabe,ed.E.Winter,J.Berg,F.Kambartel,J.Loužil,E.Morscher,andB.vanRootselaar(Stuttgart-BadCannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog,1969–).
BD BeyträgezueinerbegründeterenDarstellungderMathematik (Prague, 1810).Englishtranslationin MW (seebelow).
EP SelectedWritingsonEthicsandPolitics,tr.P.RusnockandR.George (Amsterdam:Rodopi,2007).
GL Größenlehre (manuscript); BBGA,Series2A,Vols7–10(somevolumes stilltoappear).Selectionstranslatedin MM-EX, MW (seebelow).
ML “VondermathematischenLehrart”(manuscript,partof GL); BBGA 2A.7,pp.46–97.Englishtranslationin MM-EX (seenextentry).
MM-EX OntheMathematicalMethodandCorrespondencewithExner,tr. P.RusnockandR.George(Amsterdam:Rodopi,2004).
MW TheMathematicalWorksofBernardBolzano,tr.S.B.Russ(Oxford UniversityPress,2004).
PdU ParadoxiendesUnendlichen (Leipzig,1851).Englishtranslations: ParadoxesoftheInfinite byD.A.Steele(London:Routledge&KeganPaul, 1950)andS.B.Russ(in MW).
PK UeberdiePerfectibilitätdesKatholicismus,2Vols(Leipzig,1845).
RB ReinanalytischerBeweis... (Prague,1817).Englishtranslationin MW.
RW LehrbuchderReligionswissenschaft (Sulzbach,1834).
3-D VersucheinerobjectivenBegründungvondendreiDimensionendes Raumes (Prague,1843).
WL Wissenschaftslehre (Sulzbach,1837).Newednin BBGA,Series1,Vols 11/1–14/3.EnglishtranslationbyP.RusnockandR.George: Theoryof Science,4Vols(OxfordUniversityPress,2014).
The BernardBolzano-Gesamtausgabe (BBGA)isdividedinto6Series:
E:Einleitungsband
1:Schriften
2A:Nachlaß:Schriften
2B:Nachlaß:WissenschaftlicheTagebücher
3:Briefwechsel
4:Dokumente
TheSeriesaredividedintoVolumes,andsomeofthelatterarefurtherdivided intoparts.Accordingly,wegivecitationsoftheforms:
w.x/y,p.z
w.x,p.z wherewindicatestheSeries,xtheVolume,ythePart(whenapplicable),and zthepagenumber.Forexample:
BBGA 1.6/1,p.25 referstoSeries1,Volume6(part1),page25;and
BBGA 1.18,p.35 toSeries1,Volume18(whichisnotsubdivided),page35.
Generallyspeaking,weciteoriginaleditions(whichareoftenavailable online),followedbythe Gesamtausgabe,andEnglishtranslation(thelasttwo whenavailable).Here,forexample,isatypicalreference:
RW,I,§14,no.7[BBGA 1.6/1,pp.77–8; EP,p.177].
Thereisoneexceptiontothispractice:inthecaseofthe Wissenschaftslehre (WL),wesimplycitethesectionnumbersand,whereappropriate,the volumeandpagenumbersofthefirst(1837)edition,e.g., WL,§148[II.83]. Wedothisbecausethepaginationofthefirsteditionisgiven inthemargins ofboththe BBGA editionandthecompleteEnglishtranslation.
Finally,forKant’sworks,weusuallycitetheAcademyedition: Ak Kant’sgesammelteSchriften,herausgegebenvonderKöniglichPreußischenAkademiederWissenschaften.BerlinandLeipzig,1900–.
Wealsousethestandardabbreviations(A,B)todesignatethefirstandsecond editionsofthe CritiqueofPureReason.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Evenifwecannotmentionallpeoplewhohelpedusatdifferentstagesof writingthisbook,wewouldatleastliketonamesomeofthose whosework informedoursandtowhomweexpressourparticulargratitude:
MarieBayerová,AliBehboud,AliBenmakhlouf,JocelynBenoist,Johann vanBenthem,JanBerg,KarelBerka,StefanoBesoli,ArianaBetti,KurtBlaukopf,JohannBlok,JacquesBouveresse,GünterBuhl,PaolaCantù,Ettore Casari,CarloCellucci,StefaniaCentrone,CharlesChihara,AlbertoCoffa, JonathanL.Cohen,JaromírDan ˇ ek,MichaelDetlefsen,GeorgDorn,Jacques Dubucs,PierreDugac,PetrDvoˇrák,JohnEtchemendy,BorisI.Fedorov,Jiˇrí Fiala,DenisFisette,DagfinnFøllesdal,JaroslavFolta,GuillaumeFréchette, MargretFriedrich,FrantišekGahér,AlainGallerand,HeinrichGanthaler, CarstenGieske,RolfGeorge,Gilles-GastonGranger,IvorGrattan-Guinness, JohannesHafner,VlastimilHála,RudolfHaller,JosefHaubelt,JanHavránek, MagdalenaHykšová,Vojt ˇ echJarník,DaleM.Johnson,WillemdeJong,Anita Kasabova,ArnoštKolman,AnitaKonzelmannZiv,L.Kore ˇ n,JanKoˇralka, LukasBenedictKraus,AndrejKrause,LotharKreiser,Frank Krickel,Pavel Kˇrivský,WolfgangKünne,SandraLapointe,DetlefLaugwitz, JacquesLaz, AlaindeLibera,PaisleyLivingston,JanMili ˇ cLochman,IrisLoeb,Helena Lorenzová,WinfriedLöffler,JaromírLoužil,Jan Łukasiewicz,KarelMa ˇ cák, CaroleMaigné,ClaudioMajolino,PaoloMancosu,PavelMaterna,Benson Mates,HenrykMoese,EdgarMorscher,MassimoMugnai,Kevin Mulligan, OttoNeumaier,Luboš Nový,RadimPalouš,FrancescoPaoli,JanPato ˇ cka, MiroslavPauza,MariePavlíková,GaëtanPégny,KarelPetr, JoëlleProust, VenanzioRaspa,JaneRegenfelder,MariaReicher,StefanRoski,Bobvan Rootselaar,AntjeRumberg,HelmutRumpler,FrédéricRuscher,SteveRuss, KarelRychlík,MariavanderSchaar,GünterSchenk,BenjaminSchnieder, HeinrichScholz,IrenaSeidlerová,MarkSiebel,PetrSimon,PeterSimons, HouryaSinaceur,Alena Šolcová,DetlefSpalt,PeterStachel,AnatoliA. Star ˇ cenko,WernerStelzner,KurtF.Strasser,GöranSundholm,Christian Tapp,ArminTatzel,GerhardTerton,MarkTextor,PaulB.Thompson,KateˇrinaTrlifajová,PetrUrban,EmilUtitz,LubomírValenta,KarelVe ˇ cerka,Marta Vlasáková,FrancoVoltaggio,PetrVop ˇ enka,ManfriedWelan,EduardWinter, JanWole ´ nski,HansWussing,andPavelZlatoš.
Thecontributionsofthosewhowerenotmentionedorquotedinourtext alsofoundtheirwayintothisbook.Betweenthetwoofus,wehavemetquite afewofthesescholars(some,alas,nolongerwithus),andfeelveryfortunate tobeabletocallanumberofthemfriends.
Severalofthesubjectsdiscussedinthisbookhavebeenpreviouslydealt withinarticleswehavepublished(listedbelow),andwehavemadeuseof thematerialinthematvariouspoints.Wearegratefultothe publishersand co-authorsforgrantinguspermissiontodothis.
S.RoskiandP.Rusnock,“Bolzanoonnecessaryexistence,” ArchivfürGeschichtederPhilosophie 96 (2014)320–59.
P.Rusnock,“AnalyticityinKantandBolzano,” ArchivfürGeschichteder Philosophie 95 (2013)298–335.
P.Rusnock,“OnBolzano’sconceptofasum,” HistoryandPhilosophyof Logic 34 (2013)155–69.
P.RusnockandJ. Šebestík,“The Beyträge at200:Bolzano’squietrevolutioninthephilosophyofmathematics,” JournalfortheHistoryofAnalytic Philosophy,Vol.1,no.8(2013).
P.Rusnock,“RemarksonBolzano’sconceptionofnecessarytruth,” British JournalfortheHistoryofPhilosophy 20 (2012)817–37.
P.Rusnock,“KantandBolzanoonlogicalform,” Kant-Studien 102 (2011) 1–15.
P.RusnockandM.Burke,“EtchemendyandBolzanoonlogicalconsequence,” HistoryandPhilosophyofLogic 31 (2010)3–29.
R.GeorgeandP.Rusnock,“Bolzano’sPoliticalPhilosophy,”inM.Textor,ed. TheAustrianContributiontoAnalyticPhilosophy (London:Routledge, 2006),pp.264–92.
P.RusnockandR.George,“BolzanoasLogician,”inD.Gabbay andJ. Woods,eds, HandbookoftheHistoryandPhilosophyofLogic,Vol.3 (Amsterdam:Elsevier,2004),pp.177–205.
P.Rusnock,“Bolzanoandthetraditionsofanalysis,”in BolzanoandAnalytic Philosophy,ed.W.Künne,M.SiebelandM.Textor(Amsterdam:Rodopi, 1998);alsoin GrazerphilosophischeStudien 53 (1997)61–85.
P REFACE Jan ŠebestíkandIbeganworkonthisbookalmosttwodecadesago.Ihad cometoworkwithhiminthemid-1990safterfinishingmydoctorate,andhe invitedmetojoinhisseminar,whichwasthenworkingtotranslateBolzano’s work VondermathematischenLehrart andhiscorrespondencewithFranz Exner.Afterayearorsoofworkingtogether,wediscussedthepossibilityof writingabooktogetheronBolzano’slifeandwork,andfinallyresolvedtodo it.Itwouldbedifficulttooverstatethebreadthanddepthof Jan’sknowledge, thefruitofalonglifeofdeterminedstudy,andIcountitasoneofthegreat fortunesofmylifetohaveworkedwithhimonthisbook.
Asthingsturnedout,ittookmuchlongerthaneitherofushad anticipatedtoreachthispoint.Soonafterwehaddecidedtowritethisbook,Iwas launchedonthesessionallecturers’circuit,movingrepeatedlywithmyfamilyandteachinganewselectionofcourseseachyearwhileconstantlyonthe lookoutforthenextcontract.Jan,forhispart,struggledthroughtwoboutsof cancerandotherassortedhealthproblems,allthewhiletakingonamultitude ofothercommitments.Thiswasontopoftheintrinsicdifficultiesinvolved intryingtotakethemeasureofthemanyandvariedinterests ofanauthor aswidely-read,far-seeing,andprolificasBolzano—andmysomewhatfoolhardydecisiontotranslatesubstantialpartsofBolzano’s worksintoEnglish withRolfGeorge,includingthemassive TheoryofScience.
Overtheyears,Ihaveworkedwithanumberofotherpeopleonvarious aspectsofBolzano’sthought.RolfGeorge,tobeginwith,hasbeenaconstant sourceofknowledgeandsupportsinceIfirstwenttoWaterloo tostudywith himintheearly1990s.Throughhisteaching,aswellasourdiscussions andjointwork,hehasdeeplyinfluencedmycontributionstothisbook,not leasttothechapterinthisvolumeonBolzano’spoliticalphilosophy,which isbasedonanarticlewewrotetogether.Icannotimagineabetterteacher, supervisor,collaborator,orfriend.
IalsohavefondmemoriesofworkingonBolzano’smathematicswith thelateAngusKerr-Lawson,onhisconceptionoflogicalconsequencewith MarkBurke,onhisphilosophyofreligionwithAnnaEzekiel, andonthe conceptofnecessitywithStefanRoski.Mydeepestthanksgo toallofthem.
WeoweanothermajordebttoWolfgangKünne,whoprovidedacuteand detailedcommentsonsignificantpartsofthisbook,andwhohasgenerously sharedwithusanumberofhisstilltobepublishedwritingsonBolzano. StefanRoski,too,readanearlierversionofthemanuscript andprovided
manyvaluablecommentsandsuggestions.Wewouldalsoliketothanktwo anonymousreviewersforOxfordUniversityPress,whosecomments,based uponathoroughandcarefulreadingofourtext,havehelpedusgreatly,along withPeterMomtchiloff,whohasbeenanidealeditor.
Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossibleifnotforthewell-advancedcriticaleditionofBolzano’sworks(BernardBolzano-Gesamtausgabe),thefruit ofmanydecadesofhardworkandexemplarydedicationonthepartofitseditors:JanBerg,FriedrichKambartel,JaromírLoužil,EdgarMorscher,Bob vanRootselaar,andEduardWinter.LikeallthosewhostudyBolzano,we mourntherecentpassingofJanBerg.
Finally,myfamilyhasbeenremarkablypatientwithmewhile Ipursued thesemassiveprojects.ToElizabeth,Sophie,andHarry,Ihereexpressmy gratitudeandmylove.
PaulRusnock,Ottawa,February2018
Mid-NineteenthCenturyPrague;from AHandbookforTravellersinSouthernGermany (7thedn,London:JohnMurray,1857).ImagecourtesyoftheMcGillUniversity Library.
C HRONOLOGY Y EAR B OLZANO ’ S L IFEAND W ORKS A RTSAND L ETTERS
1776 Smith, WealthofNations
1779 Hume, DialoguesonNatural Religion (posth.)
1780
1781Born5OctoberinPragueKant, CritiqueofPureReason; Rousseau, Confessions
1787–1788 Goethe, IphigenieaufTauris; Schiller, DonCarlos;Mozart, DonGiovanni,Symphoniesnos. 39–41
1789
Bentham, Introductiontothe PrinciplesofMoralsandLegislation;Blake, SongsofInnocence; Gibbon, DeclineandFallofthe RomanEmpire
1790 Burke, ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance
1792
Dobrovský, HistoryofCzech LanguageandLiterature;Wollstonecroft, Vindicationofthe RightsofWomen
1793 David, DeathofMarat
1794–1795
Blake, SongsofExperience; Condorcet, Esquissed’untableau historiquedesprogrèsdel’esprit humain;Paine, TheAgeof Reason
S CIENCEAND T ECHNOLOGY H ISTORICAL E VENTS ThirteenColoniesissueDeclaration ofIndependence JosephIIbecomesrulerofHabsburg lands
Wattpatentssteamengine;Herschel, discoveryofUranus
JosephIIIssuesPatentofTolerance, expandsfreedomofpressinAustria
USConstitutionratified
Lavoisier, Traitéelémentairede chimie FrenchRevolution;Washington electedPresidentofUSA
BohemianRoyalSocietyofSciences founded
JosephIIdies;LeopoldIIbecomes rulerofHabsburglands
LeopoldIIdies;succeededbyFrancis WhitneyinventscottonginLouisXVIexecuted;ReignofTerror begins
Lavoisierexecuted;ÉcolePolytechniquefounded;Metricsystem adoptedinFrance
BernardBolzano:HisLifeandWork Y EAR B OLZANO ’ S L IFEAND W ORKS A RTSAND L ETTERS 1796–1799 StudentatCharlesUniversityGoethe, WilhelmMeister (1796); Coleridge, KublaKhan;ColeridgeandWordsworth, Lyrical Ballads;Haydn, TheCreation
1799–1800 AdvancedstudiesinMathematics
1800–1804
1804
StudiesTheologyatCharlesUniversity; Considerationsonsome ObjectsofElementaryGeometry (1804)
Schelling, SystemofTranscendentalIdealism;Paley, Natural Theology
Fichte, TheoryofScience
1805Ordainedpriest,doctorateconferred,provisionallyappointedto ChairoftheScienceofReligion atCharlesUniversity
1806–1807 Universityappointmentconfirmed(1806)
1808
1809
1810 ContributionstoamoreWellGroundedPresentationofMathematics,1
1812Inanotebook,recordsintention towritea“NewLogic”
1813 ErbauungsredenfürAkademiker, avolumeofexhortations
Beethoven, Eroica Symphony
Goethe, Faust,Part1
Goethe, ElectiveAffinities
Fichte, AddressestotheGerman Nation
Austen, PrideandPrejudice; Herbart, IntroductoryTreatiseof Philosophy
Chronology S CIENCEAND T ECHNOLOGY H ISTORICAL E VENTS Jenner,vaccinationforsmallpox; Lagrange, Théoriedesfonctionsanalytiques;Malthus, EssayonthePrincipleofPopulation;RosettaStonediscovered
GaussprovesFundamentalTheorem ofAlgebra;Laplace, Traitédemécaniquecéleste
Voltaconstructschemicalbattery; firstcensusinFrance,Britain
LewisandClarkbegintheirexpedition
NapoleonbecomesFirstConsul (1800)
LouisianaPurchase;NapoleonicWars begin(1803)
PraguePolytechnicalInstitute,GeologicalSocietyofLondonfounded
Dalton, ANewSystemofChemical Philosophy
Lamarck, Philosophiezoologique
FrancisII,HolyRomanEmperor, crownedFrancisIofAustria; NapoleoncrownedEmperorofthe French FrenchtroopsoccupyVienna; NapoleonvictoriousatAusterlitz; PeaceofPressburg
HolyRomanEmpireofficiallydissolved
Cuvier, Recherchessurlesossements fossilesdequadrupèdes
NapoleonannexesPapalStates,Pope PiusVIItakenprisoner;Metternich becomesForeignMinisterofAustria
NapoleonmarriesArchduchessMarie LouiseofAustria,daughterofFrancis
Napoleon’sRussiancampaign;USA declareswaronBritain
BernardBolzano:HisLifeandWork Y EAR B OLZANO ’ S L IFEAND W ORKS A RTSAND L ETTERS 1814
Scott, Waverley;Ingrès, La grandeodalisque;Goya, The ThirdofMay,1808inMadrid
1815ElectedmemberofBohemian RoyalSociety Schubert, Erlkönig
1816 BinomialTheorem Rossini, BarberofSeville
1817–1818 PurelyAnalyticProof ; Three Problems Hegel, Encyclopedia;Ricardo, PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy andTaxation
1819On24December,KaiserFrancis ordersBolzano’sdismissal Schopenhauer, TheWorldasWill andIdea
1820Beginsworkon TheoryofScience Keats,“OdetoaNightingale,” “OdeonaGrecianUrn”
1821–1825 Bolzano’secclesiastical“trial”; meetsAnnaHoffmann(1823)
Constable, TheHayWain;De Quincey, Confessionsofan EnglishOpiumEater (1821)
1823–1830 SummersinT ˇ echobuzwiththe Hoffmanns Beethoven,NinthSymphony (1824);Kollár, Slávydcera (1824);FennimoreCooper, The LastoftheMohicans (1826)
1827 Athanasia Heine, BuchderLieder ;Schubert, DieWinterreise
1828 Erbauungsreden placedonIndexTurner, ChichesterCanal
1830Completesmanuscriptof Theory ofScience Comte, Coursdephilosophie positive (6Vols,1830–42);Stendahl, Lerougeetlenoir
xxiv
S CIENCEAND T ECHNOLOGY Chronology H ISTORICAL E VENTS NapoleondefeatedinBattleofthe NationsatLeipzig
AlliesinvadeFrance,Napoleonabdicates;CongressofViennabegins; PiusVIIreturnstoRome,reinstates Inquisition;Britishtroopssetfireto WhiteHouse
Napoleonreturns,isdefeatedatWaterloo;MountTamboraerupts,leadingto“yearwithoutasummer”in 1816
Cuvier, Larègneanimal;firstsuccessfulbloodtransfusion
Wartburgfest
Kotzebueassassinated;Carlsbaddecrees;Peterloomassacre
OersteddiscoverselectromagnetismMissouriCompromise
Fourier, Théorieanalytiquedela chaleur ;Poncelet, Traitédespropriétésprojectivesdesfigures (1822)
Abelprovesthatthegeneralquintic isnotsolvableintermsofradicals; BolyaiandLobachevsky,NonEuclideanGeometry
Ohm’sLawdiscovered
Railwaybetween ˇ CeskéBudj ˇ ejovice andLinzpartiallycompleted—first railserviceinAustria(horse-drawn); Woehlersynthesizesurea
LiverpoolandManchesterRailway opens;Lyell, PrinciplesofGeology
JulyRevolutioninFrance,Belgian Revolution
