AHomefromHome?
ChildrenandSocialCareinVictorian andEdwardianBritain,1870–1920
CLAUDIASOARES
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Formyfamilywithlove
Preface
Acrossthesecondhalfofthetwentiethandearlytwenty-firstcenturies,abundant evidencepointstothegrowingnumberofchildreninaseeminglyunfitandfailing socialcaresystem.Fromasearlyasthe1940s,childrenininstitutionalfacilities werenotedtoexperiencepoorphysical,emotional,andculturalcare.Andthe numberofchildrenincarehascontinuedtorise:increasingpovertyamong familiesfromthe1980shasresultedinthegrowthofthenumberofchildren accommodatedinthesocialcaresystem.Intheearlytwenty-firstcentury,this numberhascontinuedtorise,yearonyear.¹Atthesametime,therehavebeen systematiclocalauthoritybudgetcutsforsocialcaredeliverywhichhaveresulted inseriousdeficitsinthequalityofchildren’scare.50percentoflocalauthorities havesocialcareservicesjudgedasinadequateorrequiringimprovementattheir lastinspection.²Additionally,thesectorisfacingsignificantchallengesinrecruitingandretainingsocialcarestaff.
Meanwhile,theoutcomesofcare-experiencedchildrenacrossthetwentiethand twenty-firstcenturieshavebeenpoorandareoftenduetothefailureofstate agenciestoprovideeffectivesupportthatmeetsindividualneeds.Throughoutthis period,care-experiencedyoungpeoplehavebeenconsistentlyover-represented inthehomelessandprisonpopulations.Bytheearlytwenty-firstcentury, figuresshowthatoverathirdofcareleavers(39percent)arenotineducation, employment,ortrainingcomparedto13percentofyoungpeopleagednineteen totwenty-oneyears.Only13percentofcareleaversprogresstohighereducation byagenineteencomparedto43percentofallotherpupils.³Childabuseinthe socialcaresystemremainsatopicalissuesince TheTimes journalistAndrew Norfolk’sinvestigationintochildsexualexploitationin2011–12.Thisinvestigationexposedtheinadequaciesofchildren’shomesinRochdaleandRotherham andtheirfailuretoprotectchildrenfromsexualabuse,whichhasprompted subsequentinquiriesthatinvestigatetheextentofthisabuse.
Itisagainstthisbackdropthatthisbookexaminestheemergenceanddevelopmentofchildwelfarepolicyandpracticeacrossthekeyperiodof1870–1920,to
¹DepartmentforEducation, ChildreninNeedCensus,2020[https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/children-in-need-census-2020-to-2021-guide],accessed24May2021;Departmentfor Education ChildrenLookedAfteron31March2020,SSDA903,2020[https://www.gov.uk/govern ment/publications/children-looked-after-return-2020-to-2021-guide],accessed24May2021.
²OfficeforNationalStatistics, MainFindings:Children’sSocialCareinEngland2020 and Local AuthorityLevelDataasat31March2020 [https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/childrens-socialcare-data-in-england-2020],accessed24May2021.
³See ‘Earlyplans,1March2021’ athttps://childrenssocialcare.independent-review.uk/.
betteridentifytheundulatingnatureofpolicyandpracticethathasoccurred sincethenacrossthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies.Ittracesandlocates anxietiesaboutchildren’scareandnurtureinwiderhistoricalcontext,atatime whenlegislationgaveagenciesgreaterpowertointerveneinfamilylifetosafeguardchildren.Atthistime,too,thequalityandnatureofchildren’ scarewas beingdebatedinParliament,whileinnovativechildcarepracticeswereimplementedinnon-stateinstitutions.Thisfocusprovidesuswithalongviewinwhich wecanmakebetterassessmentsaboutwhatmighthaveworkedwell(ornot) andwhy.Asthisbookdemonstrates,whilelegislation,policy,andpracticehas changedradicallyoverthelasttwocenturies,thereissignificantcontinuity betweentheissuesgrappledwithinthepastandinthepresent.
Thedeliveryofchildren’ssocialcareandchildren’sexperiencesofout-of-home carethusremainsoneofthemosturgentandpressingchallengesinsocietytoday. Thecompellingevidenceofanunfitsocialcaresystemhasresultedinarecent launchofamuchneededandlong-awaitedindependentreviewintochildren’ s socialcare,whichtheUKgovernmenthaslabelleda ‘onceinageneration opportunity’ toreformchildren’scareservices.⁴ Thisreviewexploreshowthe socialcaresystemmightworktoprovidechildrenwithafoundationofstability, safety,andnurturetoimproveoutcomesandexperiences.Care-experienced childrenandadultshaveuniformlyconfirmedthatthesefeaturesareessentialto helpthemachievetheirpotential,butaretooofteninconsistent,inadequate, orwhollyabsentinthecaresystem.⁵ Butquestionsabouthowtoprovidesafety, security,stability,nurture,andaffectiontochildrenincarehavealonghistory, andagencies’ attemptstoreplicatefamilialidealsincareprovisionarenotnew. Thisbooktracestheemergenceofthesequestionsandthesubsequentdebates, examineshowcareprovidersconceptualizedchildren’scareinthepast,and highlightstheofteninnovativeapproachesandpracticesadoptedbyagenciesin attemptstomanufactureanidealhomeandfamilyformsofcare.Bytakingthis longview,thebookoutlinestheshiftingideasaboutchildren’shomesandthe rolesthattheyshouldperform,whilealsouncoveringthewaysinwhichideas aboutnurtureunderpinnedcarepractices.Stability,safety,andnurture,then,are centralfeaturesofsocialcarethatthisbookinvestigates.Advancingknowledge abouttheseaspectsofwelfareprovisioncanhelptosetanewagendaaboutthe directionsthatsocialcarereformmighttakeinthefuturetohelpyoungpeople thrive.
⁴ https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/independent-review-of-childrens-social-care,announced 15January2021.
⁵ ScottishIndependentCareReview, ThePromise (5February2020)[https://www.carereview.scot/ conclusions/independent-care-review-reports/],accessed24May2021.
Acknowledgements
Ihavemanypeopletoacknowledgeinthemakingofthis,my firstbook.Icould nothavecompletedthisbookwithoutthe financialsupportofmanyinstitutions. IgratefullyacknowledgetheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(grantref AH/IO18344/1)forfundingmydoctoralresearchonwhichthisbookisbased, andtheWellcomeTrust(grantref200434/Z/16/Z),whichawardedmeagenerous granttoexpandmyresearchtoexplorenewavenuesrelatingtothecareof childrenwithillhealth.Finally,aBritishAcademyPostdoctoralFellowship (grantrefPF170088)hasbeenformativeingivingmethetimeandspaceto reworkandcompletethisbook.Partsofthisbookwerewrittenonthetraditional landsoftheGadigalpeopleoftheEoraNation,andthetraditionallands oftheDharawalpeople.VersionsofChapters4and6appearedin Journalof VictorianCulture,23:1(2018),pp.1–24and HistoryWorkshopJournal,87(2019), pp.94–117,respectively.
Ihavebeensofortunatein findingbothamentorandafriendinJulie-Marie Strange.Iamindebtedtoheronmanyaccounts,notleasthercontinuedsupport ofmywork.Insupervisingmydoctoralthesis,shehasbeenthegreatestandmost excellentinfluenceonmymethodsofresearchingandwriting.Sheremains unfailinglygenerousinhersupportofmyworkandmycareer,providing mewithincisivefeedback,guidance,andreassurance,whileinspiringmetobe imaginativeandcreativewhenIhaveneededitthemost.
SpecialthanksmustalsogotoMichaelSandersandCharlotteWildman,both ofwhomprovidedvaluablefeedbackonvariousdraftsofthiswork.Iamalso gratefultoLucyDelap,SashaHandley,andJaneHamlett,whocontinuetobe especiallysupportiveofmywork,andfortheirvaluableandconstructivefeedback thathasshapedthebook.Iamalsogratefultootherkindcolleaguesandfriends fortheirstimulatingconversationsandintellectualsupportatarangeofconferences,workshops,andbeyond.Theyhaveheardvariousiterationsofmyideasand throughtheirquestioning,feedback,andsupporthaveshapedmyworkinvarious ways.ThankyoutoAlisonBlunt,CasperLaingEbbensgaard,GingerFrost,Rachel Hammersley,RhodriHayward,KatherineHolden,KateJames,GillianLamb,Vicky Long,MaryClareMartin,CatherineNash,StephanieOlsen,AlastairOwens,Siân Pooley,SimonSleight,RebeccaSwartz,JonoTaylor,AnnieTindley,andLauraTisdall.
TheChildren’sSociety’samazingarchivesmadethisbookpossible.Iam particularlygratefultoIanWakeling,EdwardRatcliffe,HelenaHilton,Gabrielle St-JohnMcAlister,andRichardWilsonatTheChildren’sSocietyArchive.They havefacilitatedthiswork,providingmewithtime,support,andexpertisewhich
hasbeensovaluabletomyresearch.MymanuscripteditorCathrynSteeleat OxfordUniversityPresshasbeenimmenselysupportiveintakingthiswork throughfrominitialproposaltopublication.Theanonymousreadersallprovided judiciousandvaluablefeedbackandguidance,whichhashelpedtosharpenmy keyarguments.
Finally,Iamgratefultobothimmediateandextendedfamilywhohaveoffered theirenduringlove,support,andencouragementthroughoutthisprojectand beyond.Moreover,Iamincrediblythankfulfortheirwillingnesstooffercareto ourson,Percy,whenIneededit.Suchsupport somethingthatmanyparentsin thisbooklacked makesmerealizejusthowluckyIam.Iamespeciallygrateful forthelifetimeofsupportandlovefrommyparentsPenelopeandNelson.Ialso thanktheendlesssupport,love,andpatiencefrommyhusbandAdamandson Percy Iloveyoudearly.AllofmythanksgotoAlexandHarri,andSandra, Lee,Yas,andMia,andtheAbalosfamily.Myfriendshaveofferedboundless encouragementandlaughter:thankyouespeciallytoJess,Matt,andFrida,Jo, Bob,CoraandFinn,Alice,Henry,Connie,andGeorge,andRichard,Rebecca, Willa,andLyra.
1.ASubstituteFamily?Contracts,Authority,andApplications
4.FeelingatHome?Stability,Security,andHomelinessinthe
5.AnIdealLifeforaChild?Children
2.1KnebworthCottageHome,Stevenage,Herts,1894
2.2Nurseandbaby,StOswald’sHome,Cullercoats,1898
5.3GardeningatStAndrew’sHome,Reading,1902164
5.4ThegirlsofStNicholas’ withtheirgoat,StNicholas’ Home,Pyrford, c.1915168
5.5TheHarveyGoodwinHomefamily,1916169
5.6InthegardenofStMartin’sHome, c.1910170
5.7TalbotManor,1947 friends!171
ListofAbbreviations
CUTheChildren’sUnion
LSPCCLondonSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren
MABYSMetropolitanAssociationforBefriendingYoungServants
NCHNationalChildren’sHomes
NSPCCNationalSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren
OMCOddMinuteCoterie
OWS OurWaifsandStrays
WSSTheWaifsandStraysSociety
KnebworthCottageHome,Stevenage,Herts,1894
Matronandbaby, c.1885
ChristmascardtoMaudD.fromherbrother,26January1891
StMary’sHomeforGirls,diningroom, c.1915
MrsBaileyandherdog,StAndrew’sHome, c.1901
Girlsdoinglaundrywork,StMary’sHome,Herefordshire, c.1920
‘Atthebeach’,unknownhome, c.1915
StAidan’sHomeforBoys, c.1918
Boywithtinsoldiers,WorsleyHome, c.1916
‘TheMerryMaidsofMarylebone’,1893
ThegirlsofStNicholas’ withtheirgoat,StNicholas’ Home,Pyrford, c.1915
TheHarveyGoodwinHomefamily,1916
Prologue
Inthesummerof1905,two-year-oldLucyL.wasadmittedtotheWaifsandStrays Society(theWSS),acharitablewelfareinstitutionthatprovidedhomestooutcast, destitute,andfriendlesschildren.¹Likemanyotherchildreninresidentialcare, Lucywasnotanorphan.Herfather,anarmyofficer,haddiedshortlyafterher birthin1903andhermotherhadsubsequentlystruggledtosupportthefamily. Lucy’smotherremarriedin1904,perhapsinthehopeofachievinggreater financialstability.Butbythesummerof1905,shewasinstraitenedcircumstances:shehadrecentlygivenbirthtoababyboy,George,andhadseparated fromherhusband.Tosurvive,Lucyandherfour-year-oldbrotherCharleswere receivedintoWSScare.²Lucylivedwithafosterfamilyfortenyears:Kateand RobertCheney,bothfarmersinSuffolk,andtheirthreechildren.Lucyattended thelocaldayandSundayschoolsandsharedabedroomwithoneofthefamily’ s biologicaldaughters.AWSSinspectordescribedLucyasabrightandkindchild andherschoolteachersaidshewashard-working,anxioustoplease,truthful,and honest.
Whenshereachedthirteen,theSocietyarrangedtotransferLucytooneoftheir largerhomes,StWinifred ’sinClapham,tobetrainedfordomesticservice.Kate wassadtopartwithher:shedelayedLucy’sdepartureforaweeksothatshecould buysomepersonalbelongingsforher.³LucylefttheircareinOctober1916,but Katefounditimpossibletostopthinkingabouther.InMay1917,shewrotetothe SocietytorequestthatLucyreturnhomeandberaisedasoneofherown.⁴ The matronatStWinifred ’sagreedthatLucywoulddowelltoreturntoKate:she hadstillnotsettledintotheinstitutionalhomeandherprogresswiththeCheney familyhadbeendecidedlybetterincomparison.⁵ Despitethematron’ srecommendations,theexecutivecommitteebelievedthatLucyhadenjoyed ‘toomuch freedom ’ withherfosterfamily,andbecauseherprogressatStWinifred’shad notbeensatisfactorytheymovedhertoasmallerhome,StBarnabas ’sin Lincolnshire.LucybeganworkingattheSociety’sStUrsula’sHomeinJuly 1918,andthematronnotedLucywas ‘anxioustostayhere’ becauseofher ‘fondnessoftheotherchildren’ . ⁶ Butthefollowingmonth,Lucy’smother
¹Case file11069.²Case file11070.
³Case file11069,letterfromK.CheneytoWSS,October1916.
⁴ Case file11069,letterfromK.CheneytoWSS,May1917.
⁵ Case file11069,reportonLucyL,May1917.
⁶ Case file11069,letterfromStUrsula’smatrontoWSS,14/8/1918.
