Issuu

American Stories, A History of the United States (Combined Volume) 3e Brands Breen Williams Gross (Instructor Manual All Chapters, 100% Original Verified, A+ Grade) Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual CHAPTER 1 New World Encounters, Preconquest–1608 Learning Objectives 1.1

What explains cultural differences among Native American groups before European conquest?

1.2

How did Europeans interact with West Africans and Native Americans during the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries?

1.3

What factors explain Spain’s central role in New World exploration and colonization?

1.4

How did Spanish conquest of Central and South America transform Native American cultures?

1.5

What was the character of the French empire in Canada?

1.6

Why did England not participate in the early competition for New World colonies?

Chapter Outline I. II.

III.

IV.

Diverse Cultures: Cabeza de Vaca’s Journey Through Native America Native Americans Before the Conquest A. The Environmental Challenge: Food, Climate, and Culture • Read the Document: Thomas Harriot, The Algonquian Peoples of the Atlantic Coast (1588) B. Aztec Dominance C. Eastern Woodland Cultures Conditions of Conquest A. West Africa: Ancient and Complex Societies B. Cultural Negotiations in the Americas C. Threats to Survival: Columbian Exchange Europe on the Eve of Conquest A Spanish Expansion B. The Strange Career of Christopher Columbus • Watch the Video: How Should We Think of Columbus Spain in the Americas A. The Conquistadores: Faith and Greed B. From Plunder to Settlement • Use MyHistoryLab Explorer to answer, How Did Global Exploration Change the Old and New Worlds? • Read the Document: Jacques Cartier, First Contact with the Indians (1540) • Read the Document: Bartolome de Las Casas, The Devastation of the Indies (1565) 1 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual VI. VII.

The French Claim Canada The English Take Up the Challenge A. Birth of English Protestantism • Read the Document: Henry VII, Letters of Patent Granted to John Cabot (1496) B. Religion, War, and Nationalism VIII. Conclusion: Campaign to Sell America Chapter Summary Introduction: Diverse Cultures: Cabeza de Vaca’s Journey Through Native America The author views some of the first contacts between Europeans and Native Americans in terms of narratives. Each side brought preconceptions molded by their long histories into their contacts with other peoples, and each side was molded by contact with the other. The narrative of the voyages of Christopher Columbus, on the other hand, was told in terms of adventure. This one-sided story can be nuanced by considering contacts as creative adaptations to encompass the entire range of experiences on both sides. 1.1

Native Americans Before the Conquest America was first inhabited some 20,000 years ago when small bands of nomadic Siberian hunters chased large mammals across the land bridge between Asia and America. During this long migration, the people who became known as the American Indians stopped carrying several diseases, such as smallpox and measles, and thus their children lost the immunities that would have protected them against such diseases. The Environmental Challenge: Food, Climate, and Culture: During the thousands of years before the arrival of the Europeans, the continents of North and South America experienced tremendous geologic and climate changes. As the weather warmed, the great mammals died off, and the Indians who hunted them turned increasingly to growing crops, bringing about an Agricultural Revolution. Aztec Dominance: In Central America, the Aztecs settled in the fertile valley of Mexico and conquered a large and powerful empire, which they ruled through fear and force. Eastern Woodland Cultures: Elsewhere, along the Atlantic coast of North America, for example, Native Americans lived in smaller bands and supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. In some cases, women owned the farming fields, and men the hunting grounds.

1.2

Conditions of Conquest The arrival of Europeans profoundly affected Native Americans, who could be said to have entered a new world. West Africa: Ancient and Complex Societies: Contrary to ill-informed opinion, subSaharan West Africa was never an isolated part of the world where only simple societies 2 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual developed. As elsewhere, West Africa had seen the rise and fall of empires, such as Ghana or Dahomey. West Africa had also been heavily influenced by the coming of Islam. The arrival of Europeans was just the latest of many foreign influences that helped shape African culture. The Portuguese came first, pioneering the sea lanes from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa in the fifteenth century. They found profit in gold and slaves, supplied willingly by native rulers who sold their prisoners of war. The Atlantic slave trade began taking about 1,000 persons each year from Africa, but the volume steadily increased. In the eighteenth century, an estimated 5.5 million were taken away. Altogether, Africa lost almost 11 million of her children to the Atlantic slave trade. Before 1831, more Africans than Europeans came to the Americas. Cultural Negotiations in the Americas: Native Americans were not passive in their dealings with the Europeans. They eagerly traded for products that made life easier, but they did not accept the notion that Europeans were in any way culturally superior, and most efforts by the Europeans to convert or “civilize” the Indians failed. Threats to Survival: Columbian Exchange: Wherever Indians and Europeans came into contact, they exchanged ideas, goods, crops, technologies, and so on. Part of this “Columbian Exchange” included the transmission of diseases, like smallpox and measles. As a result, the Indian population declined rapidly. For example, the Arawak population in Santo Domingo fell from almost 4 million before the arrival of Columbus to just 125 in 1570. An entire way of life disappeared. 1.3

Europe on the Eve of Conquest The Vikings discovered America before Columbus, but European colonization of the New World began only after 1492 because only then were the preconditions for successful overseas settlement attained. These conditions were the rise of nation-states and the spread of the new technologies and old knowledge. Spanish Expansion: Spain first vied as a world power after unification in the 1400s. The united kingdoms took on new life and prosecuted the Reconquista more fiercely than ever. Militantly Catholic, the Spanish crown pushed the last Muslim state out in 1492, forcing both Muslims and Jews to flee. The conquistadores took this religious war overseas. The Canary Islands were the first overseas possessions taken by the Spanish. The Strange Career of Christopher Columbus: Of Genoese origin, Christopher Columbus helped Spain to capture its American lands. Columbus went first to the Portuguese, but they pursued their goal of reaching the East by rounding the southern tip of Africa. He was more successful in petitioning the Spanish monarchs and was supplied with a fleet to sail to Cathay in August 1492. Miscalculating the distance required to reach Asia, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean. He reached the Bahamas first, convinced that he had reached the East. In spite of three more voyages to the Americas, Columbus died in disgrace, ignorant of the fact that he had found a new continent. Amerigo Vespucci published a fictional account of his travels across the

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual Atlantic and convinced Europeans that new lands had indeed been hit upon. His name was given to the Americas. 1.4

Spain in the Americas Immediately after Columbus’s first voyage in 1492, Spain and Portugal quarreled over the hoped-for spoils from what they thought was Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the new lands along a line running from north to south through the Americas. The Conquistadores: Faith and Greed: To expand Spain’s territories in the New World, the Crown commissioned independent adventurers (conquistadores) to subdue new lands. For God, glory, and gold they came. Within two decades they decimated the major Caribbean islands, where most of the Indians died from exploitation and disease. The Spaniards then moved onto the mainland and continued the work of conquest. Hernán Cortés went to Mexico in search of legendary treasures. He came up against the Aztec emperor Montezuma. Helped by tributary tribes, firearms, and horses, and seen initially as a god, Cortés destroyed the Aztec Empire in 1521. From Plunder to Settlement: The Spanish crown kept her unruly subjects in America loyal by rewarding the conquistadores with large land grants—encomiendas—that contained entire villages of Indians. In spite of these grants, the Spanish crown tried to keep direct control over their American lands. The Catholic Church also became an integral part of the administrative system, and mitigated some of the damage done by the conquistadores. By 1650, about half a million Spaniards immigrated to the New World. Since most were unmarried males, they married Indian or African women and produced a mixed-blood population. Spain’s empire proved to be a mixed blessing. The great influx of gold and silver made Spain rich and powerful, but set off a massive inflation and the Spanish crown became dependent on bullion imports.

1.5

The French Claim Canada French kings sent several expeditions to America. Jacques Cartier arrived in the Americas in 1534, and explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The region was settled by Frenchman Samuel de Champlain, who founded Quebec in 1608. The French settlers saw cooperation with Native Americans as the best way to succeed. French coureurs de bois traveled deep into Canada searching for furs. This led Jacques Marquette and Sieur de la Salle down the Mississippi, ultimately reaching the Gulf of Mexico. French Catholics had fair success in converting Native Americans. The French empire, however, was largely ignored by the French crown. The limited trading was easily controlled in Quebec, hindering economic growth.

1.6

The English Take Up the Challenge When the Italian John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), sailing for the English, crossed the Atlantic in 1497, England won a claim to the Americas. However, this claim was not pursued until the late sixteenth century. The English crown, though growing in strength under Henry VII and his successors, was not in a position to undertake overseas ventures. An alliance between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon in 1509 made English forays into what was perceived as the Spanish New World difficult. 4 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual Birth of English Protestantism: The Protestant Reformation turned England’s alliance with Spain into enmity. English Protestant zeal, strengthened by growing nationalism, made England a more notable European power. When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church to achieve a divorce from his wife, anticlerical feelings in England led most of his subjects to countenance the split with Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the church and transformed rich church lands into crown lands. A negative consequence of the break with Rome, on the other hand, was sectarian division, which weakened the crown. The Catholic Mary became queen in 1553, bringing a tide of anti-Protestant persecutions. The succession of Elizabeth in 1558 brought a moderate course of compromise between Catholic and Protestant observance. Religion, War, and Nationalism: Protestantism and nationalism merged in England. Successful minor skirmishes against the Spanish—basically pirate raids—strengthened a growing patriotism. Annoyed by English ambitions and the Protestant English queen, Philip II of Spain assembled the Spanish Armada to attack the English. In spite of its size, the Armada was easily overcome by the English fleet in 1588, and England emerged stronger than ever. Just before, in 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh had established the colony of Virginia. Conclusion: Campaign to Sell America Despite Ralegh’s failure, Richard Hakluyt kept English interest in America alive by tirelessly advertising the benefits of colonization. His book entitled The Principal Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation subtly argued that England needed American colonies. He did not mention, however, that those English people who went to America would encounter other peoples with different dreams about what America should be. Key Terms 1.1 o Beringia: Land bridge formerly connecting Asia and North America that is now submerged beneath the Bering Sea. o Agricultural Revolution: The gradual shift from hunting and gathering to cultivating basic food crops that occurred worldwide from 7,000 to 9,000 years ago. o Eastern Woodland Cultures: Term given to Indians from the Northeast region who lived on the Atlantic coast and supplemented farming with seasonal hunting and gathering. 1.2 o Columbian Exchange: The exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas from first contact throughout the era of exploration. 1.3 o conquistadores: Sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers, often of noble birth, who subdued the Native Americans and created the Spanish empire in the New World.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual 1.4 o Treaty of Tordesillas: Spain and Portugal signed this treaty in 1494. The treaty formally recognized a bull issued by Pope Alexander VI the previous year that had divided all newly discovered lands outside of Europe between these two Catholic nations. o encomienda system: An exploitive system by Spanish rulers that granted conquistadores control of Native American villages and their inhabitants’ labor. o Virgin of Guadalupe: Apparition of the Virgin Mary that has become a symbol of Mexican nationalism. 1.5 o coureurs de bois: Fur trappers in French Canada who lived among the Native Americans. 1.6 o Protestant Reformation: Sixteenth-century religious movement to reform and challenge the spiritual authority of the Roman Catholic Church. o The Spanish Armada: Spanish fleet sent to invade England in 1588. Questions for Discussion 1.1

Native Americans Before the Conquest What explains cultural differences among Native American groups before European conquest? Paleo-Indians crossed into North America from Asia 20,000 years ago. During the migrations, they divided into distinct groups, often speaking different languages. The Agricultural Revolution sparked population growth, allowing some groups, such as the Aztecs, to establish complex societies. The Eastern Woodland Indians, who lived along the Atlantic coast, had just begun to practice agriculture when the Europeans arrived.

1.2

Conditions of Conquest How did Europeans interact with West Africans and Native Americans during the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries? In Africa, early Europeans found powerful local rulers who knew how to profit from commercial exchange. Slaves who had been captured in distant wars were taken to slave factories where they were sold to Europeans and shipped to the New World. In the Americas, European newcomers insisted on “civilizing” Native Americans who often resented and rejected efforts to transform their cultures. Contagious Old World diseases, such as smallpox, decimated the Indians, leaving them vulnerable to cultural imperialism.

1.3

Europe on the Eve of Conquest What factors explain Spain’s central role in New World exploration and colonization? The unification of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella, and the experience of the Reconquista, provided Spain with advantages in its later conquest of the New World. The Spanish Crown supported the explorations of Christopher Columbus, giving the Spanish a head start.

1.4

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual How did Spanish conquest of Central and South America transform Native American cultures? Conquistadores conquered vast territories in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America during the sixteenth century. Catholic missionaries followed to convert the Indians to Christianity. Although the Spanish conquerors cruelly exploited the Indians as laborers, intermarriage between the groups created a new culture blending Spanish and Indian elements. 1.5

The French Claim Canada What was the character of the French empire in Canada? The French in Canada focused on trading rather than settlement. The coureurs de bois and Catholic missionaries lived among the Indians, learning their languages and customs. French explorers followed the extensive river networks of North America and claimed vast stretches along the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Rivers.

1.6

The English Take Up the Challenge Why did England not participate in the early competition for New World colonies? During the early 1500s, religious turmoil preoccupied England’s monarchs. After ascending the throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth I ended internal religious struggle by establishing an English Church that was Protestant in doctrine but Catholic in ceremony. Under Elizabeth, English nationalism merged with anti-Catholicism to challenge Spanish control of the Americas.

Toward Discussion The “Other” It is argued that we make sense of important experiences by constructing stories that give them coherence and meaning. The unexpected meeting of Indians, Europeans, and Africans in the Western Hemisphere after 1492 was interpreted differently by each of the parties involved. The Europeans explained it as the triumph of Christianity and progress over ignorance and idolatry. But the European interpretation was only one of the ways in which the events of 1492 were understood. Indians and Africans constructed very different stories. Literary critics have recently turned their attention to the vast literature that accompanied the first contacts between Europeans and Indians in America. Two aspects of the stories told by both sides seem especially interesting. The first is the conscious construction of histories by the Spanish explorers and conquistadores to explain or justify actions that may not have been premeditated. Columbus, for example, was probably not as visionary before 1492 as he later believed himself to be. In the contract he made with Queen Isabella before starting out on his famous voyage, he seems to have expected that he would most likely find, not Asia, but islands like the Canaries and Azores. He may have expected to sail into the Ocean Sea, not across it. Similarly, the Spanish tale of the conquest of Mexico as a great Christian crusade probably disguises an original intention to establish peaceful trade. Ironically, the conquest narratives may make the Spanish seem more bloodthirsty in intention than they really were. 7 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual The second interesting aspect of contact literature is how the Europeans, Indians, and Africans reacted to the “Other.” The concept of the “Other” derives mainly from structuralist theory, which argues that we shape the world through language by use of such polar opposites as “high and low,” “sacred and profane,” “raw and cooked,” “male and female.” One of the most potent of these pairs is “self and other.” It is argued that we construct a sense of self by differentiating ourselves from others, and that we construct a sense of otherness by differentiating others from ourselves. Since we usually impart values to the distinctions we make, the “Other” is never an equal. The “Other” is either vastly superior or grossly inferior, a god or a devil. Scholars working with such theories have produced interesting analyses of the First Contact period. Tzvetan Todorov, for example, argues that the Spanish victory over the Aztecs was more a triumph of language than of military technology. The Aztecs, in his opinion, used language primarily to communicate with the gods, with the result that their language, and the mental universe formed by language, was highly ritualistic, repetitive, and predictable. Europeans, on the other hand, used language in a more practical way to persuade and manipulate other humans. In their mental universe, the “Other” was unpredictable but manageable. Upon First Contact, the Aztecs were dumbfounded by an “Other” they found impossible to explain. Montezuma begged the gods to tell him what to do as the Spanish approached, but the gods fell silent. Cortés, however, was able to make false promises, to disguise his intentions, to distort the truth, and even to make seemingly supernatural omens conform to his own intentions. The Spanish defeated the Aztecs because they were more adept at manipulating the signs and symbols that make up a system of communication. The subject of the “Other” is especially interesting at a time when the possibility of contact with life beyond our planet is the subject of so much speculation. Students should be encouraged to make comparisons between 1492 and that unknowable time when we first encounter extraterrestrials. Much will depend upon whether we first meet a big-eyed, sadfaced ET or a slimy creature baring a full set of razor-sharp teeth, because we too, like the Europeans, Africans, and Indians of 1492, have already met our “Other.” Reliving the Past Columbus recorded his first encounter with the Taíno people on the island they called Guanahani when he first made landfall in the Western Hemisphere. This meeting of two worlds and two cultures proceeded rather peacefully but for a strange incident. Columbus took out his sword to show it to one of the natives who apparently thought he was being offered a gift. He took it and cut his hand. What did a Stone Age people think when they first saw the power of metal? And why had Columbus unsheathed his sword? See the translation of The Log of Christopher Columbus by Robert Fuson (Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing Company, 1987). The log itself is fascinating, and Fuson fully discusses the controversy over which island in the Bahamas was the one the Indians called Guanahani and Columbus called San Salvador. 8 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual One of the most dramatic encounters in American history was the meeting between Hernan Cortés and Montezuma. Both men behaved with solemn courtesy until Cortés attempted to embrace the emperor in the friendly Spanish abrazo. Montezuma’s bodyguards grabbed Cortés by the arm and stopped him, explaining that an embrace would greatly insult the emperor. That small episode epitomizes the difficulties Europeans and Indians had in crosscultural communication (Bernal Diaz, The Conquest of New Spain. New York: Penguin Paperback, 1967).

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual CHAPTER 2 England’s New World Experiments, 1607–1732 Learning Objectives 2.1

Why did the Chesapeake colonies not prosper during the earliest years of their settlement?

2.2

How did differences in religion affect the founding of the New England colonies?

2.3

How did ethnic diversity shape the development of the Middle Colonies?

2.4

How was the founding of the Carolinas different from the founding of Georgia?

Chapter Outline I. II.

III.

IV.

Profit and Piety: Competing Visions for English Settlement Breaking Away: Decisions to Move to America A. The Chesapeake: Dreams of Wealth B. Entrepreneurs in Virginia • Read the Document: John Smith, “The Starving Time” (1624) C. Threat of Anarchy • Read the Document: Chief Powhatan, Remarks to Captain John Smith (c. 1609) D. Tobacco Saves Virginia E. Time of Reckoning F. Maryland: A Catholic Refuge A “New” England in America A. The Puritan Migration to Massachusetts • Use MyHistoryLab Explorer to answer, How Did English Colonization Transform Eastern North America? B. “A City on a Hill” • Read the Document: John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity” (1630) C. Competing Truths in New England D. Mobility and Division Diversity in the Middle Colonies A. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry on the Hudson • Read the Document: Father Isaac Jogues, Description of New Amsterdam (1646) B. Confusion in New Jersey C. Quakers in America D. Penn’s “Holy Experiment • Read the Document: William Penn, “Model for Government” (1681) Planting the Southern Colonies 10 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual

VI.

A. Founding the Carolinas B. Founding of Georgia Conclusion: Living with Diversity

Chapter Summary Introduction: Profit and Piety: Competing Visions for English Settlement The early English colonies were characterized by diversity of goals and ideals. When the Virginia plantations came into conflict with Native Americans, the governor of Massachusetts failed to help. Thirty-one years later, in 1675, when the New Englanders came under attack, the governor of Virginia saw the attack as a deserved divine punishment and in his turn offered no help. The author uses the refusal of Massachusetts and Virginia to aid one another during times of crisis to illustrate the remarkable diversity that quickly characterized the different colonies. Although they were all English, they differed in religious practices, political institutions, and economic development. Differences rooted in conflicts in England were often increased in the colonies. 2.1 Breaking Away: Decisions to Move to America The English came to America for different reasons and with different backgrounds. Some wanted an opportunity to worship God in their own way; others wanted land. Some came in the early part of the century when England was relatively stable; others came at the end of the century after England had experienced a civil war. In America, the colonists had to adjust to different environments. The result was the development of different subcultures: the Chesapeake, New England, the Middle Colonies, and the Southern Colonies. The Chesapeake: Dreams of Wealth: After the disappearance of the Roanoke colony, there was little English interest in the Americas. Those who did advocate settlement viewed the Americas as a source of great natural resources. The English colonized the Chesapeake because they believed they could obtain instant profits. English anti-Spanish feeling also added a motivation, and prosecuting claims in North America would challenge Spanish ambitions. Entrepreneurs in Virginia: The great expense of colonization was solved in England with the joint-stock companies. These companies allowed pooling of wealth. The London Company, chartered in 1606, settled a colony at Jamestown in 1607 that met immediate disaster. The location in a swamp had been a mistake, but even worse was the failure of the colonists to work together for the common good. Threat of Anarchy: Captain John Smith, a tough professional soldier, saved the colonists by imposing order. The London Company helped, too, by reorganizing the government of the colony and by investing more money in the enterprise. A powerful Indian confederation under Powhatan, initially interested in alliance with the English, attacked the Virginia colony in 1622 and 1644. Jamestown was actually abandoned for a

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual few days in 1610 and was saved only by the coincidental arrival of a new shipload of colonists. Tobacco Saves Virginia: Tobacco had been growing as a common weed in the streets of Jamestown before John Rolfe recognized its value. He improved its quality and found a market for it in England. Finally, Virginians had discovered the way to wealth. The London Company, under Sir Edwin Sandys, encouraged large-scale immigration to Virginia by offering headrights, grants of land given to those who paid for the cost of immigration, and by giving the colonists a form of self-government in an elected body called the House of Burgesses. Time of Reckoning: After 1619, a rush of immigrants arrived in Virginia; few, however, survived for long. Many found that promises made in England, especially indentures, were often not honored. It was impossible to establish a normal family life because men outnumbered women by about six to one. The colony, therefore, could not count on a natural increase in its population. Disease and Indian attacks continued to take their toll, especially the sudden outbursts of violence in 1622 that almost wiped out the colony. Virginia remained a place to make a quick fortune and then leave before becoming one of the mortality statistics. The crown made Virginia a royal colony in 1624. The House of Burgesses continued to meet, and was recognized in 1639. Maryland: A Catholic Refuge: The founding of Maryland resulted from the efforts of George Calvert to find a place of refuge for his fellow English Catholics. After his death, his son, Cecilius (Lord Baltimore), received a charter to settle Maryland in 1632. He expected that he would govern the colony along with a few of his wealthy Catholic friends, but he knew that most of the immigrants who would come from England would be Protestant. He therefore issued a law requiring Christians to tolerate one another. Lord Baltimore failed to create the society he wanted. His wealthy friends were unwilling to relocate to America, and the common settlers in Maryland demanded a greater voice in the government. Above all, religious intolerance wrecked Baltimore’s plans. Protestants refused to tolerate Catholics, and the Protestants were strong enough to rise up in arms and seize control of the colony in 1655. Maryland’s early history differed from Virginia’s, but aggressive individualism, an absence of public spirit, and an economy based on tobacco characterized both colonies. 2.2 A “New” England in America The legend of the Puritans who came to settle New England is mostly fiction built around a core of solid history. Separatists from Scrooby, England, they were forced abroad by their refusal to attend Anglican services. The Netherlands offered the group a home, but fear of assimilation into Dutch culture drove some of the Scrooby group to sail to America. With limited funds, they negotiated a land patent with the Virginia Company, and found backers. Their ship, the Mayflower, set sail in 1620. Arriving in New England instead of Virginia as planned, with division threatening, 41 of the passengers signed the Mayflower Compact. The new Plymouth settlement was immediately faced with starvation and debt. They were assisted by Squanto and Massasoit, two Native Americans who taught the colonists how to survive in their new surroundings. 12 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual The Puritan Migration to Massachusetts: The second colony planted in New England was Massachusetts Bay, the home of the Puritans. The Puritans often have been caricatured as neurotics and prudes; in fact, they were men and women committed to changing the major institution of their society. Unlike the Separatists, the Puritans wished to remain within the Church of England, but they wanted the Church to give up all remaining vestiges of her Roman Catholic past. Puritans were also intensely nationalistic and desired a foreign policy that would align England with the Protestant states of Europe. They hoped to accomplish their goals by working within the system, but when King Charles I decided to rule the country without consulting with Parliament, the Puritans despaired. Some of them, led by John Winthrop, decided to establish a better society in America. The Massachusetts Bay Company was formed, and Charles, thinking the company no different from other joint-stock companies, granted it a charter in 1629. Ordinarily, the company should have kept its headquarters in England, where the king could supervise it, but the leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Company secretly agreed to bring the charter with them to America. “A City on a Hill”: The Winthrop fleet established settlements around Boston in 1630. The first settlers were joined within a year by 2,000 more, and the Bay Colony enjoyed a steady stream of immigration during its first decade: the Great Migration. Because the settlers usually came as family units, because the area was generally healthy, and because most of the Puritan colonists were willing to sacrifice self-interest for the good of the community, Massachusetts Bay avoided the misery that had characterized colonization in the Chesapeake. Puritans proved to be pragmatic and inventive in creating social institutions. They had no intention of separating from the Church of England, but immediately dispensed with those features of the Church they found objectionable. The result was Congregationalism, a system that stressed simplicity and in which each congregation was independent. Puritans created a civil government that was neither democratic nor theocratic. A larger proportion of adult males could vote in Massachusetts Bay than in England because the only requirement for voting was a spiritual one. If a man was “born again” he became a “freeman,” or voter, whether he owned property or not. The rulers of the Bay Colony were not democratic in our sense, however; they did not believe that elected officials should concern themselves with the wishes of those who had elected them. On the local level, Puritans created almost completely autonomous towns, and it was on this level that most men participated in public life. Village life was intensely communal even though townships were commercial properties, shares of which could be bought and sold. Competing Truths in New England: In order to protect individual rights and to clarify the responsibilities of citizenship, the General Court of Massachusetts Bay issued the Lawes and Liberties of 1648. This code of law marked the Puritans’ considerable progress in establishing a stable society. In the New World, the Puritans sought freedom of worship, but not for others. Not everyone was happy in Massachusetts Bay. The two most important dissidents were Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Williams, an extreme Separatist, condemned all civil states, even one governed by Puritans. He was expelled and settled in Rhode Island. Anne Hutchinson believed she was directly inspired 13 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual by the Holy Spirit, and that once a person was “born again,” he or she need not obey human-made laws (antinomianism). Because of her religious ideas and because an assertive woman threatened patriarchal authority, she too was expelled and went to Rhode Island. Mobility and Division: Massachusetts Bay spawned four other colonies: New Hampshire, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Of them, New Hampshire remained too small to be significant in the seventeenth century, and New Haven became part of Connecticut. Rhode Island received the Bay Colony’s outcasts (religious dissenters and Quakers for the most part), who continued to make as much trouble in Roger Williams’s colony as they had in John Winthrop’s. Connecticut, a well-populated colony that owed its first settlement to Thomas Hooker, duplicated the institutions and way of life of its mother colony. 2.3 Diversity in the Middle Colonies No section of the English empire was more diverse in its history, its ethnic and religious pluralism, or its political institutions than the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. These differences emerged from the very different goals that led to their settlement. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry on the Hudson: The Dutch settled New York after the voyages of Henry Hudson. The colony became the property of the Dutch West Indies Company, which gave New York little attention and sent incompetent officials. New York was Dutch in little more than ownership. Few immigrants came from Holland, so the Dutch population remained small. Even so, it was polyglot. Finns, Swedes, Germans, and Africans made up sizable minorities in the colony, and these people felt no loyalty to the Dutch West Indies Company. When England sent a fleet to take New York in 1664, the colony fell without a shot being fired. New York became the personal property of James, Duke of York (later King James II). His colony included New Jersey, Delaware, and Maine, as well as various islands. James attempted to rule this vast domain without allowing its inhabitants a political voice beyond the local level. The Dutch retained their language, and their religion, seemingly indifferent to the change of government Confusion in New Jersey: James, the Duke of York, gifted two courtiers who had served his father in the English Civil War land in what is now New Jersey. Two proprietary claims emerged, and East and West Jersey governments were formed. The Quakers who ran the West were so quarrelsome that William Penn gave up on them. Eventually bankruptcy brought a remerger of the territory, but throughout all the turmoil, James II never once showed a concern for New Jersey or her people. Quakers in America: Pennsylvania, the most important of the Middle Colonies, owed its settlement to the rise of a religious group, the Quakers, or Society of Friends, that was formed by George Fox in England in the 1650s. The Quakers lived a simple life, which included the principles of equality and pacifism. Their preaching raised antipathy in neighboring states, leading to imprisonment and even martyrdom. 14 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual Penn’s “Holy Experiment”: William Penn, the son of an admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, converted to the Society of Friends and became one of their leaders. He used his contacts to obtain a charter for Pennsylvania, which he intended to settle as a “Holy Experiment,” a society run on Quaker principles. In 1682, Penn announced a plan of government for Pennsylvania that contained some traditional features and some advanced features. Nearly all of the political power would be held by men of great wealth, but an elaborate system was designed to protect the rights of those without political or economic power. The scheme, however, proved too complicated to work. Penn successfully recruited immigrants from England, Wales, Ireland, and Germany; and Pennsylvania grew rapidly in population. Many of these immigrants were not Quakers, however, and felt no sense of obligation to make the “Holy Experiment” work. Even the Quakers in Pennsylvania fought among themselves, and the people of Delaware, after Penn bought the colony from the Duke of York, preferred to rule themselves. Diversity typified Pennsylvania’s emerging institutions. 2.4 Planting the Southern Colonies The Carolinas differed so much from the Chesapeake Colonies that it would be wrong to speak of the existence of “the South” in the seventeenth century. Founding the Carolinas: King Charles II granted Carolina in 1663 to eight friends and political allies who expected to sit back and collect rents as the colony filled up. Unfortunately for them, nobody went to Carolina. One of the colony’s proprietors, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper (the Earl of Shaftesbury), realized that a more active search for immigrants had to be made. He and John Locke, the famous philosopher, concocted a plan of government that would have given most power to a hereditary elite while at the same time protecting the rights of the small landowners. He also encouraged planters in Barbados, who were being crowded off the island, to take up land in Carolina. Cooper was somewhat successful. A string of settlements grew up around Charleston, but Cooper’s plan of government failed. The Barbadians, who dominated early Carolina, wanted as much self-government as they had enjoyed in Barbados. The Barbadians, in turn, were opposed by French Huguenot settlers, who felt loyal to the proprietors. Carolina became a colony in turmoil. In 1729, the Crown took over Carolina and divided it into two colonies: North and South Carolina. Founding of Georgia: Arising from antagonism between Britain and Spain, Georgia was founded in 1732 as a buffer to safeguard the Carolinas from Spanish claims. Although conceived by James Oglethorpe as a refuge for persons imprisoned for debt in England, Georgia attracted few immigrants. Arguing that they could not farm without unfree workers, the settlers won the right to import slaves. By 1751, it had become a small slave colony, much like South Carolina. Conclusion: Living with Diversity All of the colonies struggled for survival in their first phase, but as they developed, distinct regional differences intensified and persisted throughout the colonial period and even during the struggle for independence. Nevertheless, the colonists eventually developed a distinct identity, a phenomenon that historians have to explain. 15 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual

Key Terms 2.1 o joint-stock company: Business enterprise that enabled investors to pool money for commerce and funding for colonies. o House of Burgesses: The elective representative assembly in colonial Virginia. o headright: System of land distribution in which settlers were granted a 50-acre plot of land from the colonial government for each servant or dependent that they transported to the New World. It encouraged the recruitment of a large servile labor force. o indentured servants: Persons who agreed to serve a master for a set number of years in exchange for the cost of transport to America. Indentured servitude was the dominant form of labor in the Chesapeake colonies before slavery. 2.2 o Mayflower Compact: Agreement among the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 to create a civil government at Plymouth Colony. o Puritans: Members of a reformed Protestant sect in Europe and America that insisted on removing all vestiges of Catholicism from religious practice. o Great Migration: Migration of 16,000 Puritans from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1630s. o antinomianism: Religious belief rejecting traditional moral law as unnecessary for Christians who possess saving grace and affirming that a person could experience divine revelation and salvation without the assistance of formally trained clergy. 2.3 o Quakers: Members of a radical religious group, formally known as the Society of Friends, that rejects formal theology and stresses each person’s “inner light,” a spiritual guide to righteousness. Questions for Discussion 2.1 Breaking Away: Decisions to Move to America Why did the Chesapeake colonies not prosper during the earliest years of settlement? Poor governance in early Virginia, founded in 1607, led to starvation and hostilities with the Powhatan Indians. Founded in 1634 as a refuge for Catholics, Maryland’s early politics were plagued by religious tensions that sometimes led to large-scale violence. Both colonies imported predominately young, male indentured servants as laborers and suffered high mortality rates from disease. This resulted in transient and unruly societies with few stable families. 2.2 A “New” England in America How did differences in religion affect the founding of the New England colonies? Religious persecution drove thousands of Puritans to New England. John Winthrop hoped the settlers would reform English Protestantism and create a “City on a Hill.” The Puritans did not welcome dissent. They exiled Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson to 16 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual Rhode Island for their religious beliefs. Stable nuclear families and good health helped Puritans avoid the social turmoil that plagued the Chesapeake colonies. 2.3 Diversity in the Middle Colonies How did ethnic diversity shape the development of the Middle Colonies? After conquering the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, the English renamed it New York. Despite the conquest, the Dutch remained an influential minority in the colony, and ethnic rivalries shaped the politics of New York for many decades. In 1681, Charles II granted William Penn, a Quaker, a charter to establish Pennsylvania. Penn’s guarantee to respect all Christian settlers’ liberty of conscience drew immigrants from across Northern Europe. 2.4 Planting the Southern Colonies How was the founding of the Carolinas different from the founding of Georgia? Immigrants from Barbados began settling in the Carolinas in the 1670s. Barbadian immigrants to the Carolinas, many of whom were wealthy planters seeking new lands for plantations, brought slavery with them when they moved. Georgia was founded in 1732 as an alternative to debtors’ prison for impoverished Englishmen and as a military outpost to guard against the Spanish in Florida. Toward Discussion Folkways College students are a well-traveled lot and have experienced for themselves some of the regional diversity that still characterizes the United States. When asked to describe such differences, they immediately mention sectional accents. Many students have also noticed regional differences in food, architecture, and what is vaguely referred to as “style.” Considering all the forces working to homogenize American culture, it is amazing that the United States still retains vestiges of cultural diversity that can be traced back to the colonial era. Early American historians have only recently begun to appreciate the astonishing variety of English cultures in the seventeenth century. England was a small island of little more than 4 million people in 1600, yet those people lived in a series of subcultures that were often incomprehensible to one another. The basic division was between the heavily populated southeast and the still forested northwest, but differences between counties, or even between villages, were enormous. Only those who grew up in the vicinity, for example, would have understood that someone “stabbed with a Bridgeport dagger” had actually been hanged, the point being that Bridgeport produced excellent rope. Only local residents knew that a “Jack of Dover” was warmed-over food. Of greater interest to Americans are those English cultural traits that crossed the Atlantic. The high-pitched nasal twang of East Anglia migrated to Massachusetts Bay and became the “typical” Yankee New England accent. People in the west of England tended to speak in a soft drawl, drawing out their vowels until “I” sounded like “Ah.” It was possible in 17 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual seventeenth-century Hampshire County to hear people say, “Ah be poorly,” meaning “I am ill.” That style of speech, it is assumed, laid the foundation for today’s “southern accent.” Students should be reminded that many of the immigrants called British had little in common with the people called English. Cornish was still a living language, and ancient Gaelic ways of life held the allegiance of the people of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Some historians today argue that it was the Celtic immigration that brought into America what is sometimes referred to as “Cracker culture.” If we further consider the large German immigration of the eighteenth century and the even larger influx of Africans, we can easily understand that English culture, varied as it was from the outset, would be transmuted into yet more varied regional subcultures in colonial America. Reliving the Past John Smith’s whole life was so filled with improbable adventures that some historians have written him off as a hopeless liar. In his Generall Historie of Virginia, printed in 1624, Smith described how he was captured by the Indians and rescued from imminent death by the Indian princess, Pocahontas (Book 3, Chapter II). It would be interesting to compare the story there with two earlier accounts covering the same period. There are striking discrepancies. Philip Barbour has edited The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986, 3 volumes). William Bradford described the departure of the Pilgrims from Holland and the last farewells exchanged between friends and relatives who knew they would never meet again. Bradford’s simple, graceful prose expresses the anguish that must have gripped the millions of Europeans for whom a better life in America was purchased and the heartbreak of those who stayed behind. The best edition of Bradford’s journal is the one edited by Samuel Eliot Morison, Of PIymouth Plantation (New York: Knopf, 1963).

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual CHAPTER 3 Putting Down Roots: Opportunity and Oppression in Colonial Society, 1619–1692 Learning Objectives 3.1

What factors explain the remarkable social stability achieved in early New England?

3.2

What factors contributed to political unrest in the Chesapeake region during this period?

3.3

How did African American slaves preserve an independent cultural identity in the New World?

3.4

Why did England discourage free and open trade in colonial America?

3.5

How did colonial revolts affect the political culture of Virginia and New England?

Chapter Outline I. II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

Families in an Atlantic Empire Social Stability: New England Colonies of the Seventeenth Century A. Immigrant Families and New Social Order B. Puritan Women in New England • Read the Document: Prenuptial Agreement (1653) C. Establishing a New Social Order • Read the Document: Anne Bradstreet, Before the Birth of One of Her Children (1650) The Challenge of the Chesapeake Environment A. Families at Risk B. The Structure of Planter Society Race and Freedom in British America A. Roots of Slavery • Use MyHistoryLab Explorer to answer, In What Ways Was British North America Involved in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade? B. Constructing African American Identities • Read the Document: Anonymous, A Defense of the Slave Trade (1740) • Read the Document: James Oglethorpe, The Stono Rebellion (1739) Blueprint for an Empire A. Response to Economic Competition B. Regulating Colonial Trade Colonial Political Revolts A. Civil War in Virginia: Bacon’s Rebellion B. The Glorious Revolution in the Bay Colony C. Contagion of Witchcraft Conclusion: Foundations of an Atlantic Empire 19 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual •

Read the Document: Cotton Mather, Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions (1689)

Chapter Summary Introduction: Families in an Atlantic Empire The author begins with the experience of an ordinary family who immigrated to South Carolina in the eighteenth century to remind us that colonization was the work of families, the basic unit of society. The Witherspoons arrived in South Carolina in the early 1700s and were daunted by the dangers and the difficult living conditions they confronted. The family was not only a social unit but also the basis of enterprise. Influenced by local conditions, the societies developed by these families varied greatly. In New England, for example, families were stable; in the Chesapeake, they were fragile. After 1660, a trend toward cultural convergence began, primarily because the Crown imposed a set of uniform commercial regulations. 3.1 Social Stability: New England Colonies of the Seventeenth Century The social system of New England was largely one imported from England. New England Puritans seem to find continuing their familiar way of life easier than did settlers in the Chesapeake colonies. Immigrant Families and New Social Order: Most New England immigrants arrived as members of a nuclear, “godly” family in which the father exerted strong authority. They therefore found it easier to cope with the wilderness and to preserve English ways. It was even possible to reproduce an English family structure in New England because the sex ratio was about even. Marriage patterns were also substantially similar to those of contemporary England. New England families differed from the English pattern in only one important aspect: People lived longer in New England. This meant that parents could expect to see their children grow up, marry, and have their own children. Moreover, children frequently grew up knowing their grandparents, increasing the continuity of traditions. Puritan Women in New England: A gender division of labor prevailed in the colonies. For women, this work concentrated on food production. Women attended churches in great number, generally far outnumbering men. Again continuing English practice, women’s legal rights were limited, and divorce was hard to obtain. Both men and women generally accepted the gendered roles they felt were part of the divine plan. Establishing a New Social Order: Social distinctions emerged in New England in the 1600s. Accepting that social hierarchy was the natural order, they nevertheless disagreed about how to determine the hierarchy and to maintain it. Most of the colonists were yeoman farmers, proud of their independence. Life-cycle servitude, in which most adolescents spent some time in neighboring households, was the most common pattern. By 1700, the New England Puritans were proud of the society they had created. 3.2 The Challenge of the Chesapeake Environment 20 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual The high death rate suffered in early Virginia, more than any other factor, created a society far different from the one that evolved in New England. Families at Risk: Most of the immigrants settling in Virginia came as young male indentured servants and most died soon after arriving. Normal family life became impossible. Even if a man found a wife, the chances were that one of the partners would die within a decade. Children were frequently orphaned, growing up in a stranger’s home. Women, because they were so scarce, may have been in a good position to bargain in the marriage market, but women who did not have a family to protect them were especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation. The Structure of Planter Society: In Virginia, wealth meant tobacco, but growing tobacco in large quantities required large amounts of labor. Those who were most prosperous were able to amass a large number of dependent workers who could be pushed as hard as possible. The largest class in the Chesapeake was freemen: those who had come as indentured servants. Below them were those who remained in servitude. By the late seventeenth century, Virginian society became less fluid. The death rate declined and the gentry passed on their wealth to their children. An indigenous ruling elite emerged, more interested in Virginia than in England, and they gave the colony a greater degree of stability. This creole elite was defined not only by wealth but also by slave ownership. Meantime, freemen increasingly found their opportunities restricted in the Chesapeake. The practice arose of sending boys to be educated in Europe, leaving higher education in the southern colonies behind that of the northern colonies. Tobacco also dictated that Virginians live along the great tidal rivers within easy reach of water-borne commerce. The population therefore dispersed, and Virginia remained a completely rural society, devoid of towns. 3.3 Race and Freedom in British America Africans were brought to America against their will in order to fill the places of the Indians who had been decimated and the European indentured servants who did not come in sufficient numbers. Roots of Slavery: The English colonies in America received only a small percentage of the 8 to 11 million Africans taken from their native land, because North American colonies could not pay the price for slaves that the West Indies could. Nevertheless, the English colonists took as many slaves as they could acquire. Although slavery had died out in England, economic motivations fueled its continuance in the colonies. Slavery was justified by claims that Africans were being rescued from barbarism and heathenism. The first slaves arrived in Virginia in 1619. So long as the black population remained small in Virginia, the government did not bother to define their legal position. After 1672, Virginia began to receive a steady supply of slaves from the Royal African Company, and as the number of slaves increased, their legal oppression became more strict. Africans, simply because they were black, were slaves for life, and their status was passed on to their children. White masters could even murder slaves without worrying much about the legal consequences. 21 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual Constructing African American Identities: The slave experience differed from place to place. Some Africans lived in societies where they never saw a white, while others lived in communities where they were a small and distinct minority. Africans made up a majority of the population of South Carolina and nearly half that of Virginia but were less numerous in New England and the Middle Colonies. There was a tendency for blacks who had successfully coped with white society to look down on recent arrivals from Africa who had not yet learned English. Northern slaves tended to be more isolated from one another than those farther south and were less able to develop their own culture. However, all Africans participated in the creation of an African American culture, which required an imaginative reshaping of African and European customs. By the early eighteenth century, Africans in America had become numerous enough to begin to reproduce themselves successfully, a fact that ensured their permanence in American life. Blacks resented the debased status forced upon them and occasionally rose up in arms, as in 1739, when blacks killed several whites at Stono, South Carolina. Such rebellions, though crushed, kept whites worried. 3.4 Blueprint for an Empire Until the 1660s, the English Crown ignored the colonies. During the Restoration of the English monarchy, the king finally realized the profits to be made by regulating colonial trade. This section discusses the mercantile system in general and the Navigation Acts in particular. Response to Economic Competition: Mercantilism was the dominant economic ideology of the colonial period. Its leading tenet was that one nation’s gain must be another nation’s loss. Influential interest groups pressured the English government for protection, while the crown was primarily interested in revenue. Taken together, these forces provided a model for the first British Empire. Regulating Colonial Trade: The Navigation Act of 1660 was the heart of England’s system of regulation. It restricted trade within the empire to English (including American) ships and enumerated certain cargo, such as tobacco, which could not be sold to foreigners until it had first landed at an English port. Another act, the Staple Act of 1663, required that most goods going to America had to come from or through England. The Dutch resented these laws, which spoiled their profitable intermediary position, and Holland fought three wars against England to force their abrogation. The Dutch failed, but New England merchants were more successful in violating the regulations or finding loopholes in them. The English government retaliated by passing even stricter regulations and by sending agents to the colonies to prosecute smugglers. The most important agent was Edward Randolph, who made himself obnoxious by sending damning reports about New England back to London. England’s imperial officials were hardly competent to regulate colonies so far away. Often one office did something that completely contradicted what another was trying to accomplish. Nevertheless, for every new problem, England passed more laws. The most important colonial agency was the Board of Trade, created in 1696. The Navigation Acts became effective over time, mainly because colonial merchants found it to their benefit to obey them. 22 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual 3.5 Colonial Political Revolts The uniform legal system that Britain imposed on the colonies did not erase wellestablished differences. While in the past historians saw these rebellions as practice for the American Revolution, more recent research has cast them in a different light. Ideology played only a small role, and the rebellions were mainly factional, not between rulers and ruled. Civil War in Virginia: Bacon’s Rebellion: In the years after 1660, a long depression hit the Virginia economy. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon, an Indian-hating recent immigrant, led a rebellion against the royal governor, William Berkeley. Berkeley had ordered a line of forts to defend the plantations against Indian attacks, but his plans could be construed as protecting his own interests. Bacon’s attack allowed small farmers, blacks, and women to join together to demand reforms. The rebellion, however, collapsed after Bacon died. The gentry recovered their positions and in the eighteenth century became a united force in opposition to a series of royal governors. The Glorious Revolution in the Bay Colony: The Puritan sense of independence was challenged by the Navigation Acts. The Puritans found it hard to adjust to English regulations. Metacomet—also known as King Philip—joined with the Narragansett Indians in attacks on New England villages. The colony was left in debt and uncertain of its future. In 1684, King James II annulled the charter of Massachusetts Bay and incorporated the colonies stretching from Maine to New Jersey under a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. In 1689, when news reached America that James II had been overthrown in England, a rebellion broke out in Boston and Andros was deposed. The new monarchs of England, William III and Mary, gave Massachusetts a charter that took the franchise away from “saints” and gave it to those with property. Contagion of Witchcraft: The crises of the late seventeenth century culminated in the Salem witchcraft panic. Although witches had been arrested and executed before 1691, large numbers were involved in this outbreak of hysteria. After the death of twenty victims, the panic subsided and a shocked community confessed its guilt. Conclusion: Foundations of an Atlantic Empire England’s attitude toward its North American colonies changed in the seventeenth century, and life in the New World changed in consequence. Yet English rule did not erase the deep regional differences that had developed before 1660. No sense of common cause among the colonies had yet emerged. Key Terms 3.1 o yeoman: Southern small landholders who owned no slaves, and who lived primarily in the foothills of the Appalachian and Ozark mountains. They were self-reliant and grew mixed crops, although they usually did not produce a substantial amount to be sold on the market. 23 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual 3.3 o Royal African Company: Slave-trading company created to meet colonial planters’ demands for black laborers. 3.4 o mercantilism: An economic theory that shaped the colonial period, mercantilism assumed that the supply of wealth was fixed. To increase its wealth, a nation needed to export more goods than it imported. Favorable trade and protective economic policies and colonial possessions rich in raw materials were important in achieving this balance. o enumerated goods: Raw materials, such as tobacco, sugar, and rice, that were produced in the British colonies and under the Navigation Acts had to be shipped only to England or its colonies. o Navigation Acts: Commercial restrictions that regulated colonial commerce to favor England’s accumulation of wealth (see mercantilism). 3.5 o Bacon’s Rebellion: An armed rebellion in Virginia (1675‒1676) led by Nathaniel Bacon against the colony’s royal governor, Sir William Berkeley. Although some of his followers called for an end to special privilege in government, Bacon was chiefly interested in gaining a larger share of the lucrative Indian trade. o Dominion of New England: Incorporation of the New England colonies under a single appointed royal governor that lasted from 1686 to 1689. o Glorious Revolution: Replacement of James II by William III and Mary II as English monarchs in 1688, marking the beginning of constitutional monarchy in Britain. o spectral evidence: In the Salem witch trials, the court allowed reports of dreams and visions—in which the accused appeared as the devil’s agent—to be introduced as testimony. The accused had no defense against this kind of “evidence.” When the judges later disallowed this testimony, the executions for witchcraft ended. Questions for Discussion 3.1 Social Stability: New England Colonies of the Seventeenth Century What factors explain the remarkable social stability achieved in early New England? Seventeenth-century New Englanders migrated to America in family groups, ensuring that the ratio of men to women remained roughly even, making it easier for young people to marry and start families. Stable marriage, together with New England’s healthy climate, led to rapid population growth. While many young New Englanders served as servants, most seventeenth-century colonists eventually acquired property. 3.2 The Challenge of the Chesapeake Environment What factors contributed to political unrest in the Chesapeake region during this period? Most immigrants to the early Chesapeake colonies were single young male indentured servants. Disease killed many of them shortly after arriving. Men outnumbered women, making it difficult for freemen to marry. Because of the short life expectancy, marriages did not last long. Economic inequality and family instability contributed to political unrest. 24 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual 3.3 Race and Freedom in British America How did African American slaves preserve an independent cultural identity in the New World? Slaves, especially those in the South, developed new creole languages that blended English with African languages. They established enduring kinship networks that helped mitigate the hardships of slavery. Enslaved Africans also developed new forms of music and folk art that drew upon African roots and adapted the Christianity taught them by their masters to include African religious elements. 3.4 Blueprint for an Empire Why did England discourage free and open trade in colonial America? During the seventeenth century, Parliament passed mercantilist laws declaring that colonial raw materials and commerce would benefit only the mother country and not a European rival. These commercial regulations represented England’s new blueprint for the empire. 3.5 Colonial Political Revolts How did colonial revolts affect the political culture of Virginia and New England? During Bacon’s Rebellion, landless freemen rose up against the governor and demanded Indian lands. Although the rebellion failed, it unified Virginia’s ruling elite. In 1684, James II restructured the northern colonies to increase crown authority. New Englanders threw off the Dominion of New England in 1689 and negotiated for government charters that allowed significant local autonomy. Toward Discussion The Calculus of Slavery Historians are interested in slavery, students in racism. Historians want to know how and when slavery originated and developed as an institution protected by law; students want to know why whites and blacks, who have so much in common, still seem to identify themselves as if they were different people with different cultures. Slavery is one of the most painful and difficult topics in American history, but you have a chance in this chapter to make the point that institutions usually reflect social demands and that institutions designed to serve one purpose can be adapted to serve altogether different ends. American slavery clearly began as the profitable solution to an economic problem. By the time slavery was destroyed, it had become the unprofitable solution to a social problem. The question of English racism is being reconsidered by scholars at present, but even if it existed to a significant degree in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it would have worked both for and against the introduction of enslaved Africans into the colonies. If the English hated or feared Africans enough to enslave them, why not keep Africans out of the colonies altogether? Whatever the truth about English racism, it is clear that

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual economics played the crucial role in the introduction of slavery into British North America. An English colonist wealthy enough to buy labor had a choice between an English or European indentured servant and an enslaved African. Until around 1700 in British North America, the choice was usually to buy a servant because that purchase made more economic sense. The planter made a series of calculations that you can present to your students in the form of a simple model. The planter weighed four factors: the initial cost of the laborer, the annual cost of maintenance, the annual output per worker, and the length of service. If it is explained that servants usually worked for five years, your students will focus on the length of service and give the economic edge to slavery, especially considering that a person enslaved for life could actually bear children, who would be in turn enslaved for life. You should require your students to pay more attention to the initial cost of a laborer. The British North American colonies were always on the fringe of the Atlantic slave trade. About 90 percent of the 10 million people taken from Africa were carried to the sugar plantations in Brazil and the West Indies. The British mainland colonies had to pay a premium to divert slave traders from their preferred routes with the result that an African laborer in the colonial period cost four or five times more than an indentured servant, a price so high that only the largest tobacco and rice growers in North America could afford to buy people directly from Africa. Through most of the colonial period, the up-front cost was the critical factor in determining whether to buy a servant or a slave. There was relatively little difference in the cost of maintenance. Servants did not live luxuriously, nor could slaves be starved. The productivity of slaves and servants depended less on their status than on the quality of the soil they worked and the amount of equipment they used. When all the calculation was done, the planter wound up weighing the initial cost of the laborer against the expected length of service. A servant worked only five years or so, but these were prime working years. A slave and his or her children would work for life, but some planters doubted that a slave too young or too old was worth having. More importantly, the death rate in the seventeenth-century Chesapeake and in the South Carolina rice fields was so high that neither whites nor blacks could expect to live to a ripe old age. A planter who purchased a servant was taking a chance that he or she would survive for five years. A planter who paid much more for a slave was taking an even greater risk. Until about 1700, the prudent choice was to buy a servant. If the high death rates of the seventeenth century had continued, North America would have largely escaped the curse of slavery, but times changed. After 1700, British merchants dominated the slave trade and opened a direct trade between Africa and the colonies. At the same time, life expectancy in the Chesapeake improved. The combination of these two factors, plus the desire to profit without regard to morality, fastened slavery upon British North America. What clearly began as an economic institution soon became a racist social arrangement. Even before the American Revolution, there was a common white belief that blacks 26 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual were inherently inferior and had to be kept in a subordinate position, whether that was slavery or some other status. By the eve of the Civil War, white southerners truly believed that slavery had ceased to be profitable, but slavery had become for them the only possible social system that would allow whites and blacks to live side by side, and they were willing to fight and die for that system. The history of slavery in America will distress your students, and you should offer them the hope that the more they understand our past, the more powerful they will be to make a better future. Reliving the Past The most interesting event in the period covered by this chapter was the Salem witchcraft episode. The trial transcripts give us a rare opportunity to learn about seventeenth-century women, who formed the majority of both accused and accusers. One woman, Susannah Martin, struck at the very heart of the prosecution’s case when she demonstrated from the Scriptures that evil spirits could impersonate innocent people. The best source to use is Records of Salem Witchcraft, Copied from the Original Documents (New York: Da Capo Press, 1969 reprint) because it includes the legal papers that preceded each trial. A more available collection of documents is Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum (eds.), SalemVillage Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in Colonial New England (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1993 edition). The most dramatic moment in the rebellions of the late seventeenth century came when Nathaniel Bacon marched with an army into Jamestown, Virginia, and confronted Governor William Berkeley. Thomas Mathew, an eyewitness, described in vivid detail Bacon’s gesticulations and Berkeley’s grand gesture when he opened his coat and dared Bacon to shoot him. Mathew’s account, “The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon’s Rebellion, 1675– 1676,” is in Charles M. Andrews (ed.), Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675–1690 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1915 reprint). This volume is one in a series well worth browsing through: J. Franklin Jameson (ed.), Original Narratives of Early American History.

Brands, American Stories 3e Instructor’s Manual CHAPTER 4 Experience of Empire: Eighteenth-Century America, 1680–1763 Learning Objectives 4.1

What difficulties did Native Americans face in maintaining their cultural independence on the frontiers of English and Spanish settlement?

4.2

How did European ideas affect eighteenth-century American life?

4.3

How did the Great Awakening transform the religious culture of colonial America?

4.4

Why were eighteenth-century colonial assemblies not fully democratic?

4.5

Why did colonial Americans support Great Britain’s wars against France?

Chapter Outline I. II.

Constructing an Anglo-American Identity: The Journal of William Byrd Tensions in the Backcountry • Read the Document: Benjamin Franklin, Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling Countries, etc. (1751) A. Scots-Irish Flee English Oppression B. Germans Search for a Better Life • Read the Document: Legal Statement by Pedro Hidalgo, soldier, Santa Fe (1680) C. Native Americans Stake Out a Middle Ground D. Conquering New Spain’s Northern Frontier E. Peoples of the Spanish Borderlands III. The Impact of European Ideas on American Culture A. American Enlightenment B. Benjamin Franklin C. Economic Transformation D. Birth of a Consumer Society IV. Religious Revivals in Provincial Societies A. The Great Awakening • Read the Document: Benjamin Franklin, On George Whitefield (1771) B. Evangelical Religion • Read the Document: Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God V. Clash of Political Cultures A. Governing the Colonies: The American Experience B. Colonial Assemblies VI. Century of Imperial War A. The French Threat 28 Copyright © 2014, 2012 & 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.