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ABOUT PHILOSOPHY Eleventh Edition New International Edition

By Robert Paul Wolff

CHAPTER ONE WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Multiple Choice 1. Socrates discussed his philosophical ideas in: A. his school, the Academy. B. the public marketplace. C. the city of Miletus. D. Both A and B E. Both B and C Answer: B 2. The Socratic Dialogues were written by whom? A. By Socrates, in the last years before his death B. the first few by Socrates, the rest by Plato after his death C. By Socrates, with Plato's help D. By Plato, with Socrates’ help E. By Plato, after the death of Socrates Answer: E 3. The intent of the Athenian rulers in prosecuting Socrates was to A. discourage him from writing more dialogues. B. have him put to death for his offenses. C. punish him for worshipping false gods. D. keep him from further threatening the political establishment by his teachings. E. embarrass and discredit him in a lengthy trial. Answer: D 4. In his trial, Socrates chose to be executed rather than to cease practicing philosophy because: A. he held the examination of human nature, thought, and belief to be more important than mere survival. B. at the age of 70, he had nothing left to write. C. he preferred death to life in a society that had rejected him. D. he wanted to show the injustice of the Athenian judicial system. E. he mistakenly believed his jailers wouldn't actually carry out the sentence. Answer: A 5. Our word for "philosophy" comes from a Greek expression meaning: A. wise fool. B. search for wisdom. C. love of wisdom. D. examined life. E. self-examination.

Answer: C 6. In Socrates’ view, true happiness: A. is impossible in life, but may be achieved in the afterlife. B. is, sadly, incompatible with the practice of philosophy. C. can only be achieved in a democracy. D. lies in having the wisdom to accept one's fate without question. E. may be achieved through a process of self-examination. Answer: E 7. According to Socrates: A. the principles of right thought and action vary from society to society. B. the principles of right thought and action vary from generation to generation. C. the principles of right thought and action are the same for all people at all times. D. there are no universal principles of thought and action--each of us is an individual. E. if there are universally valid principles of thought and action, it is impossible for mortals to know what they are. Answer: C 8. Socrates believes the role of a teacher is to: A. pass on the truth to students. B. ask probing questions. C. demonstrate the true principles of thought and action. D. discover students' strengths and weaknesses. E. All of the above Answer: B 9. When Socrates says he's ignorant of the nature of justice, he is: A. employing double-consciousness. B. lying. C. being ironic. D. trying to develop his interlocutor's "second-sight." E. Both A and D Answer: C 10. Socrates was the first philosopher: A. to study cosmology. B. to write a dialogue. C. to found a school. D. in the western tradition. E. to develop the idea that there is a parallel between language and the world. Answer: E 11. Thrasymachus claims that what is just is:

A. whatever is in the interest of the most powerful members of society. B. possible only in a democracy. C. often different from what is "right." D. to give each citizen what he deserves. E. a matter of law, not philosophy. Answer: A 12. The first western philosopher is traditionally thought to be: A. Socrates. B. Plato. C. Thales. D. Descartes. E. a Milesian thinker whose name is lost to history. Answer: C 13. The ancient Milesian philosophers were primarily concerned with: A. the study of the nature of man. B. the pursuit of "the good life." C. the nature of ethical behavior. D. learning the order and composition of the universe. E. the relationship between man and the gods. Answer: D 14. Which of the following was not one of the Milesian philosophers? A. Lucretius B. Thales C. Anaximander D. Anaximenes E. All of the above were Milesians. Answer: A 15. One of Thales' philosophical positions was that everything is made of: A. fire. B. water. C. air. D. earth. E. energy. Answer: B 16. A surprisingly modern belief of Lucretius is that the: A. proper study of philosophy is the nature of man. B. diversity of species can be explained by natural selection. C. earth revolves around the sun. D. world is made up of tiny, unseen bodies. E. stars are actually other suns at a great distance.

Answer: D 17. Lucretius cites the fact that a ring worn on the finger grows thinner over the years as evidence for his claim that: A. all things grow smaller over time. B. material objects are only temporary, not eternal. C. the universe is composed of what we would call atoms. D. physical reality is really an illusion. E. not everything can be explained by an appeal to natural processes. Answer: C 18. According to the author: A. there is a philosophical component to virtually everything we do. B. philosophy is primarily conceptual analysis. C. philosophy is a sort of science that can be carried on without the use of precise instruments. D. philosophy is really a "handmaiden" of hard science. E. science is just philosophy being carried out by other means. Answer: A 19. Logos, according to the Stoics, is: A. the power of words. B. the rational part of the soul. C. the rational power that organizes the universe. D. an ethical principle. E. an ideal state we may reach only through the study of philosophy. Answer: C 20. Socrates believed the proper study for philosophers to be: A. the fundamental nature of the universe. B. the nature of man. C. the "good life." D. the four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. E. politics. Answer: B 21. The philosophical notion of "natural law" has its origins in: A. the atomist ideas of Lucretius. B. Anaximander's cosmological theories. C. the Socratic Dialogues. D. Christian theological writings. E. the Stoic doctrine of logos. Answer: E 22. According to Marcus Aurelius, a Roman Stoic:

A. the universe should be regarded as an intelligent, living being. B. all things are fundamentally composed of atoms. C. there are four fundamental substances: earth, air, fire, and water. D. philosophers should study cosmology, rather than the nature of man. E. philosophers should study the nature of man, rather than cosmology. Answer: A 23. Locke, Berkeley, and Hume were all: A. Stoics. B. atomists. C. Milesian Cosmologists. D. British Empiricists. E. Continental Rationalists. Answer: D 24. Descartes, Leibniz, and Kant were all: A. Stoics. B. metaphysical idealists. C. Milesian Cosmologists. D. British Empiricists. E. Continental Rationalists. Answer: E 25. According to empiricism: A. all knowledge is gained by the exercise of reason. B. all knowledge is obtained through the senses. C. we are born with innate knowledge. D. sensory perceptions cannot be trusted. E. learning is really a process of remembering what we already know. Answer: B 26. According to rationalism: A. at least some knowledge is obtained by the exercise of reason. B. when we are born, our minds are "blank slates." C. nothing can ever be known with certainty. D. we cannot know things that the senses do not reveal to us. E. we ought to ignore the influence of emotion. Answer: A 27. David Hume writes that logic: A. is the sole source of human knowledge. B. is never to be trusted. C. can only explain the principles and operations of reason. D. is the proper study of all philosophers.

E. is the foundation of ethical theory. Answer: C 28. Epistemology is the study of: A. the human mind. B. sense perception. C. knowledge and belief. D. logic and mathematics. E. the nature and organization of the universe. Answer: C 29. When the author states that philosophy ought to be rational, he means that: A. the British Empiricists were wrong. B. philosophers should be able to give reasons, evidence, and arguments for their beliefs. C. philosophical principles ought to apply to everyone everywhere. D. philosophers ought not be influenced by their non-philosophical views. E. philosophy ought to be treated like another branch of science. Answer: B 30. His experiences with the "double-consciousness" of black South Africans has led the author to question whether philosophy is really: A. rational. B. objective. C. empirical. D. universal. E. logical. Answer: D 31. The author suggests that an authentic African-American philosophy would have to be: A. founded upon the writings of African philosophers. B. an exploration of the philosophical implications of the African-American experience. C. written and read only by African-Americans. D. written in American universities. E. written from an objective point of view. Answer: B 32. The "double-consciousness" referred to by Du Bois is: A. intended only as a metaphor. B. simultaneously seeing oneself both as an individual and as a member of one's race. C. experienced only by the educated elite. D. an idea founded upon Stoic philosophy. E. an idea founded upon the views of the British Empiricists. Answer: B 33. Richard Rorty attributes the “anti-democratic” strain in Heidegger to his:

A. doctrine of Man. B. concept of Reason. C. idea of History. D. taking Philosophy too seriously. E. contempt for Christianity. Answer: D 34. According to Rorty, if we look for the “essence” of Heidegger’s works too avidly we will: A. overlook the delights of his prose. B. read him as he did not wish to be read. C. fall into a kind of “fundamentalism.” D. be forced to deny his similarities with Hitler. E. None of the above Answer: C 35. Heidegger’s experiences with Nazism and anti-Semitism did not include: A. deleting references to Husserl from later editions of his books. B. defending his views on grounds of academic freedom. C. addressing a Nazi rally. D. enforcing anti-Jewish regulations at the university. E. praising Hitler in public forums. Answer: B 36. What is the Socratic Method? A. A technique of probing questions B. The study of the order of the world C. A norm in accordance with which the universe has been created D. The theory that human knowledge comes from the five senses E. The constant repetition of negative judgments by white people Answer: A 37. What is cosmology? A. A theory of natural beauty B. The study of the order of the world C. A norm in accordance with which the universe has been created D. The theory that human knowledge comes from reason E. The discipline that investigates the correct principles of formal reasoning Answer: B

CHAPTER ONE WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? True/False 38. Socrates carried out his discussions in a school that survived for centuries afterward. False. 39. Plato was sentenced to death by a jury of Athenian citizens. False. 40. Socrates was interested in the scientific views of his time. True. 41. Plato founded the Academy, a school in Athens where philosophy, science, and mathematics were studied. True. 42. Socrates lived to the ripe old age of 70 before his execution. True. 43. Socrates believes there are principles of thought and action that ought to be followed by all people everywhere. True. 44. Socrates holds that no one can teach anyone else the real truth. True. 45. According to Thales, the first act of true wisdom is to admit that you are ignorant. False. 46. The Socratic Method requires that everyone involved be willing to admit his ignorance. False. 47. Socrates’ idea that the structure of language mirrors the structure of reality is still important in modern philosophy. True. 48. Thrasymachus claims that justice can exist even under a despot, or absolute ruler. True. 49. In the passage from the Republic, Socrates uses the Socratic Method to provide us with a correct definition of "justice." False. 50. The Milesians believed that natural events ought to be explained by appeal to natural forces, rather than the actions of the gods. True. 51. The Milesians founded some of their views upon the Socratic Dialogues. False. 52. Marcus Aurelius believed that the human soul (and everything else in the universe) was composed of atoms. False. 53. The two great themes of western philosophy are the study of the cosmos and the study of the human condition. True. 54. The Stoics claim that the natural order of the world can be explained by the existence of a power of reason called logos. True.

55. According to the Stoics, everything in creation contains a spark of logos. False. 56. Stoic philosophers held that the same principle governs the organization of the universe, and the organization of human society. True. 57. The British Empiricists thought philosophers ought to study the way in which we know things, rather than what we know. True. 58. Socrates realized we learn a great deal about the natural sciences by simply studying ourselves. False. 59. The British Empiricists and Continental Rationalists thought philosophers could combine the study of human nature and the study of cosmology into a single philosophical project. True. 60. Rationalists claim all human knowledge is derived from reason. False. 61. Empiricism is the theory that all human knowledge comes from the senses. True. 62. Like psychology, epistemology is primarily a descriptive discipline. False. 63. When we say a philosophical view is "rational," we mean it is not founded upon untested assumptions. True. 64. When a philosopher says a view is "universal," he or she means that it is true for everyone, everywhere and always. True.

65. The author questions whether objectivity is a requirement of good philosophy. False. 66. W.E.B. Du Bois believed that the chief problem of the 20th century was the problem of the colorline. True. 67. According to the author, an authentic African-American philosophy cannot exist in American universities. False. 68. The German philosopher Hegel infamously described Africa as a "land of childhood." True. 69. The author urges us to develop "second-sight." True. 70. Heidegger appears to argue that the Holocaust and mechanized agriculture are on the same moral plane. True. 71. Heidegger mourns the loss of “roots,” which he attributed to both Christianity and modern science. True. 72. Heidegger apologized late in life for joining the Nazi Party. False. 73. Richard Rorty considers Heidegger “an egomaniacal, anti-Semitic redneck.” True. 74. Logic investigates correct principles of formal reasoning, True.

75. Natural Law is not rational. False 76. Marcus Aurelius introduced and defended an early version of chaos theory. False

CHAPTER TWO THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE Multiple Choice 1. The philosopher usually cited as the originator of the new theory of knowledge is: A. Hume. B. Kant. C. Descartes. D. Leibniz. E. Rousseau. Answer: C 2. In the author's view, since the beginning of the 17th century, the most important field of philosophy has been the study of: A. human nature. B. cosmology. C. psychology. D. epistemology. E. logic and reasoning. Answer: D 3. Which of the following was not one of Descartes’ rules for conducting an inquiry? A. Difficult problems should be divided into as many parts as possible. B. Review your reasoning to make sure nothing has been omitted. C. Reasoning should proceed from simple concepts to complicated ones. D. Ensure that your subject is a philosophical or mathematical matter, rather than a religious or poetic one. E. Accept nothing as true that you do not clearly recognize as being so. Answer: D 4. The epistemological thought of the 17th century has influenced: A. poetry. B. art. C. economic views. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 5. The book whose publication marks the beginning of modern philosophy is: A. The Epistemological Turn. B. Meditations on First Philosophy. C. The Method of Doubt. D. Critique of Pure Reason.

E. The Monadology. Answer: B 6. Descartes’ most important contribution to philosophy was his: A. analysis of dreams. B. rejection of received opinion. C. work in analytic geometry. D. method of examining problems. E. ability to make daring inferences. Answer: D 7. Descartes’ method is: A. both a method of doubt and a method of inquiry. B. a method of discovery. C. both a method of discovery and a method of verification. D. a way of setting forth one's knowledge in a systematic way. E. a way to prove with certainty things one already knows. Answer: A 8. According to Descartes, which of the following is beyond doubt? A. God exists. B. 2 + 3 = 5. C. Washington, D.C. is the capital of the U.S. D. I am awake, and not just dreaming. E. None of the above Answer: E 9. A proposition that should not be doubted, according to Descartes, is one that: A. is more likely to be true than false. B. has never turned out to be wrong in the past. C. everyone agrees is true. D. doesn't contradict anything we already know. E. is absolutely 100% certain. Answer: E 10. The basic indubitable truth upon which Descartes sought to found all his knowledge was that: A. he, himself, exists. B. an all-powerful God exists. C. mathematical truths cannot be doubted. D. the facts of experience cannot be doubted. E. the senses do not lie. Answer: A 11. The "epistemological turn" began with:

A. Plato, and ended with Descartes. B. Descartes, and ended with Leibniz. C. Descartes, and ended with Kant. D. Kant, and is still continuing. E. Descartes, and is still continuing. Answer: C 12. The heart of the "epistemological turn" was: A. Descartes’ method of inquiry. B. making questions of epistemology logically prior to questions of metaphysics. C. realizing that questions of being take precedence over questions of knowing. D. Leibniz's criteria of truth and certainty. E. Cartesian doubt. Answer: B 13. Epistemological skepticism is the view that: A. what's true for you may not be true for someone else. B. the "epistemological turn" was a mistake. C. we should study what we know, not how we know. D. we can never adequately justify any of our beliefs. E. we can never know more than basic facts, such as that the physical world exists. Answer: D 14. Descartes’ method of inquiry tells us to: A. make the standard of proof absolute certainty. B. adopt the point of view of someone who knows something and is trying to explain it. C. adopt the point of view of someone who is ignorant but is trying to learn. D. deal with questions of being before questions of knowing. E. doubt everything except truths of arithmetic and logic. Answer: C 15. "We should stipulate nothing," is a good paraphrase of: A. the epistemological turn. B. epistemological skepticism. C. Descartes’ method of inquiry. D. Descartes’ method of doubt. E. the Law of the Excluded Middle. Answer: C 16. Descartes’ method of doubt tells us to: A. doubt everything except truths of arithmetic and logic. B. accept nothing that is not beyond a reasonable doubt. C. accept only those beliefs that don't contradict what we already know.

D. accept only those beliefs that can be deduced from things we already know. E. accept only what can be known with absolute certainty. Answer: E 17. In his Meditations, Descartes says that the motivation for his project was a desire to: A. share his large store of knowledge with posterity. B. rid himself of his many false beliefs. C. set the sciences on a firm foundation. D. Both A and C E. Both B and C Answer: E 18. Descartes starts the application of his method of doubt by: A. making an inventory of all his beliefs. B. positing the existence of an "evil genius." C. considering the certainty of each of his beliefs, one by one. D. attacking the foundations of all of his current beliefs. E. inferring his existence as a thinking thing. Answer: D 19. Descartes argues that he might be dreaming without being aware of it in order to demonstrate that: A. he cannot be sure of his sanity. B. he might be deceived by an "evil genius." C. even the clearest sense perceptions may be false. D. even the simplest arithmetic calculations, such as that 2+3=5, might be wrong. E. even the simplest logical inferences might be invalid. Answer: C 20. Descartes raises the possibility of the existence of an "evil genius" in order to demonstrate that: A. a non-deceiving God exists. B. he might be deceived even when he reasons that 2+3=5, or that a square has four sides. C. he can infer his existence from the fact that he is thinking. D. not every "genius" is morally good. E. beliefs obtained from the senses are uncertain. Answer: B 21. The first indubitable truth Descartes discovers in the Meditations is that: A. he exists, though he's not sure what he is. B. he exists, and is identical with his body. C. an all-powerful God exists. D. it's false that 2+3=5. E. an evil, deceiving "genius" exists. Answer: A 22. The Cogito Argument proves to Descartes that:

A. he and all other people exist, though we don't know exactly what they are. B. he exists, and is identical with his body. C. his soul exists. D. a non-deceiving God exists. E. None of the above Answer: E 23. Solipsism is the belief that: A. nothing exists. B. no belief can ever be adequately justified. C. I exist, but nothing else can be proven to exist. D. beliefs gained through the senses cannot be justified. E. None of the above Answer: C 24. Solipsism is an extreme form of: A. epistemological skepticism. B. epistemological relativism. C. rationalism. D. empiricism. E. None of the above Answer: A 25. The criteria of truth offered by Descartes in the second Meditation are: A. certainty and reliability. B. clearness and distinctness. C. skepticism and solipsism. D. rationalism and empiricism. E. reason and sense perception. Answer: B 26. The purpose of Descartes’ "thought experiment" with the lump of wax was to show that: A. the senses, in fact, do not lie. B. the evidence of the senses sometimes agrees with the insights of reason. C. the wax has no permanent properties. D. the wax has infinite properties. E. knowledge must be founded on reason rather than sense perception. Answer: E 27. The "thought experiment" with the lump of wax shows that Descartes was: A. a rationalist. B. an empiricist. C. an epistemological skepticist. D. a solipsist.

E. None of the above Answer: A 28. According to rationalists: A. God does not exist. B. the Cogito Argument was unsound. C. knowledge can never be certain. D. logic is the model for all true knowledge. E. all knowledge is based on sense perceptions. Answer: D 29. According to the empiricists: A. logic and mathematics are the models for true knowledge. B. Descartes’ views are correct. C. nothing can ever meet Descartes’ criteria for certainty. D. all valid knowledge claims must be justified by reason. E. None of the above Answer: C 30. Which of the following are rationalists? A. David Hume B. G.W. Leibniz C. René Descartes D. Both B and C E. All of the above Answer: D 31. Which of the following are empiricists? A. David Hume B. René Descartes C. G.W. Leibniz D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: A 32. In place of the psychological tests of certainty used by Descartes, Leibniz used: A. emotional criteria. B. logical criteria. C. mathematical criteria. D. empiricist criteria. E. None of the above Answer: B 33. According to the Law of Contradiction:

A. either a statement or its contradictory must be true. B. a statement and its contradictory might both be true. C. a statement and its contradictory can't both be true. D. either a statement or its contradictory must be false. E. All of the above. Answer: C 34. According to the Law of the Excluded Middle: A. either a statement or its contradictory must be true. B. a statement and its contradictory might both be true. C. a statement and its contradictory can't both be true. D. either a statement or its contradictory must be false. E. All of the above Answer: A 35. The contradictory of "Parmita is a vegetarian" is: A. “Parmita always eats meat.” B. “Parmita sometimes eat meat.” C. “Parmita isn't a vegetarian.” D. “Parmita wasn't always a vegetarian.” E. All of the above Answer: C 36. Leibniz calls truths that cannot be justified by the laws of logic: A. contraries. B. truths of reasoning. C. truths of fact. D. truths of principle. E. truths of faith. Answer: C 37. Leibniz divides truths into two types: A. truths of reason and truths of contradiction. B. truths of reason and truths of fact. C. truths of knowledge and truths of belief. D. truths of fact and truths of belief. E. None of the above Answer: B 38. Truths of fact are justified by appeal to: A. the laws of logic. B. the law of contradiction. C. clear and distinct perceptions. D. the Principle of Sufficient Reason. E. the Law of the Excluded Middle.

Answer: D 39. When Leibniz says a truth of fact is contingent, he means: A. it would be possible for its contradictory to be true. B. its contradictory is also true. C. it wasn't always a fact. D. it's also a truth of reason. E. None of the above Answer: A 40. Leibniz says the sufficient reason for the world is: A. God. B. the laws of logic. C. a necessary substance. D. a contingent substance. E. Both A and C Answer: E 41. To say that an argument is valid means: A. its conclusion is true. B. it's widely accepted. C. its premises are plausible. D. its conclusion follows from its premises. E. Both A and D Answer: D 42. The idea that the mind enters the world as a tabula rasa was first put forward by: A. the empiricist John Locke. B. the rationalist René Descartes. C. Plato. D. modern psychologists, such as Sigmund Freud. E. None of the above Answer: A 43. According to John Locke, all knowledge is founded on: A. reason. B. logic. C. experience. D. imagination. E. Both A and B Answer: C 44. If Locke's theory is correct, then:

A. God's existence is known from experience. B. we have no idea of God. C. God is necessarily omnipotent. D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: B 45. Hume divides the content of the mind into: A. impressions and ideas. B. necessary and contingent propositions. C. reason and imagination. D. knowledge and belief. E. the empirical and the rational. Answer: A 46. The taste of an apple is an example of a: A. complex impression. B. simple impression. C. perception that can be distinguished into parts. D. Both A and C E. Both B and C Answer: B 47. Hume argued that: A. everything that exists must have a reason for existence. B. every event must have a cause. C. everything that exists has a cause. D. it would be conceivable for something to exist without a cause. E. None of the above Answer: D 48. The two basic epistemological problems raised by Descartes were: A. the Cogito Argument and the tabula rasa. B. the problem of knowledge and the problem of belief. C. the problem of certainty and the problem of the sources of knowledge. D. empirical problems and rational problems. E. justification and reason. Answer: C 49. Hume did not believe that: A. an uncaused event was conceivable. B. it is psychologically possible to suspend one's belief in causation. C. we could possess an idea of a unicorn. D. the contents of the mind could be divided into atomic units. E. whatever is different is distinguishable.

Answer: B 50. Kant invented the "unity of consciousness" to solve the epistemological problem of: A. skepticism. B. nihilism. C. solipsism. D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: D 51. Who formulated the idea of the "unity of consciousness"? A. Descartes B. Kant C. Hume D. Leibniz E. Freud Answer: B 52. According to Kant, the categories are: A. individual thoughts and impressions. B. types of thoughts. C. brute facts of consciousness. D. rules for unifying thoughts in the mind. E. barriers to be eliminated in order to achieve unity of consciousness. Answer: D 53. Anna Leach argues that plagiarism isn’t wrong: A. because it is a form of collaboration. B. in countries where it isn’t illegal. C. as long as no one finds out. D. if you didn’t realize you were doing it. E. unless you make money from it. Answer: A 54. Jonathan H. Adler contends that plagiarism is on the rise because: A. standards are too strict. B. students are not taught that standards matter. C. no one has time to write their own work. D. the Internet is redefining how students understand the concept of authorship. E there is nothing wrong with it. Answer B 55. Stanley Fish compares the rules of plagiarism to the rules of: A. hockey B. baseball C. golf D. football E. basketball Answer: C

CHAPTER TWO THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE True/False 56. Descartes’ project was to justify established doctrine and the authority of the ancients. False. 57. Descartes’ major contribution to philosophy lies more in the method he developed than the results he achieved. True. 58. The first rule of Descartes’ method was to consider everything false that wasn't certainly true. False. 59. Descartes’ method urges us to consolidate simple propositions into more complex ones. False. 60. Descartes’ method suggests we should work on the simplest parts of a problem first. True. 61. Descartes’ method is both a method of doubt and a method of inquiry. True. 62. The "epistemological turn" began with Descartes. True. 63. Descartes’ method can be used for proving what you already know. False. 64. Descartes’ method is to be used for actual discovery of new knowledge. True. 65. Descartes uses his method to systematically set forth the things he knew. False. 66. Descartes thought we should believe only what is beyond reasonable doubt. False. 67. To doubt something, in Descartes’ sense, is to believe it is false. False. 68. To doubt something, in Descartes’ sense, is to withhold judgment whether it is true or false. True. 69. Descartes says we must doubt something if there is one chance in a billion that it's false. True. 70. Descartes begins by doubting everything but the existence of God. False. 71. The "epistemological turn" was completed when Hume published his Essay Concerning the Human Understanding. False. 72. Before Descartes, philosophers didn't study epistemology. False. 73. After Descartes, philosophers considered questions of how we know to be more important than questions of what we know. True. 74. Prior to Descartes, epistemology took precedence over metaphysics. False. 75. Epistemological skepticism is the view that nothing is true. False.