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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hoefer, Richard, author.
Title: Advocacy practice for social justice / Richard Hoefer.
Description: Fourth edition. | New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018035405 (print) | LCCN 2018038031 (ebook) | ISBN 9780190916589 (updf) | ISBN 9780190916596 (epub) | ISBN 9780190916572 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social advocacy.
Classification: LCC HV40 (ebook) | LCC HV40 .H628 2019 (print) | DDC 361.3—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018035405
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
To Paula Homer and Sharon Hoefer, for shaping the past, making the present, and creating the future.
CONTENTS
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xxi
1. The Unified Model of Advocacy Practice 1
Defining Advocacy and Advocacy Practice 2 The Broader Context for Advocacy Practice 12 Conclusion 18
2. Social Work Ethics, Values, and Advocacy Practice for Social Justice 20 Advocacy in the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics 21
Social Justice in the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics 22
Distributive Justice 23
Examples of Ethical Issues in Advocacy Practice 29 Conclusion 33
3. Getting Involved 36
Why Are Some People Active in Politics? 38 Are Social Workers Politically Active? 39 What Are Social Workers Trying to Accomplish With Advocacy? 42 Influencing the Factors That Lead to Getting Involved 44 Conclusion 54
4. Understanding the Issue 56
Step 1: Define the Issue 57
Step 2: Decide Who Is Affected and How They Are Affected by the Issue 63
Step 3: Decide What the Main Causes of the Issue Are 65
Step 4: Generate Possible Solutions to the Issue 66
Step 5: Review Proposed Solutions to Determine Their Impact on Social Justice 70 Conclusion 73
5. Planning in Advocacy Practice 75
Definition of Planning 76 What Do You Want? Using Advocacy Mapping to Describe Your Agenda 76
Who Can Get You What You Want? Identifying Your Target 86
When Can or Should You Act to Get What You Want? 87
Conclusion 88
6. Advocating Through Education, Persuasion, and Negotiation 89
Education 89
Persuasion 93
Negotiation 109
Conclusion 113
7. Presenting Your Information Effectively 115
Pre-Suasion 115
Information 118
Presenting the Information 119
Working with the Media 132
Conclusion 140
8. Electronic Advocacy 142
What Is Electronic Advocacy? 142
Organizational Attributes of the Use of Electronic Advocacy 143
The Growing Influence of the Information Age 144
Concepts for Using the Web and Social Media in an Advocacy
Campaign 147
Using Specific Electronic Advocacy Tools in an Advocacy Campaign 151
Conclusion 158
9. Evaluating Advocacy 160
Increase in Support for Evidence-Based Advocacy Practice and Evaluation 161
Observation Phase 163
Judgment Phase 171
Difficulties in Evaluation 175
Conclusion 176
10. Ongoing Monitoring 178
Differences in Advocacy Between Legislative and Executive Branches 182
Influencing the Regulation-Writing Process 184
Influencing the Budgetary Process 187
Influencing the Implementation Process 189
Conclusion 191
11. Integrating Advocacy Practice into Your Social Work Practice 193
The Progressive Era 193
The Great Depression and the New Deal 195
The 1960s: War on Poverty and the Great Society 196
Between the 1960s and the End of the 20th Century: Keeping Hope Alive 197
Advocacy Practice in the 21st Century 198
Integrating Advocacy Practice into Your Social Work Practice 199
References 211
Index 223
PREFACE
I have a confession. While I was writing the revisions to this book, I had a very tough time dealing with the current political situation and increased polarization that we see now. I was disheartened at the lack of respect for truth by elected officials. I was enraged at how men in positions of power have harassed and sexually attacked women and then called them liars. At times, I despaired for the ability to succeed with advocacy for social justice. Mass shootings continued to happen at schools, churches, concerts, and elsewhere. I had to postpone writing because I had lost hope that we could make a difference. I knew that social workers needed to continue the struggle, but I was not sure I wanted to be leading the charge.
So, what did I do? (After all, I must have done something, since you are holding this text now.) I read again the history of social workers and others who have made a difference. I pored over information about the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. I watched videos about Cesar Chavez and the farm workers movement. I listened to an opera about Susan B. Anthony’s efforts to gain the vote for women. Over time, I internalized (yet again) the knowledge that achieving social justice is a long, difficult, and unceasing struggle. I understood that we live in a time that is no more difficult than what others have lived through and triumphed over. I abandoned my privilege of expecting things to be easy “just because” I wanted them to be.
I also paid close attention to the news that was positive. In the run-up to the elections of 2018, I learned that more women were running for office than ever before, many specifically stating they wanted to get involved because of recent political trends (Kurtzleben, 2018). In the aftermath of publicity of the #MeToo movement, I saw powerful men held to account. After yet another horrific school shooting with 17 student victims, I saw the Parkland School survivors take on the National Rifle Association and all the members of Congress and state legislatures who have done nothing to control gun sales. Who was I to despair, even in the midst of all the problems, when so many others are willing to take the next steps, no matter how difficult they are? It was time for me to take up writing again, with a renewed sense of purpose and hope that this book would be a tool to inspire, motivate, and educate the next generation of social justice advocates. I wanted to write a book to assist others, who, like myself, needed to believe it was still possible to make a difference. To use an old analogy, instead of praying for good weather, we all need to learn to sail, regardless of the wind’s direction. This book is a manual for sailing the
stormy seas we find ourselves in, with many social work values under direct assault every day.
Like many people, I’ve pondered the question of what I would have done if I had been alive during the 1930s when the Great Depression raged and fascist dictators took control. Or what I would have done during the years of the Red Scare when Senator Joseph McCarthy was destroying trust in government by accusing so many people of being communists? Or if I had been older during the civil rights and anti-war movements. History provides far too many examples of times when courage is required, and perhaps you have wondered how you would have reacted. Fortunately for all of us, we are living in a time of considerable danger to the health and welfare of social work values in the United States. We no longer have to wonder what we would be doing—we would have done exactly what we are doing now. So, what are we doing?
Advocacy is conceived of in this book as a process designed for problemsolving, and, thus, it easily fits into a generalist model of social work. By showing how similar advocacy is to other types of social work practice, I hope to remove the seemingly foreign nature of advocacy and help make social workers more comfortable in taking on this vital work. I believe that this approach also clearly shows the interconnections between the different theaters of advocacy, such as within the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and at all levels of operation.
This book also delves into the large amount of empirical research that applies to advocacy. I have had to learn a great deal about topics that are not necessarily first thought of as being related to social work advocacy in order to write this book. The political science literature was an especially useful source, but so too were other fields, such as psychology, sociology, marketing, and business. Thus, you can now read a book with the latest research included to present this evidence-based advocacy practice model. This book has the most recent information available from a variety of academic disciplines, mixed with up-to-date information from research centers, newspapers, and highquality magazines.
Another important feature of the fourth edition is the cross-walking of the book’s content with the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE, 2015) 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, including the nine competencies. Although this material may not be of much interest to the typical student, it will be helpful to instructors and programs seeking new accreditation or reaffirmation of accreditation.
Who Is This Book For?
Advocacy Practice for Social Justice is designed primarily for students at both bachelor of social work (BSW) and master of social work (MSW) levels and
for practicing social workers who need a focused yet comprehensive reference on advocacy. This book is primarily intended for two types of courses. First, it is intended for introductory or specialized social welfare policy courses in which only part of the course is devoted to understanding and conducting advocacy; the rest of the course is an overview of social welfare policy or a deeper look within a particular policy arena, such as mental health or child welfare. Second, it is intended for macropractice courses that teach more information on advocacy than is found in the generalist texts currently available.
As the research tells us, administrators and executives of human service agencies tend to be tasked the most often with conducting advocacy. Although I believe this is not the best way to promote advocacy for social justice—all social workers should be trained and encouraged to advocate—it does indicate an additional audience. Administrators and students in administration courses who desire to learn the steps of advocacy can read this book and achieve excellent results.
Other potential audiences include students in elective courses focusing on advocacy (particularly those on a quarter or shortened term calendar), or courses with a service-learning component, in which an assigned project requires the student to attempt to influence policy.
The Plan of the Book
As noted previously, Advocacy Practice for Social Justice is based on the generalist approach to social work practice. As such, I present a step-by-step idealized approach to advocacy, even while admitting that advocacy in real life frequently returns to earlier steps and sometimes skims over other steps rather quickly. Still, I designed the bulk of the book to be used in a front-to-back way.
Chapter 1, “The Unified Model of Advocacy Practice,” introduces advocacy practice as a specialized practice modality within the larger generalist framework. This chapter also introduces two major contextual trends affecting social work practice and shows how the material in the book helps advocates handle those trends. Students who are thoroughly familiar with the generalist approach to social work practice may find some of this material familiar, but the chapter provides an overview of most of the book and so is important.
Chapter 2, “Social Work Ethics, Values, and Advocacy Practice for Social Justice,” discusses the reason social workers conduct advocacy: to promote social justice. The ethical imperatives for advocacy, as set forth in the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics, are explored, as are the terms “social justice” and “distributive justice.” With the foundation of the reasons to engage in advocacy laid, the next several chapters explain the steps of the advocacy process. I provide several examples of situations in which
ethical conflicts may be present as a critical thinking activity and application of chapter material.
Chapter 3, “Getting Involved,” discusses the first step. Going beyond mere exhortation to be involved, this chapter provides a clear, research-based understanding of why people are involved. It describes a model of involvement and the variables that front-line practitioners and administrators can influence to increase the level of involvement in advocacy. In that sense, then, it is a blueprint for advocacy capacity building. Readers can examine their lives to determine which factors are promoting their interest and abilities in advocacy and how they might affect these variables in their own situation.
Chapter 4, “Understanding the Issue,” begins with a vignette about one of my real-life situations. I present a five-step process for gaining understanding of an issue. Of special note in this chapter are several techniques that I present to aid decision-making, particularly when developing solutions to addressing the issue and in understanding the impact of various solutions on social justice. These techniques are very appropriate for immediate use in a group role-play situation or for individual reflection.
Chapter 5, “Planning in Advocacy Practice,” provides information on what planning is, how to conduct it, and how to know when it is time to move from planning to action. A tool called an advocacy map is introduced as an aid to the planning process. An offshoot of the logic model concept often used in program planning, the advocacy map assists advocates in keeping the big picture goals in mind even while planning the details of who will do what and why, when taking action. I provide two examples of advocacy maps, and readers can use the blank template in thinking about their own advocacy projects.
Chapter 6, “Advocating Through Education, Persuasion, and Negotiation,” presents information on education, persuasion, and negotiation. Using the latest research on these topics, I present readers with a comprehensive way to plan their pitch, from how to frame an issue to understanding the mindset of the target of advocacy and what works to change it. Readers can quickly use this material in everyday situations at home and at work, as well as within an advocacy context.
In Chapter 7, “Presenting Your Information Effectively,” I rely on recent scholarship to assist readers in showcasing what they have to say in the most effective way. The information in this chapter links with the previous chapter to allow readers to see the full range of options available to get the word out to indirect targets as well as to the direct targets of an advocacy effort.
Chapter 8, “Electronic Advocacy,” is a difficult chapter to feel satisfied with because the tools are constantly changing. We therefore focus on principles of advocacy, while nodding towards the social media platforms that are most popular now. New tools for advocacy do not necessarily change underlying strategies, nor do they eliminate the need to understand education, persuasion, and negotiation.
Chapter 9, “Evaluating Advocacy,” returns to the advocacy maps introduced in Chapter 5 to show how this planning tool can be extremely useful in evaluation. In addition to the usual aspects of evaluation, such as process and outcome evaluation, I also introduce the idea of context monitoring, which is used to keep abreast of how an organization is perceived by others in the policy arena. Context monitoring is an essential, although frequently overlooked, element of an advocacy group’s effectiveness.
After an advocacy project is completed and evaluated, the tendency is to pack up one’s bags and move on to the next campaign or issue. The purpose of Chapter 10, “Ongoing Monitoring,” is to squash this tendency. Monitoring the regulation-writing process and implementing a policy are important to creating and maintaining social justice. I include specific recommendations for how to be an effective advocate in each part of this phase of the advocacy process.
Chapter 11, “Integrating Advocacy Practice into Your Social Work Practice,” presents a brief history of advocacy in social work and the lessons learned throughout the book. I could have presented this material earlier in the book to provide the historical context of advocacy in social work for readers, and, in fact, some may want to read this chapter before the chapters on the advocacy process. I have put it at the end, however, because many students have told me that they have a much greater positive regard for the history of social work advocacy after they have tried to do it. Too often, historical overviews are viewed as nonessential fluff by readers who want to get to the meat of the topic. It is often only when students have tried to emulate the pioneers of advocacy, and seen the difficulties and barriers that can block the way, that they can truly appreciate what others have done. By leaving this material until the end, I hope the inspiration of others’ actions is blended with the lessons learned in today’s environment. An important new section of this chapter lays out the possible discomforts and dangers of advocacy—a topic not openly discussed in any text I’m familiar with. Ideas are given for how you can protect yourself and your organization while being social justice advocates.
Connections to the Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards
The CSWE, the accrediting body for social work education programs at the bachelor’s and master’s levels, uses its Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) to help educational programs understand the outcomes it expects for students (CSWE, 2015). The latest version of EPAS was approved by the CSWE Board of Directors and the Council on Accreditation in 2015. CSWE uses a model of education that is competency based rather than input based, examining what graduates can do rather than what was in their educational program:
A competency-based approach refers to identifying and assessing what students demonstrate in practice. In social work this approach involves assessing students’ ability to demonstrate the competencies identified in the educational policy. (p. 5)
CSWE (2015) has created nine core educational policies that reflect the desired competencies. This book can be used to address all of these core competencies. Each educational policy is listed here, and the sections or elements of this book that apply are described afterward.
Competency 1: Demonstrate ethical and professional behavior.
Social workers:
• make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decisionmaking, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context;
• use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations;
• demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic communication;
• use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes; and
• use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior. (CSWE, 2015)
Ethics and ethical behavior are interwoven throughout the book but are the particular focus of Chapter 2. Chapter 2 presents a detailed explanation of the ethical basis for advocacy in the social work profession, drawing heavily on the NASW Code of Ethics, theories of distributive justice, and the antioppression framework. In doing so, it shows readers how, despite what may seem to be clear guidelines, ambiguity is rampant. The book provides methods for arriving at principled decisions to help resolve ethical dilemmas. Readers are challenged with questions after every chapter to apply the material to realistic scenarios, thus helping them reflect on their own values and professional norms. Chapter 8 provides information for using technology in evidencebased and professional ways.
Competency 2: Engage diversity and difference in practice.
Social workers:
• apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;
• present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own experiences; and
• apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies. (CSWE, 2015)
The philosophical underpinnings of the book are rooted in an understanding of the value of diversity and difference. Social work advocates are shown, repeatedly, how to work with others by teaching them the skills of advocacy so that they can—whatever their age, class, color, culture, disability status, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, political ideology, race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation—work on their own behalf, for their own causes, in their own ways. The planning and advocacy processes employed throughout the book provide ways to ensure that oppressed, marginalized, alienated, and relatively powerless people can increase the odds that their needs will be met and their lives will be made easier.
Competency 3: Advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
Social workers:
• apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels; and
• engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice. (CSWE, 2015)
The entire book applies to competency 3. Chapter 2 covers in detail different conceptions of social, economic, and economic justice and the difference your views make in how you work as an advocate, at all levels of practice. Readers not only learn about these matters but also learn how to engage in evidencebased and practical advocacy efforts to achieve social, economic, and environmental justice.
Competency 4: Engage in practice-informed research and researchinformed practice.
Social workers:
• use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
• apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
• use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery. (CSWE, 2015)
Chapter 4 addresses this educational standard in particular. Titled “Understanding the Issue,” the material underscores how vital it is for social workers to conduct policy-related research in a credible, scientific manner.
The chapter highlights, as does Chapter 9, that the best social workers mix quantitative and qualitative approaches as they use practice experience to inform their research activities and also apply the lessons from research to their practice activities.
In addition, Chapters 3–10 present research-based information relating to advocacy practice, showing strong support for competency 4’s admonition to engage in research-informed practice. Besides Chapter 4, which is devoted to showing how to research an issue before moving to advocate a position, Chapter 5 emphasizes the importance of planning one’s efforts and using the theory inherent in one’s advocacy maps to understand the issues involved and the best methods to use when engaging in advocacy. Critical thinking skills are enhanced throughout the text.
Competency 5: Engage in policy practice.
Social workers:
• identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
• assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
• apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice. (CSWE, 2015)
The purpose of this book is to provide social work students with the information and skills needed to achieve this competency. Chapter 3 examines why advocates get involved, and Chapter 4 relates how to understand and thus identify social policies at every level that you might want to advocate for or against. This chapter also details how to understand the impact of policies in every way. Understanding the issue uses critical thinking skills and helps readers analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies in pursuit of social, economic, and environmental justice, all of which advance human rights.
Competency 6: Engage with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers:
• apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies; and
• use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies. (CSWE, 2015)
The importance of working with diverse clients in ways they find useful is stressed in the application chapters, as well as in Chapter 11. The problemsolving methodology of the unified model of advocacy practice allows social
workers to remember to use all the “direct practice” skills of empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to engage clients.
Competency 7: Assess individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers:
• collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies;
• apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
• develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies; and
• select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies. (CSWE, 2015)
The unified model of advocacy practice you learn in this book is operable at all levels because it is an extension of the generalist problem-solving model of social work. As noted in an extended vignette in Chapter 1, which contrasts Ms. Generalist social worker with Ms. Advocate social worker, both do many of the same things, such as assess, plan, negotiate, mediate, and advocate. Ms. Advocate, in contrast to Ms. Generalist, also adds advocacy and larger systems thinking and actions to her intervention. Chapter 3 is devoted to assessment, at whatever level of intervention is needed, especially in multiple levels from individual to international.
Competency 8: Intervene with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers:
• critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of clients and constituencies;
• apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies;
• use interprofessional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes;
• negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies; and
• facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreedon goals. (CSWE, 2015)
Chapters 5–8, on education, persuasion, negotiation, and electronic advocacy, provide detailed information for readers to apply related to human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other theoretical frameworks that apply to the topics. As a group, they allow practitioners to intervene, by choosing appropriate practice goals and then implementing carefully crafted plans, always with the goal of enhancing clients’ and constituencies’ skills and capacities.
Competency 9: Evaluate practice with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers:
• select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes;
• apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes;
• critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes; and
• apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. (CSWE, 2015)
Evaluation of advocacy is the sole focus of Chapter 9. Readers learn how to use the advocacy map planning tool described in Chapter 5 to assess the intervention and to analyze and learn from the successes and failures of the advocacy effort. Considerable information in this chapter describes measurement concepts and methods.
The model of advocacy practice described in this book follows this educational standard exactly, providing students and other readers the material to engage, assess, intervene, and evaluate in the context of advocacy practice. The student who completes this book will have an excellent grounding in the nine competencies required by the CSWE. An instructor who adopts this book will have a clearly enunciated connection with all nine core competencies of generalist social work practice. The program or school of social work that endorses this book will most likely find the reaffirmation process a bit easier.
