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Acknowledgments

Intellectualworkis,atitsbest,acollectiveenterprise.Ineditingthisanthology,I benefitedfromthevaluablecommentsandsuggestionsofmanycolleaguesaroundthe countryIwouldliketothankDeanBirkenkampatParadigmforhisenthusiasticsupport forthisneweditionandhispersistenceinhelpinggetitofftheground.Iamespecially gratefultoallofthebook’scontributors,whoseresearchandwritingonworkersandthe workplacemadethisanthologypossible.

LinkingMicroandMacroinSociologicalStudiesofWork

Likethefieldofsociologyasawhole,teachingandscholarshipinthesociologyofwork reflectarangeofapproaches,whichtypicallyhavebeencharacterizedaseithermicroor macroMicro-levelapproachestendtofocusonindividualsorsmallgroupsina particularworkplaceandexamineprocessesoroutcomesthatoperateattheselevelsof analysisThoughmicro-levelresearchisbynomeansallethnographic,manyofthese researcherspreferqualitativemethodologiesthatallowforclose,in-depthscrutinyof particularsocialphenomena.Indeed,thereisalongandrichtraditionofmicro-level, ethnographicresearchinthesociologyofworkThisresearchhasprovideduseful accountsofmanyjobs,offeringstudentsawaytovicariouslyexperiencelifeasaworker inamachineshop,amedicalstudent,aflightattendant,oranemployeeofMcDonald’s (Roy1959;Becker,Geer,Hughes,andStrauss1961;Hochschild1983;Leidner1993).

Incontrast,macro-levelstudiesinthesociologyofworktendtobelessconcerned withworkers’experiencesandmoreattentivetolargerprocesses,trends,andoutcomes Studiesofthistypetypicallyanalyzedatacollectedfromrepresentativesamplesof people,jobs,orworkplacesandseektoidentifypatternsandrelationshipsbetweenkey variables.Macro-levelresearchthusisoftenquantitative,drivenbythedesiretotest hypothesesorproducegeneralizableresultsSociologicalstudiesofwagedetermination, forexample,attempttoexplainwhatfactorsdeterminethe“worth”ofjobsandaccount forwhysomejobscommandhigherwagesthanothers(Tomaskovic-Devey1993).

Microandmacroresearchtraditionsareoftenperceivedasdistinct,andsometimes evenconflicting,approaches.Coursesinthesociologyofworkhavethussometimes emphasizedoneortheother,butnotbothIdeally,however,microandmacrostudies shouldinformoneanother,asnosingleapproachcaneveraddresseverything. Moreover,inmyview,importantsociologicalquestionscannotbeansweredbyonlyone typeofstudyorapproachForexample,tounderstandtheroleofraceintheworkplace weneedbothfine-grained,ethnographicstudiesandlarge-scale,quantitativeanalyses. Theformercanhelpusunderstandsuchissuesasworkers’experiencesofdiscrimination (e.g.,Wingfield2010),whilethelattermayaddresssuchquestionsastheracialgapin earningsorthestructureandconsequencesofracialsegregationintheworkplace (StainbackandTomaskovic-Devey2012)Thisviewisreflectedinthisanthology,asit incorporatesstudiesemployingdiversemethodologiesandapproaches.Bystudyingboth themicroandthemacrodimensionsofwork,wecanbegintoseehowworkisshaped byitssocialcontextand,conversely,howworkplacedynamicsmayshapethelarger society.

WorkandSociety

Viewingworkthroughasociologicallensenablesconsiderationofthevariedwaysin whichworkandsocietyinterrelate.Forexample,attheindividuallevel,workshapes identity,values,andbeliefs,aswellasahostofotheroutcomesrangingfrommentaland physicalhealthtopoliticalattitudes.Negativehealthconsequenceshavebeenassociated withworkingtoomanyhoursorworkingtoofew,andbothextremesarecommoninthe currenteconomicera(JacobsandGerson2004).Formanyprofessionalsormanagers, workisa“greedy”institution,withever-increasingdemandsonpeople’stime,emotional energies,andcommitments(Moen,Lam,Ammons,andKelly2013)Forothers,workis precariousandinsecure.Alackofaccesstoemploymentcreatesitsownsetofproblems, especiallyforUSworkerswhodependonemployersforaccesstoinsuranceandother typesofbenefits(Kalleberg2011).

Oneoftenoverlookedfeatureofworkisthatittypicallybringspeopleintocontact withotherscoworkers,subordinates,supervisors,and,increasinglyformany,the public.Socialinteractionandintergrouprelationsarejustasimportantintheworkplace astheyareinothersocialarenasAnearly,influentialsociologicalstudyfirstcalled attentiontothewaysthatthesocialrelationsofworkshapedworkers’reactionstotheir jobs(Mayo1933)Forcontemporaryresearchers,thisinsightisreflectedinstudiesof workteams,coworkerrelations,andespeciallyinteractionsbetweenworkersandtheir clientsandcustomers(Lopez2010).Thecontentandqualityofworkplacerelationships matterforunderstandingtheconsequencesandsignificanceofworkWorkplacesare settingsinwhichbothexpressiveandinstrumentaltiesbetweenpeopleareimportant, notonlyforunderstandingworkers’responsestotheirjobs,butalsoforunderstanding thebroaderwaysinwhichworkshapesmeaningsandlifeexperience.

Althoughtheworkplacehasneverbeentrulyseparatefromothersocietalinstitutions andtrends,itsinterdependencewiththelargerenvironmenthasperhapsneverbeen greater.Societalchanges,suchaswomen’srisinglaborforceparticipation,declining birthrates,andchanginggenderroles,havetransformedrelationsbetweenfamiliesand work.Jugglingworkandfamilycommitmentsisachallengeforfamiliesacrossthe occupationalspectrumandhasdrawnattentionfromemployersandpolicy-makers throughouttheindustrializedworld(MoenandRoehling2005)Technologyhasalso contributedtochangedrelationsbetweenworkandnonwork.Byenablingpeopleto workanytime,anywhere,mobiledeviceshavehelpedtoblur,ifnotcompletely eliminate,theboundariesbetweenthesetworealms(Perlow2012).Thesetrendshave pushedsociologiststodevelopnewconceptualapproachestounderstandingrelations betweenworkandotherinstitutions.Thefieldhasmovedawayfromrigiddichotomies, suchaspublicandprivateorimpersonalandpersonal,thatcompartmentalizedworkand familylifetowardmorecomplexportrayalsofthesesocialinstitutionsandthosewho

Roy,Donald1959“‘BananaTime’:JobSatisfactionandInformalInteraction”Human Organization18:158–168.

Stainback,Kevin,andDonaldTomaskovic-Devey.2012.DocumentingDesegregation: RacialandGenderSegregationinPrivate-SectorEmploymentSincetheCivilRightsAct NewYork:RussellSage.

Tomaskovic-Devey,Donald.1993.GenderandRacialInequalityatWork.Ithaca,NY:ILR Press

Toossi,Mitra.2012.“LaborForceProjectionsto2020:AMoreSlowlyGrowingLabor Force”MonthlyLaborReview135:43–64

USBureauofLaborStatistics2012TheRecessionof2007–2009Retrievedfrom: http://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2012/recession/pdf/recessionblsspotlight.pdf.

Wingfield,AdiaHarvey2010“AreSomeEmotionsMarked‘WhitesOnly’?Racialized FeelingRulesinProfessionalWorkplaces.”SocialProblems57:251–268.

Wood,CatherineA.2014.“UnemploymentContinuedItsDownwardTrendin2013.” Monthly Labor Review Retrieved from: http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2014/article/unemployment-continued-its-downwardtrend-in-2013.htm.

PartI

ConceptualFoundations

AlienatedLabour

KarlMarx

Wehaveproceededfromthepremisesofpoliticaleconomy.Wehaveacceptedits languageanditslaws.Wepresupposedprivateproperty,theseparationoflabor,capital andland,andofwages,profitofcapitalandrentofland likewisedivisionoflabor, competition,theconceptofexchangevalue,etc.Onthebasisofpoliticaleconomyitself, initsownwords,wehaveshownthattheworkersinkstothelevelofacommodityand becomesindeedthemostwretchedofcommodities;thatthewretchednessoftheworker isininverseproportiontothepowerandmagnitudeofhisproduction;thatthenecessary resultofcompetitionistheaccumulationofcapitalinafewhands,andthusthe restorationofmonopolyinamoreterribleform;andthatfinallythedistinctionbetween capitalistandlandlord,likethatbetweenthefarmerandthefactoryworker,disappears andthatthewholeofsocietymustfallapartintothetwoclassespropertyownersand propertylessworkers. Politicaleconomystartswiththefactofprivateproperty;itdoesnotexplainittousIt expressesingeneral,abstractformulasthematerialprocessthroughwhichprivate propertyactuallypasses,andtheseformulasitthentakesforlawsItdoesnot comprehendtheselawsi.e.,itdoesnotdemonstratehowtheyarisefromthevery natureofprivatepropertyPoliticaleconomythrowsnolightonthecauseofthedivision betweenlaborandcapital,andbetweencapitalandland.When,forexample,itdefines therelationshipofwagestoprofit,ittakestheinterestofthecapitaliststobethe ultimatecause,ie,ittakesforgrantedwhatitissupposedtoexplainSimilarly, competitioncomesineverywhere.Itisexplainedfromexternalcircumstances.Asto howfartheseexternalandapparentlyaccidentalcircumstancesarebuttheexpressionof anecessarycourseofdevelopment,politicaleconomyteachesusnothing.Wehaveseen howexchangeitselfappearstoitasanaccidentalfact.Theonlywheelswhichpolitical economysetsinmotionaregreed,andthewaramongthegreedy,competition Preciselybecausepoliticaleconomydoesnotgraspthewaythemovementis connected,itwaspossibletooppose,forinstance,thedoctrineofcompetitiontothe doctrineofmonopoly,thedoctrineofcraftfreedomtothedoctrineoftheguild,the doctrineofthedivisionoflandedpropertytothedoctrineofthebigestate.For competition,freedomofthecraftsandthedivisionoflandedpropertywereexplained andcomprehendedonlyasaccidental,premeditatedandviolentconsequencesof monopoly,oftheguildsystem,andoffeudalproperty,notastheirnecessary,inevitable andnaturalconsequences.

Now,therefore,wehavetograsptheintrinsicconnectionbetweenprivateproperty,

production

Tillnowwehavebeenconsidering,thealienationoftheworkeronlyinoneofits aspects,ie,theworker’srelationshiptotheproductsofhislaborButtheestrangement ismanifestednotonlyintheresultbutintheactofproduction,withintheproducing activity,itself.Howcouldtheworkercometofacetheproductofhisactivityasa stranger,wereitnotthatintheveryactofproductionhewasestranginghimselffrom himself?Theproductisafterallbutthesummaryoftheactivity,ofproduction.Ifthen theproductoflaborisalienation,productionitselfmustbeactivealienation,the alienationofactivity,theactivityofalienation.Intheestrangementoftheobjectoflabor ismerelythesummaryofthealienation,intheactivityoflaboritself.

What,then,constitutestheexternalizationandalienationoflabor?

First,thefactthatlaborisexternaltotheworker,i.e.,itdoesnotbelongtohisintrinsic nature;thatinhiswork,therefore,hedoesnotaffirmhimselfbutdenieshimself,does notfeelcontentbutunhappy,doesnotdevelopfreelyhisphysicalandmentalenergybut mortifieshisbodyandruinshismind.Theworkerthereforeonlyfeelshimselfoutside hiswork,andinhisworkfeelsoutsidehimselfHefeelsathomewhenheisnot working,andwhenheisworkinghedoesnotfeelathome.Hislaboristhereforenot voluntary,butcoerced;itisforcedlaborItisthereforenotthesatisfactionofaneed;itis merelyameanstosatisfyneedsexternaltoit.Itsaliencharacteremergesclearlyinthe factthatassoonasnophysicalorothercompulsionexists,laborisshunnedlikethe plagueExternallabor,laborinwhichmanalienateshimself,isalaborofself-sacrifice, ofmortification.Lastly,theexternalcharacteroflaborfortheworkerappearsinthefact thatitisnothisown,butsomeoneelse’s,thatitdoesnotbelongtohim,thatinithe belongs,nottohimself,buttoanother.Justasinreligionthespontaneousactivityofthe humanimagination,ofthehumanbrainandthehumanheart,operatesontheindividual independentlyofhimthatis,operatesasanalien,divineordiabolicalactivitysoisthe worker’sactivitynothisspontaneousactivity.Itbelongstoanother;itisthelossofhis self

Asaresult,therefore,man(theworker)onlyfeelshimselffreelyactiveinhisanimal functionseating,drinking,procreating,oratmostinhisdwellingandinhisdress;and inhishumanfunctionshenolongerfeelshimselftobeanythingbutananimal.Whatis animalbecomeshumanandwhatishumanbecomesanimal.

Certainlyeating,drinking,procreating,etc,arealsogenuinelyhumanfunctionsBut takenabstractly,separatedfromthesphereofallotherhumanactivityandturnedinto soleandultimateends,theyareanimalfunctions

Wehaveconsideredtheactofestrangingpracticalhumanactivity,labor,intwoofits aspects.

(1)Therelationoftheworkertotheproductoflaborasanalienobjectexercising poweroverhim.Thisrelationisatthesametimetherelationtothesensuousexternal world,totheobjectsofnature,asanalienworldinimicallyopposedtohim

(2)Therelationoflabortotheactofproductionwithinthelaborprocess.Thisrelation istherelationoftheworkertohisownactivityasanalienactivitynotbelongingtohim;

itisactivityassuffering,strengthasweakness,begettingasemasculating,theworker’s ownphysicalandmentalenergy,hispersonallifeforwhatislifebutactivity?asan activitywhichisturnedagainsthim,independentofhimandnotbelongingtohimHere wehaveself-alienation,aspreviouslywehadthealienationofthething.

Wehavestillathirdaspectofestrangedlabortodeducefromthetwoalready considered

Manisaspecies-being[3],notonlybecauseinpracticeandintheoryheadoptsthe species(hisownaswellasthoseofotherthings)ashisobject,butandthisisonly anotherwayofexpressingitalsobecausehetreatshimselfastheactual,livingspecies; becausehetreatshimselfasauniversalandthereforeafreebeing.

Thelifeofthespecies,bothinmanandinanimals,consistsphysicallyinthefactthat man(liketheanimal)livesfrominorganicnature;andthemoreuniversalman(orthe animal)is,themoreuniversalisthesphereofinorganicnatureonwhichhelivesJustas plants,animals,stones,air,light,etc.,constitutetheoreticallyapartofhuman consciousness,partlyasobjectsofnaturalscience,partlyasobjectsofarthisspiritual inorganicnature,spiritualnourishmentwhichhemustfirstpreparetomakepalatable anddigestiblesoalsointherealmofpracticetheyconstituteapartofhumanlifeand humanactivityPhysicallymanlivesonlyontheseproductsofnature,whetherthey appearintheformoffood,heating,clothes,adwelling,etc.Theuniversalityofman appearsinpracticepreciselyintheuniversalitywhichmakesallnaturehisinorganic bodybothinasmuchasnatureis(1)hisdirectmeansoflife,and(2)thematerial,the object,andtheinstrumentofhislifeactivity.Natureisman’sinorganicbodynature, thatis,insofarasitisnotitselfhumanbodyManlivesonnature meansthatnatureis hisbody,withwhichhemustremainincontinuousinterchangeifheisnottodie.That man ’sphysicalandspirituallifeislinkedtonaturemeanssimplythatnatureislinkedto itself,formanisapartofnature.

Inestrangingfromman(1)nature,and(2)himself,hisownactivefunctions,hislife activity,estrangedlaborestrangesthespeciesfrommanItchangesforhimthelifeofthe speciesintoameansofindividuallife.Firstitestrangesthelifeofthespeciesand individuallife,andsecondlyitmakesindividuallifeinitsabstractformthepurposeof thelifeofthespecies,likewiseinitsabstractandalienatedform.

Forlabor,lifeactivity,productivelifeitself,appearstomaninthefirstplacemerelyas ameansofsatisfyinganeedtheneedtomaintainphysicalexistenceYettheproductive lifeisthelifeofthespecies.Itislife-engenderinglife.Thewholecharacterofaspecies, itsspecies-character,iscontainedinthecharacterofitslifeactivity;andfree,conscious activityisman’sspecies-character.Lifeitselfappearsonlyasameanstolife.

TheanimalisimmediatelyonewithitslifeactivityItdoesnotdistinguishitselffrom it.Itisitslifeactivity.Manmakeshislifeactivityitselftheobjectofhiswillandofhis consciousness.Hehasconsciouslifeactivity.Itisnotadeterminationwithwhichhe directlymergesConsciouslifeactivitydistinguishesmanimmediatelyfromanimallife activity.Itisjustbecauseofthisthatheisaspecies-being.Oritisonlybecauseheisa

Theestrangementofman,andinfacteveryrelationshipinwhichman[stands]to himself,isrealizedandexpressedonlyintherelationshipinwhichamanstandstoother men

Hencewithintherelationshipofestrangedlaboreachmanviewstheotherin accordancewiththestandardandtherelationshipinwhichhefindshimselfasaworker.

Wetookourdeparturefromafactofpoliticaleconomytheestrangementoftheworker andhisproduction.Wehaveformulatedthisfactinconceptualtermsasestranged, alienatedlabor.Wehaveanalyzedthisconcepthenceanalyzingmerelyafactof politicaleconomy

Letusnowsee,further,howtheconceptofestranged,alienatedlabormustexpress andpresentitselfinreallife

Iftheproductoflaborisalientome,ifitconfrontsmeasanalienpower,towhom, then,doesitbelong?

Toabeingotherthanmyself

Whoisthisbeing?

Thegods?Tobesure,intheearliesttimestheprincipalproduction(forexample,the buildingoftemples,etc.,inEgypt,IndiaandMexico)appearstobeintheserviceofthe gods,andtheproductbelongstothegodsHowever,thegodsontheirownwerenever thelordsoflabor.Nomorewasnature.Andwhatacontradictionitwouldbeif,the moremansubjugatednaturebyhislaborandthemorethemiraclesofthegodswere renderedsuperfluousbythemiraclesofindustry,themoremanhadtorenouncethejoy ofproductionandtheenjoymentoftheproducttopleasethesepowers.

Thealienbeing,towhomlaborandtheproductoflaborbelongs,inwhoseservice laborisdoneandforwhosebenefittheproductoflaborisprovided,canonlybeman himself.

Iftheproductoflabordoesnotbelongtotheworker,ifitconfrontshimasanalien power,thenthiscanonlybebecauseitbelongstosomeothermanthantheworker.If theworker’sactivityisatormenttohim,toanotheritmustgivesatisfactionand pleasure.Notthegods,notnature,butonlymanhimselfcanbethisalienpowerover man.

Wemustbearinmindthepreviouspropositionthatman’srelationtohimself becomesforhimobjectiveandactualthroughhisrelationtotheotherman.Thus,ifthe productofhislabor,hislaborobjectified,isforhimanalien,hostile,powerfulobject independentofhim,thenhispositiontowardsitissuchthatsomeoneelseismasterof thisobject,someonewhoisalien,hostile,powerful,andindependentofhim.Ifhetreats hisownactivityasanunfreeactivity,thenhetreatsitasanactivityperformedinthe service,underthedominion,thecoercion,andtheyokeofanotherman.

Everyself-estrangementofman,fromhimselfandfromnature,appearsintherelation inwhichheplaceshimselfandnaturetomenotherthananddifferentiatedfromhimself. Forthisreasonreligiousself-estrangementnecessarilyappearsintherelationshipofthe laymantothepriest,oragaintoamediator,etc.,sinceweareheredealingwiththe

intellectualworldIntherealpracticalworldself-estrangementcanonlybecome manifestthroughtherealpracticalrelationshiptoothermen.Themediumthrough whichestrangementtakesplaceisitselfpractical.Thusthroughalienatedlabormannot onlycreateshisrelationshiptotheobjectandtotheactofproductionasalienand hostiletohim;healsocreatestherelationshipinwhichothermenstandtohis productionandtohisproduct,andtherelationshipinwhichhestandstotheseother men.Justashecreateshisownproductionasthelossofhisreality,ashispunishment; hisownproductasaloss,asaproductnotbelongingtohim;sohecreatesthe dominationofthepersonwhodoesnotproduceoverproductionandovertheproduct. Justasheestrangeshisownactivityfromhimself,soheconfersuponthestrangeran activitywhichisnothisown

Wehaveuntilnowconsideredthisrelationshiponlyfromthestandpointofthe workerandlateronweshallbeconsideringitalsofromthestandpointofthenonworker.

Throughestranged,alienatedlabor,then,theworkerproducestherelationshiptothis laborofamanalientolaborandstandingoutsideitTherelationshipoftheworkerto laborcreatestherelationtoitofthecapitalist(orwhateveronechoosestocallthe masteroflabor)Privatepropertyisthustheproduct,theresult,thenecessary consequence,ofalienatedlabor,oftheexternalrelationoftheworkertonatureandto himself.

Privatepropertythusresultsfromtheanalysisoftheconceptofalienatedlabor,ie,of alienatedman,ofexternalizedlabor,ofestrangedlife,ofestrangedman.

True,itisasaresultofthemovementofprivatepropertythatwehaveobtainedthe conceptofalienatedlabor(ofalienatedlife)inpoliticaleconomy.Butonanalysisofthis conceptitbecomesclearthatthoughprivatepropertyappearstobethereason,thecause ofalienatedlabor,itisratheritsconsequence,justasthegodsareoriginallynotthe causebuttheeffectofman’sintellectualconfusion.Laterthisrelationshipbecomes reciprocal

Notes

1Marx,stillusingHegel’sterminologyandhisapproachtotheunityoftheopposites,counterposestheterm “Verwirklichung”(realisation)to“Entwirklichung”(lossofrealisation).

2.InthismanuscriptMarxfrequentlyusestwosimilarGermanterms,“Entäusserung”and“Entfremdung,”to expressthenotionof“alienation”Inthepresenteditiontheformerisgenerallytranslatedas“alienation,” thelatteras“estrangement,”becauseinthelatereconomicworks(TheoriesofSurplus-Value)Marxhimself usedtheword“alienation”astheEnglishequivalentoftheterm“Entäusserung”

3Theterm“species-being”(Gattungswesen)isderivedfromLudwigFeuerbach’sphilosophywhereitisapplied tomanandmankindasawhole

2 Bureaucracy