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Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, Online ISSN 2278-8808, SJIF 2018 = 6.371, www.srjis.com PEER REVIEWED JOURNAL, NOV-DEC, 2018, VOL- 6/48 HARNESSING LIFE SKILLS FOR ENHANCING LIFE COMPETENCIES OF SLUM YOUTH M. V. Sudhakaran1, Ph. D. & Sunitha Nath2 1 Head & Professor, School of Social Sciences, Tamil Nadu Open University, Saidapet, Chennai- 600015. Tamil Nadu 2 PhD Research Scholar, Reg. No.7617, Manonmaniam Sndarnar University, Abishekapatti, Tirunelveli -627012 Tamil Nadu Abstract The Indian National Youth Policy (2014) emphasizes the need to empower the youth of the country to achieve their full potential, and become change agents contributing to full participation and progress in life. Youth are crucial stakeholders and they must be endowed with skills and competencies to thrive in the 21st century. Research evidences prove that life skills training (LST) is an important tool fostering healthy developmental transitions into adulthood. Life Skills enables an individual to adapt to situations and people and helps to lead a healthy and positive life. The main objective of this study was to assess the level of life skills before and after intervention among youth (women) who are coming from slums, are first generation learners and possess the zest to be successful in life. The current study is a quasi-experimental one, with pre-test and post-test design without control group, on a sample of (n=42) women youth. A four day life skills training of 6 hours per day, totaling to 24 hours was carried out, adopting the 10 core Life Skills as laid down by World Health Organisation. Appropriate learner centric training methods were used. The results confirm that Life Skills Training has a significant impact on enhancing their global Life Skill levels and also the categories of Life Skills namely, their social, thinking and coping skill levels, before and after training intervention, thereby enhancing their life competencies. More number of studies may be carried out among youth, especially those disadvantaged who have fewer choices. Keywords: life skills training, life skills, slum youth

Scholarly Research Journal's is licensed Based on a work at www.srjis.com Main text Introduction The holistic Vision for Youth as stated in the National Youth Policy (NYP-2014) of India, is ―to empower the youth of the country to achieve their full potential, and through them enable India to find its rightful place in the community of nations‖. The prime agenda of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to end poverty, reduce inequality and protect the planet by 2030. The UNDP 2017 report states that among the 169 SDG targets, over onethird, highlight the role of young people and the importance of their empowerment, participation, and well-being. Youth, in all counties are the major human resources and change agents contributing to progress, of which ‗their well being‘ is an important state. Youth certainly are crucial stakeholders, active participants in society representing a substantial percentage of the future global workforce. The working population of India, is expected to increase to 592 million by 2020, next only to China (776 million), pointing to the fact that youth will make a significant contribution to the economic development of the country. This workforce should be one that is employable possessing the competencies to thrive in the 21st century. To empower youth and move towards a sustainable future, it is Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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essential to build their capacities, facilitate them to face challenges, reach for their dreams and be successful. The needs & concerns of youth vary across continents, countries and states. This is particularly significant when it comes to disadvantaged, marginalized, youth at risk, and or vulnerable youth who are in need of different interventions for a better quality of life and safer one. Early intervention prevents the onset of delinquent behavior and supports the development of youth‘s assets and resilience. Vulnerable youth and those from disadvantaged backgrounds require special attention and tailor made programs to address their concerns and empower them for sustainable development. The prime objectives and vision of the Indian Government as laid down in the National Youth Policy 2014, is to create a productive workforce that can make a sustainable contribution to the country‘s economic development and be gainfully employed. Also, the mandate is to develop a strong and healthy generation equipped to take on future challenges. However, The Indian Skill Report (2016) points out that only 33% of the youth are employable and this is a point of concern. The National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 is a step towards this and aims to provide an umbrella framework to all skilling activities being carried out within the country, and to align these to common standards and link skilling with demand centres. The skilling of youth and building their capacities must go hand in hand with the unparalleled challenges – social, economic & environmental as also along with the fast paced globalization that is taking place. The question that may arise is- what is the knowledge that will be required by this cohort?; what generic and specific skills would they require? Today‘s children, adolescents, youth and all people, young or old, must be aware of the multi-faceted challenges, its nature, the skills required to combat it, handle daily life situations, be prepared for the new jobs that the future throws open, think differently, become good problem solvers and find suitable solutions. In order to craft such a generation of youth that is resilient, skilled, educated, employable, happy, healthy (physically and psychologically), having a work-life balance and healthy life style, they should be equipped with not only education that is accessible, domain /shared knowledge and employability skills, but also psychosocial skills called life skills which will help them to face the challenges of the present and future and enhance their life competencies. Life Skills Life Skills are psycho social skills that enable individuals to thrive and succeed in today‘s competitive world and adapt to environments in which we live which may be behavioural, cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal (Madhu Singh 2001). The fundamental meaning that resonates is they are skills that address the knowledge, attitude and behaviour components and that which are vital for holistic development of the individual. Just as any other skill (literacy, language skills, recreational skills, vocational, employability skills), life skills can be sharpened provided we consciously practice them. They are complimentary to other skills. Conscious use of life skills can be seen as a comprehensive behavior change approach that concentrates on the development of the skills needed for life such as communication, decision making, thinking, managing emotions, assertiveness, self regulation, self esteem building, handing peer pressure, emotions and relationships to name a Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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few. Effective acquisition of Life Skills can influence the way one feels about oneself and others, become more aware, enhance one's productivity, efficacy, self-esteem and selfconfidence. Life skills are described as both cognitive and non-cognitive skills that help individuals to navigate through the challenges of life for a smooth transition from one stage to another. They help us lead a better life in terms of ‗quality‘. Life Skills systematically attempts to build skills for healthy behavior. Life Skills as competencies for the 21st century The term competency and skills are sometimes used interchangeably, but both have different meanings. A skill is seen as the ability to perform tasks and solve problems, while a competency is seen as the ability to apply learning outcomes adequately in a defined context (education, work, personal or professional development). So here, when we discuss about life skills, it embodies the characteristics of both skills and competency—Life skills as defined by the World Health Organisation is an ability to do something (skill) and when an individual imbibes the life skills through internalization and puts it to conscious practice in the form of positive behaviour, it transcends to competency. According to the OECD, ―A competency is more than just knowledge or skills. It involves the ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources (including skills and attitudes) in a particular context. For example, the ability to communicate effectively is a competence that may draw on an individual‘s knowledge of language, practical IT skills and attitudes towards those with whom he or she is communicating.‖ (OECD, 2003, p. 4). Life skills training and or education foster all of the above. Life skills are inherent in each one of us and its practice helps us to live our life effectively. Enhancement of psychosocial competencies is must for adolescents for a healthy transition to adulthood (Vranda & Rao, 2007). These key competencies are useful for not only adolescents or youth but every individual in order to face the challenges and also to live a happy life. ‘At-risk’ Youth In a broad sense, a youth ‗at-risk‘, is one who faces threats to a successful transition into adulthood. There are various globally acceptable indicators that have been listed to group youth that fit the said criteria. Some of the indicators are, chronic poverty, single parent, broken homes, poor parenting skills, large family, poor schools, bad grades, bad neighbours, negative peer influence, minority status, low birth weight, substance use by self or caregiver and poor social skills. Most of the stated indicators are very much prevalent in slum youth and hence addressing the issues and needs is important. The Human Development Report 2014, in the Occasional Paper titled, Youth Vulnerabilities in Life Course Transitions, essays that poverty remains as the gravest threats to development and its effect is the most. Poverty is associated with a range of specific risks, such as malnutrition, environmental toxins and overcrowding (Wachs and Rahman 2013). Other highlighting points are that food shortage at age 12 is associated with a range of impacts three years later. These include lower cognitive achievement and lower subjective well-being at age 15. Youth vulnerabilities can thus manifest in numerous ways, including through impaired physical growth, low levels of selfefficacy and well-being, irregularities in behaviour, and/or reduced capabilities for employment, interpersonal relationships and citizenship. Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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This goes to further strengthen the argument that life skills, life skills training and or life skills education as an intervention are important to shape children, adolescents, youth, inparticular vulnerable youth, adults and old people for a better fruitful and more successful life. Method Participants This study aims to explore the level of life skills before and after intervention among a group of youth, (women), who possess the quest for good education, be gainfully employed and proud to be first generation learners. The study also examines the pre and post test scores of youth with regard to categories of life skills such as social, thinking and coping skill levels. In order to realize the objectives, a quasi-experimental pre -post design without control group was adopted. The participants were 18-25 year old youth, (youth as defined by National Youth Policy 2014), all young women, pursuing their I/II/ III year degree in Arts and Science streams of private colleges of Chennai city. The youth had enrolled for a short term computer class at ANEW- Association for Non-traditional Employment for Women, in Chennai, to enhance their employability opportunities. The life skills training was conducted before the commencement of their short term computer classes. Purposive sampling was adopted for the study. The total sample size was (n=42). The sample matched the inclusion criteria such as poor living conditions, coming from broken homes, single parenting, substance abuse by parent, low family income, crowded homes, uneducated or low levels of education by parents and low access to basic needs. The group received life skills training focusing on the five basic areas of life skills identified by WHO Department of Mental Health (1999) , that are relevant across cultures self-awareness and empathy  communication and interpersonal skills  creative thinking and critical thinking  decision-making and problem-solving  Coping with emotions and coping with stress. The total duration of the intervention was 24 hours, carried out for 6 hours a day for 4 consecutive days. A standardized Life Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS) by Nair et al.(2010) was used before and after the training program, to measure the level of life skills. The data were analysed using SPSS software and the level of significance was set at 0.05. Paired t-test was used to compare the pre and post test scores before and after the training. Instrument used Life Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS) A standardized Life Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS) by Nair.A.R,, R. Subasree & S. Ranjan (2010) was used for this study. It is a multidimensional scale with 100 items in the form of statements with a five point Likert scale, for responses ranging from 5 = Always true of me, Very true of me, Sometimes true of me, Occasionally true of me and 1=Not at all true of me. The scale assesses 10 core life skills defined by World Health Organisation (WHO). It has both positive and negative items. The LSAS reliability coefficient through split half method Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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was 0.82, through Test-Retest method it was 0.91 and the Cronbach Alpha score was 0.84. Face, content and criterion validity were established for this tool. Life Skills Training (LST) Intervention Life skills training is an important tool fostering healthy developmental transitions into adulthood. Various studies on LST go to show a positive effect on the well being of children, adolescents and or youth. These studies add on to strengthen the rationale that life skills intervention is a vital tool for healthy transition into adulthood. Based on review of literature and reputedly defined training models, the WHO model of 10 core life skills was adopted for this study. The training design and activities were contextualized to suit the sample population. The WHO Department of Mental Health identified five basic areas of life skills that are relevant across cultures and this model of 10 core life skills was adopted - Self awareness, Empathy, Effective Communication, Interpersonal Relationship skills, Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, Problem Solving, Decision Making skills, Coping with emotions and Coping with stress skills. The Life Skills Training programme comprised of the following objectives:  To introduce and enable the youth to comprehend the concept of life skills  To appraise their self awareness skills and realize their potentials  To explain and explore the 10 core life skills  To emphasize the role and importance of practicing life skills in handling daily life challenges  To equip the youth with techniques so as to gain perspectives in handling current and future life challenges Key training methods such as brainstorming, discussion, sharing, self exploratory exercises and activities, team games, lecture, role play, case study analysis, storytelling, home exercises and feedback were adopted. Results and Discussion The aim was to study the level of life skills before and after intervention of life skills training. The data collected on the selected sample was tabulated and analysed. Table 1: Distribution of Global Life Skills Levels – Pre & Post among youth Variable

Life skills

Levels Very Low Low Average High Very High Total

Frequency

Percentage

Pre test

Post test

Pre test

Post test

4 9 29 0 0 42

2 5 33 2 0 42

9.52 21.43 69.05 0 0 100

4.76 11.90 78.58 4.76 0 100

Based on the scoring norms, the global scores categorized respondents as Very High Scorer, High, Average Scorer, Low and Very Low Scorer. The global scores are the totals obtained in each of the 10 core life skills defined by WHO. The percentage distribution given in Table1 indicates that a majority of the respondents have an average level of life skills (69%) in the pre test and (78%) in the post test. About (21%) of the respondents have obtained a low-level prevalence of life skills in the pre test, while in the post test the percentage has reduced to Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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(11%). The respondents that fall in the very low-level is about (9%) in pre test and (4%) in the post test. While there were zero respondents in the high level pre-test category, in the post test it is (4%). From the frequency and percentage global life skills scores, we can say that there has been a positive impact of the life skills training on the respondents. Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant difference in the level of Life skills of youth before and after they received life skills training. Table 1.1: Descriptive statistics and t-test results on global life skills before and after intervention Outcome Life skills Global scores

Pre Test

Post Test

Mean

333.02 27.365 348.98 25.983 42

Sig.(2 Tailed)

-8.908

.000

p< .05. Table 1.1 indicates that the participants‘ life skills scores increased after the training program (M = 348.98, SD = 25.983) than before the training programme (M = 333.02, SD = 27.365) at .000 level of significance (t = -8.908, df = 41, n= 42, p<.05). The result suggests that life skills training program had a significant impact on enhancing life competencies of youth. Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant difference in the level of Social Skills – (group of core life skills), before and after intervention among youth. Table 2.1: t-test results on Social Skills before and after intervention among at risk youth Outcome Social Skills

Pre Test

Post Test

Mean

Sig.(2 Tailed)

142.55

11.652

148.64

12.585

-4.982

.000

p< .05. Table 2.1 indicates that the participants have increased in their social skills scores (social skills consist of the following core life skills - self awareness, empathy, effective communication and inter personal relationship skills) after the training program (M = 148.64, SD = 12.585) than before the training programme (M = 142.55, SD = 11.652) at .000 level of significance (t = -4.982, df = 41, n= 42, p<.05). The result suggests that life skills training program has had a significant impact on enhancing their social skills. Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant difference in levels of Thinking Skills – (group of core life skills), before and after intervention among youth

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Table 3.1: t-test results on thinking Skills before and after intervention among youth Outcome Thinking Skills

Pre Test Mean SD

Post Test Mean SD

136.83 13.974 143.12 12.188 42

Sig.(2 Tailed)

5.632

.000

p< .05. Table 3.1 indicates that the participants have increased in their Thinking skills scores (Thinking skills consist of the following core life skills – critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving and decision making skills) after the training program. The pre test results are (M = 136.83, SD = 13.974) and the results of post training are (M = 143.12, SD = 12.188) at .000 level of significance (t = -5.632, df = 41, n= 42, p<.05). The result suggests that life skills training program has had a significant impact on enhancing their thinking skills. Hypothesis 4: There will be a significant difference in levels of Coping Skills – (group of core life skills), before and after intervention among youth Table 4.1: t-test results on coping Skills before and after intervention among youth Outcome

Pre Test

Post Test

Mean

Sig.(2 Tailed)

53.64

8.453

57.21

7.400

-2.995

.000

Coping Skills

p< .05. Table 4.1 indicates that the participants have increased in their Coping skills (Coping skills consist of the following core life skills – coping with emotions and coping with stress skills) after the training program. The pre test showed (M = 53.64, SD = 8.453) and the results of post training are (M = 57.21, SD = 7.400) at .000 level of significance (t = -2.995, df = 41, n= 42, p<.05). The result suggests that life skills training program has had a significant impact on enhancing the coping skills of youth. Discussion The findings of this study revealed that life skills training program has had a significant impact on enhancing the life skills of youth. Life skills are abilities that are present in each one of us, but which we may not be fully aware off. The steps by which life skills are best enhanced are (i) being aware of possession of life skills in self, (ii) learning and understanding the process of acquisition and (iii) finally translating this knowledge into attitude and skills with the disposition to consciously practising them for positive behaviour in specific situations and in daily life. The intervention for this study comprised of the above said steps that has fostered youth to imbibe life skills and understand its importance in daily life. This also necessitates, that youth require life skills training to handle the challenges of life, deal with the manifestations of poverty in which they are in, enhance their levels of self efficacy and subjective well being. Life competencies would certainly help them to become gainfully employed, due to the desire to excel in life. Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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Life skills enable individuals to translate knowledge, skills, and attitudes into specific behaviours to cope with, navigate, or transform life‘s challenges (Kwauk and Braga 2017) Findings regarding the effect of life skills training on the socials skills among youth show an increase after the intervention. The insight of ‗self‘, may have been gained from the exercises and activities related to self exploration. An increase in their self awareness and social skills scores after life skills intervention has helped them gain perspectives, understand self & others better. Findings from this study also revealed that youth were mostly shy in nature, found to be less assertive and possessed low confidence levels in general. Low levels of assertiveness may be due to cultural factors, with which they have been brought up. The findings of the study show an increase in their thinking and coping skills as well. An increase in their thinking skills- critical, creative thinking, problem solving and decision making skills will help them to make informed decisions in life by means of acquiring new strategies learnt. The life skill training has given them the perspective of how to overcome difficulties while encountering obstacles and optimise with the resources available to counter the difficulties. The training has helped enhance their self confidence and self efficacy, which many respondents shared at the end of the 4 day training. Feedback from respondents also showed that the home tasks given them to practise life skills had helped them gain much confidence and relate with family members effectively. They had felt more empowered after the life skills training. Hence, there has been a significant impact on enhancing their global life skill levels and also their social, thinking and coping skill levels, through the intervention, thereby enhancing their life competencies. The results of this study have been consistent with various studies, who endorse that life skills trainings are useful and necessary for a healthy, happy and successful life promoting psychosocial well being. (WHO 1994, Gerami S. et.al 2015, Haji et al. 2011, Albertyn et al. (2004), Ramesh and Farshad C. (2006), Vranda and Rao (2011), & Prajapati et.al (2017). A well designed, tested and delivered life skills programme can achieve much in helping children and adolescents become more responsible, healthy and resilient both during childhood and as adults. (WHO, 1994). Gerami S. et.al (2015) had done a systematic review on the Effectiveness of Life Skills Training which echoes that many problems in life have psycho-social roots to it. Humans need to learn life skills to cope with stressful situations and struggles of life. Acquisition and application of life skills helps one to enhance in their personal domain and in interaction with others. Haji et al. (2011) found that the training of life skills has a great impact on happiness and on the regulation of emotions, psychological wellbeing and social relationship that improved the quality of life. Hence, the training of life skills was proved a good and effective intervention that increased happiness, improved attributes of life and regulated their emotions. According to Albertyn et al. (2004) life skills training enhance critical thinking abilities, which further impact their living life actively, being responsible in the job and in future planning too. Another study by Ramesh and Farshad C. (2006) goes to prove the effectiveness of like skills training in increasing mental and physical health, pro-social behavior and decreasing in behavioral, social problems & self-destructive behaviors. Vranda and Rao (2011) proved that life skills training enhanced psychosocial Competencies. Prajapati et.al (2017) found that how enhancing social, emotional and thinking skills through life skills education, helps the 21st- century youngsters Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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to achieve their goals, strengthens the abilities to meet the needs and demands of the present society and be successful in life. Conclusion Life Skills programs provide adolescents and youth with the confidence and skills necessary to successfully handle challenging situations. Life skill interventions and life skills education are carried out as a preventive approach when dealing with any issues and or health related and as a competency building approach while enhancing the capacities of adolescents and youth to face life challenges. Life Skills enables an individual to adapt to situations and people and helps to lead a healthy and positive life (WHO 1997). Hence, effective acquisition and application of life skills can influence the way we feel about ourselves and others, and equally will influence the way we are perceived by others. Life skills contribute to our perceptions of self-efficacy, self-confidence and self-esteem (WHO 1993). Life skills are essential in four key domains such as family, school, community and work and are best taught most effectively through small groups, provided that participants are developmentally ready. Therefore the most satisfactory means of ensuring positive mental health and of remediating psychological dysfunction is through direct teaching/learning in life skills. Gazda (1984). Life skills therefore play an important role in the promotion of individual‘s mental, physical and social well being in the context of family, school, community and work. Limitations of the study The sample size is small (n=42) and hence the results got from this study may not be suitable for generalization. The duration of the intervention (4 continuous days for 6 hours each) may be seen as the other limitation. The 24 hours duration of life skills training spread out for more number of days with about 1 to 2 hours a day would help the students to gradually internalize and practice life skills ruling out possibilities of intermittent behaviour change. Another post test may be carried out after one month to assess the level of life skills training on the global life skills and the three categories, namely social, thinking and coping skills. Future Research More number of studies may be carried out among youth, especially ‗at risk‘ youth who are socio-economically challenged. A larger sample size for such studies would be favourable. Colleges may include life skills training or life skills education as a compulsory credit paper for addressing the problems of youth and enhancing their life competencies. References: Albertyn R M, Knapp C A, Croenewald C J(2004). Patterns of empowerment in individuals through the course of a life skills program. Journal of Studies in the Education of Adults 33:20-70. Gazda (1984), in Community Counseling: A Multicultural-Social Justice Perspective, by Lewis. J.A., Lewis Michael. D., Daniels, J.A. , D' Andrea, Michael J., 4th Ed., Brooks/Cole Clengage Learning, , USA. p.148 Gerami Sima, Sahar Ahmadi, Mohamad Bagher Safat, Fatemeh Farsi (2015), Life Skills Training and Its Effectiveness: A Systematic Review, from Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 6, No 2 S1, ISSN 2039-9340(Print) ISSN 2039-2117(Online) Human Development Report (2014), Youth Vulnerabilities in Life Course Transitions from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hardgrove_boyden_hdr_2014.pdf Accessed 15 September 2018 Haji, T. M., Mohammadkhani, S., & Hahtami, M. (2011). The effectiveness of life skills Copyright © 2017, Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies

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training on happiness, quality of life and emotion regulation. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 407-411. Kwauk Christina and Braga Amanda (2017), Translating Competencies to Empowered Action, LIFE SKILLS A Framework for Linking Girls’ Life Skills Education to Social Change. Centre for Universal Education at Brookings from https://www.brookings.edu/research/translating-competencies-to-empowered-action/ Retrieved 9 October 2018 Madhu Singh, (2003), “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/4, The Leap to Equality”. Nair.A.R,, R. Subasree & S. Ranjan (2010), Life Skills Assessment Scale, RGNIYD. Prajapati, R., Sharma, B., & Sharma, D. (2017). Significance of life skills education. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 10(1), 1–6. Ramesht M, Farshad C. (2006). Study of life skills training in prevention of drug abuse in students, the 3rd Seminar of Students Mental Health. Tehran, Iran. Iran University of Science and Technology.Persian OECD(2003), retrieved on 12 Oct 2018 from http://www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40554299.pdf retrieved on 10 October 2018 UNDP (2017) Youth as Partners for the Implementation of the SDGs from http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/results/fast_facts/fast-facts-youth-as-partners-for-the-implementation-of-the-sdgs.html retrieved on 30/08/018 UNESCAP (2017), UN and SDGs: A Handbook for Youth, from https://www.unescap.org/resources/un-and-sdgs-handbook-youth Accessed 30/08/018 United Nations International Youth Day report 2018 Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/youth/international-youth-day-2018.html on 30/08/018 Vranda, M.N., & Rao, C.M. (2007). Life skills education. In K. Sekhar, R. Parthasarathy, and D. Muralidhar et al. (Eds.), Handbook of psychiatric social work (pp. 52-58) NIMHANS Publication: Bangalore, India. Vranda, M., & Rao, M. (2011). Life Skills Education for Young Adolescents and Indian Experience. Journal of The Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol.37(Special Issue), 9-15. Retrieved from http://medind.nic.in/jak/t11/i2/jakt11i2p9.pdf on 12 Oct 2018. Wachs, T. D., and A. Rahman.(2013). “The Nature and Impact of Risk and Protective Influences on Children's Development in Low-Income Countries.” In P. R. Britto, P. L. Engle and C.M. Super, eds., Handbook of Early Childhood Development Research and Its Impact on Global Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. WHO (1993). Life skills education in Schools. WHO/MNH/PSF/93.A Rev.1. Geneva. WHO (1997), Life Skills Education for Children and Adolescents in Schools, WHO-MNHPSF_93.7A. Rev.2, Geneva WHO, (1999), Partners in Life Skills Education: Conclusions from a United Nations Interagency Meeting, Geneva.