Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: PHOTOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................6 Learning Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6 Chapter Outline ..................................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..10 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................13 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers…………………………………………………………………………..14 CHAPTER 2: MISE EN SCÈNE ...................................................................................................................................16 Learning Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16 Chapter Outline ................................................................................................................................................................16 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...21 Active Learning Assignments................................................................................................................................22 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers…………………………………………………………………………..23 CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT..................................................................................................................................... ...25 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….25 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................25 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..29 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................31 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….32 CHAPTER 4: EDITING ...............................................................................................................................................34 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................34 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..39 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................42 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….42 CHAPTER 5: SOUND............................................................................................................................................ .......44 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................44 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................52 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers…………………………………………………………………………. 52 CHAPTER 6: ACTING ...................................................................................................................................................54 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….54 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................54 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..57 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................61 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers…………………………………………………………………………..61 CHAPTER 7: DRAMA ....................................................................................................................................................63 Learning Objectives ……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………….63
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Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................63 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..65 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................68 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….68 . CHAPTER 8: STORY .....................................................................................................................................................71 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….71 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................71 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..75 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................78 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………….……………………………………….79 CHAPTER 9: WRITING................................................................................................................................................81 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….81 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................81 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….84 Active Learning Assignments..............................................................................................................................86 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….86 CHAPTER 10: IDEOLOGY ..........................................................................................................................................89 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….89 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................89 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..92 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................96 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….96 CHAPTER 11: CRITIQUE............................................................................................................................................98 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….98 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................98 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………100 Active Learning Assignments..............................................................................................................................104 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….104 CHAPTER 12 SYNTHESIS: CITIZEN KANE ......................................................................................................106 Learning Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….106 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................106 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..113 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................117 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………………….117
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CHAPTER 1: PHOTOGRAPHY Learning Objectives 1. Recognize the distinctions among the three principal styles of film and the three types of movies, and evaluate how the style affects the presentation of the story. 2. List the six basic categories of film shots and their purpose in developing the scene. 3. Describe the five basic angles in the cinema and what contextual information the audience derives from each choice. 4. Outline the various types of lighting styles used in film and the symbolic connotations of each. 5. Explain the way directors consciously use colors to symbolically enhance the film’s dramatic content. 6. Identify how lens, filters, and stocks can intensify given qualities within a shot, and suppress others. 7. Evaluate the changes that digital technologies have had on film production, editing, presentation, and distribution. 8. Assess the role of cinematographers in the filmmaking process and identify how they are able to consolidate the various elements of film photography.
Outline 1. Realism and Formalism a. Even before 1900, movies began to develop in two major directions: the realistic and the formalistic i. Lumiere brothers’ The Arrival of a Train ii. Georges Melies’ A Trip to the Moon b. styles in cinema: i. realism 1. reproduces the surface of reality with a minimum of distortion 2. preserves the illusion that the film world is unmanipulated ii. formalism 1. deliberately stylizes and distort raw materials 2. the stylization calls attention to itself iii. classicism 1. most fiction films fall somewhere between these two extremes 2. avoids the extremes of realism and formalism c.t ypes of films: documentary, fiction, avant-garde 2. The Shots a. defined by the amount of subject matter that’s included within the frame of the screen
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b. six basic categories of shots i. extreme long shot 1. photographed from a great distance away 2. used as establishing shot ii. long shot 1. roughly the same amount of space as the staging area of a large theater 2. deep-focus shot A. a long shot consisting of a number of focal distances and photographed in depth B. sometimes called a wide-angle shot because it requires a wide-angle lens to photograph iii. full shot 1. closest range within the long shot category 2. just barely includes the human body in full iv. medium shot 1. the shot of the couple 2. split focus rather than a single dominant focus v. close-up 1. shows very little if any locale 2. concentrates on a relatively small object vi. extreme close-up 3. The Angles a. the angle from which an object is photographed b. often serves as an authorial commentary on the subject matter c. five basic angles in the cinema i. bird’s-eye 1. directly overhead 2. permits us to hover above a scene like all-powerful gods 3. the people photographed seem vulnerable and insignificant ii. high 1. not as extreme as bird’s-eye 2. often taken from a crane or high point to maximize locale 3. gives viewer a general overview 4. reduces the importance or power of a subject 5. slows movement iii. eye-level 1. as if an observer were viewing the events 2. permits us to make up our own minds about what kind of people are being presented iv. low 1. has the opposite effect of high 2. a person photographed from below inspires fear and awe v. oblique 1. involves a lateral tilt of the camera 2. suggests tension, transition, and impending movement
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4. Light and Dark a. comedies and musicals tend to be lit in high key b. tragedies and melodramas are usually lit in high contrast c. mysteries, thrillers, and gangster films are generally lit in low key d. styles of lighting i. high key: bright, even illumination and no conspicuous shadows ii. low key: diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light iii. high contrast: harsh shafts of lights and dramatic streaks of blackness e. lights and darks have had symbolic connotations in general, artists have used darkness to suggest fear, evil, the unknown i. light usually suggests security, virtue, truth, joy ii. some filmmakers deliberately reverse light–dark expectations f. three-point lighting i. cinematographers developed the technique during the Hollywood big-studio era ii. the key light is the primary source of illumination, creates the dominant of an image iii. fill lights, which are less intense than the key, soften the harshness of the main light source, revealing subsidiary details that would otherwise be hidden by shadow iv. the backlights separate the foreground figures from their setting, heightening the illusion of three-dimensional depth in the image. g. painterly versus linear styles i. a painterly style is soft-edged, sensuous, and romantic ii. line is de-emphasized: colors and textures shimmer in a hazily defined, radiantly illuminated environment iii. on the other hand, a linear style emphasizes drawing, sharply defined edges, and the supremacy of line over color and texture 5. Color a. color tends to be a subconscious element in film i. strongly emotional in its appeal ii. expressive and atmospheric rather than intellectual b. since earliest times, visual artists have used color for symbolic purposes i. cool colors (blue, green, violet) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, and serenity ii. cool colors also have a tendency to recede in an image iii. warm colors (red, yellow, orange) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation iv. they tend to come forward in most images 6. Lenses, Filters, and Stocks a. lenses i. the camera’s lens is a crude mechanism compared to the human eye ii. especially with regard to size and distance, the camera records things literally iii. realist filmmakers tend to use normal, or standard, lenses to produce a minimum of distortion
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iv. formalist filmmakers often prefer lenses and filters that intensify certain qualities and suppress others v. telephoto lenses produce a number of side effects that are sometimes exploited by directors for symbolic use 1. most long lenses are in sharp focus on one distance plane only 2. the longer the lens, the more sensitive it is to distances 3. long lenses also flatten images, decreasing the sense of distance vi. wide-angle lenses, also called short lenses, have short focal lengths and wide angles of view 1. used in deep-focus shots 2. preserve a sharpness of focus on virtually all distance planes 3. the wider the angle, the more lines and shapes tend to warp 4. movement toward or away from the camera is exaggerated when photographed with a short lens 5. the fish-eye lens is the most extreme wide-angle modifier b. filters i. used for purely cosmetic purposes to make an actor taller, slimmer, younger, or older ii. some trap light and refract it in such a way as to produce a diamond-like sparkle in the image iii. many filters are used to suppress or heighten certain colors c. film stocks i. two basic categories: fast and slow ii. fast stock is highly sensitive to light and in some cases can register images with no illumination except what’s available on location iii. slow stock is relatively insensitive to light and requires as much as ten times more illumination than fast stocks iv. traditionally, slow stocks are capable of capturing colors precisely, without washing them out v. fast stocks are commonly associated with documentary movies 7. The Digital Revolution a. digital cinema combines television and computer technologies and is essentially electronic in nature b. the images are not stored on a filmstrip, but on memory cards and hard drives c. digital images can have a higher degree of clarity and resolution than celluloid images d. digital images are composed of “pixels” (short for picture elements) seen as tiny dots on the TV monitor i. the more pixels that make up an image, the closer it resembles the subject being photographed, with a minimum of distortion ii. pixels are usually arranged on a two-dimensional grid iii. the sharpness or resolution of an image is a function of the number of pixels it contains iv. standard video screens have about 480 scan lines of visual information v. high-definition video (which is the favored form in cinema) has up to 1,080 scan lines
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e. digital technology has revolutionized special effects in movies f. digital video cameras are much more portable than big, clumsy 35mm film cameras g. digital technology can save millions of dollars in motion picture production costs i. complex makeup can also be created digitally ii. computer-generated images can be stored for future use iii. traditional animation is being replaced by computer generated animation iv. digital editing is also much easier than traditional methods v. digital technology is making motion picture distribution and exhibition cheaper h. computer-generated images have radically undermined the traditional distinctions between realism and formalism in film theory 8. The Cinematographer a. director is generally the dominant artist in the best movies b. the principal collaborators—actors, writers, cinematographers—perform according to the director’s unifying sensibility c. sweeping statements about the role of the cinematographer are impossible to make i. varies widely from film to film and from director to director ii. virtually all cinematographers agree that the style of the photography should be geared to the story, theme, and mood of the film d. during the big-studio era—roughly from 1925 to 1955—most cinematographers believed that the aesthetic elements of a film should be maximized i. beautiful pictures with beautiful people was the goal ii. today such views are considered rigid and doctrinaire e. “Many times, what you don’t see is much more effective than what you do see,” the late Gordon Willis noted. f. realist directors are especially likely to prefer an unobtrusive style g. there are far more films in which the only interesting or artistic quality is the cinematography
Summary Critics and scholars categorize movies according to a variety of criteria. Two of the most common methods of classification are by style and by type. The three principal styles—realism, classicism, and formalism—might be regarded as a continuous spectrum of possibilities, rather than airtight categories. Similarly, the three types of movies—documentaries, fiction, and avant-garde films— are also terms of convenience, for they often overlap. Even before 1900, movies began to develop in two major directions: the realistic and the formalistic. The three styles of film, identified as realism, formalism, and classicism are general rather than absolute terms, and in the end, are really just labels. Generally speaking, realistic films attempt to reproduce the surface of reality with a minimum of
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distortion. Formalists, on the other hand, deliberately stylize and distort their raw materials so that no one would mistake a manipulated image of an object or event for the real thing. Classical cinema can be viewed as an intermediate style that avoids the extremes of realism and formalism. Few films are exclusively one style over the others. Virtually all film directors go to the photographable world for their subject matter. What they do with this material captured by the camera lens, and how they shape and manipulate it, determines the eventual style the viewer perceives in the finished product. The shots are defined by the amount of subject matter that’s included within the frame of the screen. In general, shots are determined on the basis of how much of the human figure is in view. The shot is not necessarily defined by the distance between the camera and the object photographed. In actual practice, shot designations vary considerably. Although there are many different kinds of shots in the cinema, most of them are subsumed under the six basic categories: (1) the extreme long shot; (2) the long shot; (3) the full shot; (4) the medium shot; (5) the close-up; and (6) the extreme close-up. The deep-focus shot is usually a variation of the long shot, consisting of a number of focal distances and photographed in depth. The angle from which an object is photographed can often serve as an authorial commentary on the subject matter. There are five basic angles in the cinema: (1) the bird’s-eye view; (2) the high angle; (3) the eye-level shot; (4) the low angle; and (5) the oblique angle. If the angle is slight, it can serve as a subtle form of emotional coloration. If the angle is extreme, it can represent the major meaning of an image. The angle is determined by where the camera is placed, not the subject photographed. Film realists tend to avoid extreme angles. Formalist directors are concerned with the angle that best captures the essential nature of the subject. Extreme angles involve distortions. By distorting the surface realism of an object, a greater truth may be achieved—a symbolic truth. The use of light and shadow can also create mood and emotional impact. The illumination of most movies is seldom a casual matter, for lights can be used with pinpoint accuracy. There are a number of different styles of lighting. Usually designated as a lighting key, the style is geared to the theme and mood of a film, as well as its genre. Comedies and musicals tend to be lit in high key, with bright, even illumination and no conspicuous shadows. Tragedies and melodramas are usually lit in high contrast, with harsh shafts of lights and dramatic streaks of blackness. Mysteries, thrillers, and gangster films are generally in low key, with diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light. Lights and darks have had symbolic connotations. In general, artists have used darkness to suggest fear, evil, the unknown. Light usually suggests security, virtue, truth, joy. Lighting can be used realistically or expressionistically. The realist favors available lighting, at least in exterior scenes. Formalists use light less literally. They are guided by its symbolic implications and will often stress these qualities by deliberately distorting natural light patterns. During the Hollywood big-studio era, cinematographers developed the technique of three-point lighting, which is still widely practiced throughout the world. With three-point lighting, the key light is the primary source of illumination. Fill lights, which are less intense than the key, soften the harshness of the main light source. Backlights separate the foreground figures from their setting.
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for how a film is interpreted and valued. Many questions can be asked and many answers will result in the way we perceive films, relate to them, and appreciate them. Criticism assists us in this process.
Active Learning Assignments Learning Objective 1. Name the three categories of people who critique movies, and list the three areas of inquiry on which critics and theorists focus their attention. 1. From various sources such as local newspapers, general news magazines like Newsweek, and other magazine types such as GQ, gather recent film reviews and share them with the class. Discuss the ways in which these reviews differ in approach and audience. Compose a format of how to write a review for the general public through discussion in class. Then have the class write a review as if they were a local reporter or film critic. Learning Objective 5. Identify what it means to be an eclectic critic, and describe the benefits and faults of an eclectic approach to film criticism. 2. Make a list of the types of criticism discussed in this chapter. Execute an in-depth comparative analysis of characteristics shared among them, or differences. What are the important commonalities, if any, among these types of criticism? Is it more important to note the differences? Why or why not? Learning Objective 7. Define historiography and outline the four types of film history. 3. Conduct a statistical analysis of three randomly chosen films at IMDb.com in the following manner: 1) tally the total number of written “user” reviews, 2) click on the “user” number, and then on the pop-up filter menu and tally the number of reviews considered “loved it.” Now click on the “hated it” filter and tally that number. Compute the percentages of “loved” and “hated,” and determine whether there is a consistent percentage of user critics who selected “hated” among the three films. If needed, expand your statistics to include a few more films. Do the “user” reviewers (“critics”) carry any weight or validity in their reviews despite not being professional film critics? Why or why not?
In-class Discussion Questions and Answers: Learning Objective 1. Name the three categories of people who critique movies, and list the three areas of inquiry on which critics and theorists focus their attention. 1. Question: In your opinion, how do websites such as IMDb, Rotten Tomatoes, and Metacritic influence the general public in their choices for viewing films? Do you pay heed to what critics say before you go see a film, or do you wait until afterward? Or, do you ignore websites and local film reviews altogether? Consider:
The types of people who critique movies fall into three general classes: reviewers, critics, and theorists. 104 .
Whose opinions do you value more: reviewers, critics, or theorists? Why? What do you look for in the critique of a film? What is important? Not important? What makes a movie great to you? What makes a movie a masterpiece? Who decides?
Learning Objective 4. Explain what makes an auteur, and describe how auteur theory revolutionized film criticism. 2. Question: In your opinion, are mainstream Hollywood films better than their independent counterparts or not? What advantages and disadvantages do filmmakers have when making each type of film? Consider:
In the contemporary American cinema, most mainstream movies are still collaborative enterprises. Does the director matter in a mainstream movie? The actors? The writer? Who is most responsible for the success of the film, and how is success defined? Why does the director of an independent movie matter? What about the actors? The writer? Are they important? Who is most responsible for the success of an independent film, and how is success defined?
Learning Objective 6. Summarize the techniques of structuralism and semiology, and explain their relation to various scientific disciplines. 3. Question: Take a film discussed in this chapter and view it in class. Using the deep structure approach to structuralism discussed in this chapter, attempt to analyze and interpret the film with full class participation. Consider:
Does the film rely on or use a myth or myths as the structure? Where does the myth come from? What symbolic motifs are repeated in the film? What is more important to the structure of the film? National origin? Genre? Something specific to the movie? What binary pairs of opposites can be best used to interpret the film?
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CHAPTER 12: SYNTHESIS: CITIZEN KANE Learning Objectives 1. Show how Citizen Kane ushered in a revolution in photography and how Welles dynamically staged complex actions within each shot. 2. Give examples of how Welles used the moving camera to embellish the story line of Citizen Kane. 3. Describe how Welles coordinated the editing techniques and sound within the film to create a rich, symbolic film experience. 4. Evaluate the quality of actors in Citizen Kane, and assess the art direction tricks that Welles learned from working in theater and radio. 5. Diagram the plot units of Citizen Kane and explain why the director chose to use the flashback structure in the film. 6. Illustrate the thematic complexity of Citizen Kane by addressing the film’s storytellers, narrative strategy, and symbolic motifs. 7. Defend the idea of Orson Welles as a film auteur.
Outline 1. Photography a. cinematographer Gregg Toland considered Citizen Kane the high point of his career b. Citizen Kane didn’t look like most American movies of its era c. combined many techniques into one dazzlingly photographed film d. deep-focus, low-key lighting, rich textures, audacious compositions i. dynamic contrasts between foregrounds and backgrounds, backlighting, sets with ceilings, side lighting, steep angles, epic long shots juxtaposed with extreme close-ups, dizzying crane shots, special effects galore e. ushered in a revolution, challenging the classical ideal of a transparent style i. deep focus photography used flamboyantly
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2. Mise en Scène—one example from the film a. dominant—young Kane in the window b. lighting key i. interior is moderate high key ii. exterior is extreme high key c. shot and camera proxemics i. deep focus ii. personal distance from Thatcher and Mrs. Kane iii. public distance from young Kane d. angles—eye level e. color values—black & white f. lens/filter/stock i. wide angle lens ii. no filters, slow stock g. subsidiary contrasts i. from young Charles to Kane senior ii. to Thatcher, Mrs. Kane iii. to the spotlighted document h. density—densely packed visual i. composition i. split vertically ii. segments and isolates the characters j. form—closed k. framing—tight l. depth i. photographed in 4 depth planes ii. table and occupants, Kane Senior, rear parlor, young Kane outside m. character placement
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i. Charles and Kane senior occupy the upper portions of the image, ii. Thatcher and Mrs. Kane the lower iii. intimate but ironic n. staging positions i. Kane senior and Thatcher full front ii. Mrs. Kane profile o. character proxemics i. Thatcher and Mrs. Kane are in intimate proximity ii. social distance from Kane senior, and a remote public distance from Charles 3. Movement a. Welles was a master of the mobile camera i. camera movements equated with the vitality and energy of youth in Citizen Kane ii. a static camera, on the other hand, tends to be associated with illness, old age, and death b. bravura crane shots embody important symbolic ideas i. opening shot ii. the “El Rancho” shot with Susan and the reporter c. traveling vs. static shots i. moving camera used brilliantly for comic effect in Susan’s opera debut ii. Kane’s destruction of Susan’s bedroom too static, and too distant 4. Editing a. editing in Citizen Kane is a calculated display of virtuosity, leaping over days, months, even years with casual nonchalance b. Welles often used several editing styles in the same sequence, for example when Susan recalls her opera career i. first a lengthy take ii. then fragmentary shots iii. then parallel editing iv. then thematic montage v. finally back to a lengthy take c. difficult to isolate the editing because it often works in concert with the sound techniques 5. Sound a. coming from the world of live radio drama, Welles was often credited with inventing many film sound techniques when in fact he was primarily a consolidator, synthesizing and expanding the piecemeal accomplishments of his predecessors b. Welles frequently cut from one time period or location to another with a shocking sound transition c. Welles frequently overlapped his dialogue, especially in the comical sequences d. Bernard Herrmann’s musical score is similarly sophisticated i. musical motifs are assigned to several of the major characters and events ii. many of these motifs are introduced in the newsreel sequence
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iii. then picked up later in the film, often in a minor key, or played at a different tempo, depending on the mood of the scene iv. the score often parallels Welles’s visuals v. Herrmann’s scores are brilliant in portraying the psychology of the characters e. in many scenes, Welles used sound for symbolic purposes 6. Acting a. Welles had his own stable of actors, who worked with him in both radio and the New York live theater i. when he went to Hollywood, he took many of them with him ii. none of these players was well known, and even Welles was known primarily as a radio performer b. Citizen Kane boasts a first-rate ensemble cast i. most notably Welles, Dorothy Comingore, Joseph Cotton, Everett Sloane, and Agnes Moorehead ii. even some of the cameo roles are performed with distinction 1. Ray Collins as Jim Gettys 2. Agnes Moorhead as Mrs. Kane iii. Everett Sloane and Joseph Cotten are flawless as Bernstein and Leland iv. Welles’s performance as Kane was lavishly praised. 7. Dramatization a. the live theater was Welles’s first love, especially Shakespeare b. Welles’s experience in live theater proved invaluable when he turned to making movies i. the lighting style of Citizen Kane is more indebted to the stage than the screen ii. in the area of art direction, Welles was able to save hundreds of thousands of dollars by showing only parts of sets rather than entire rooms c. Edward Stevenson’s costumes adhere closely to the actual styles of each period i. the costumes are symbolic as well as functional ii. an analysis of Susan’s opera costume 1. period—nineteenth century, pastiche 2. class—royalty 3. sex—female 4. age—20s 5. silhouette—form fitting 6. fabric—beaded silks 7. accessories—turban, pearls, shoes 8. color—b&w metallic sheen 9. body exposure—revealing 10. function—totally without utility 11. body attitude—tall and proud 12. image—opera queen 8. Story
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