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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. Hominins are members of an evolutionary lineage which includes our own species, Homo sapiens, and all extinct bipedal relatives. 1. The 3.7 million year-old footprints at the ancient savanna site of Laetoli, as well as numerous fossil discoveries in Africa, are clear evidence of bipedalism. The footprints in what is now Tanzania in eastern Africa indicate the presence of Australopithecus afarensis. 2. The foot prints at the moon and the Laetoli footprints both represent humankind’s place in nature. 3. Homo sapiens are the result of the same evolutionary forces that produced all other life forms on this planet. 4. Evolution is defined as the change in the genetic structure of a population. a. Evolution can be studied at the microevolutionary or macroevolutionary level. b. It also involves the study of human variation and adaptation. II. The Human Connection A. Human beings are linked to all other life forms on earth biologically and behaviorally. 1. There is a biological continuum because we are the product of the same evolutionary forces that produced all living things. 2. There is a behavioral continuum between humans and other life forms, especially with the nonhuman primates. III. Biocultural Evolution A. Biological anthropologists are involved in the study of physiological and biological systems, yet the role of culture must also be considered. 1. Culture is the strategy by which humans adapt to the natural environment. 2. Each culture shapes people’s perceptions of the external environment, or worldview. 3. Culture is learned and not genetically determined, yet the predisposition is profoundly influenced by biological factors. The mutual, interactions between biology and culture is biocultural evolution. a. Biocultural evolution makes humans unique. b. It has resulted in many anatomical, biological, and behavioral changes during the course of human evolution. IV. What Is Anthropology? A. In the United States anthropology is divided into four main subfields: a. Cultural (or social) anthropology b. Archaeology c. Linguistic Anthropology d. Physical (or biological) anthropology e. Applied Anthropology refers to practical applications of each of these subfields B. Cultural Anthropology is the study of the patterns of belief and behavior found in modern and historical cultures. 1. Early anthropologists concentrated on producing ethnographies, but later broadened their scope to include anthropologists’ own cultures and the people around them. 2. Ethnographic techniques are now used to study diverse subcultures and their interactions with one another in contemporary metropolitan areas (urban anthropology.)

C. Linguistic Anthropology is the study of human speech and language and different aspects of culture, such as the role of symbols in society, social identity, and cultural beliefs and ideologies. 1. Linguists examine similarities between contemporary languages to trace historical ties between languages and groups of languages. 2. The spontaneous acquisition and use of language is a uniquely human characteristic. a. Linguistic anthropology also interests physical anthropologists because it provides insights into the processes responsible for the development of language in human evolution. D. Archaeology is the study of earlier cultures and lifeways by anthropologists who specialize in the scientific recovery, analysis, and interpretation of the material remains of past societies. 1. The primary sources of information are artifacts and other material culture. 2. Archaeologists excavate in order to gain information about human behavior and in broader issues, such as the development of agriculture or the rise of cities. E. Physical Anthropology is the study of human biology within an evolutionary framework with emphasis on interaction between biology and culture. 1. Physical anthropology and biological anthropology are synonymous. a. The use of the term biological anthropology reflects a shift towards genetics, evolutionary biology, nutrition, adaptation, and growth and development through advances in genetics. b. Origins date back to 19th century “natural historians” who questioned the validity of the Bible (most significantly Charles Darwin). 2. Paleoanthropology is the subfield concerned with the study of anatomical and behavioral human evolution as revealed in the fossil record. a. Paleoanthropologists identify fossil hominin species and their evolutionary relationships and attempt to reconstruct their adaptations and behaviors. 3. Human variation was a major area of interest for early biological anthropologists. a. It was mainly concerned with the most obvious observable physical difference, skin color, body proportions and shape of the head and face. b. Today, human variation offers a perspective on adaptive significance and genetic factors of variation. c. Nutritional anthropologists study relationships between various dietary components, cultural practices, physiology, and aspects of health and disease. d. Molecular anthropologists investigate evolutionary relationships between human populations and nonhuman primates using similarities and differences in DNA. 4. Osteology is the subfield concerned with the study of the skeleton. Knowledge of the structure and function of the skeletal system is crucial for understanding the fossil record, and it forms the foundation for the analysis of archaeologically-derived human skeletal materials. a. Bioarchaeology refers to the study of human skeletal remains from archaeological sites. 5. Paleopathology focuses on the analysis of skeletal samples, noting the incidence of trauma, disease, nutritional deficiency, and any other pathological condition that leaves traces on bones. 6. Forensic anthropology is the application of archaeological and osteological techniques to legal matters. a. Forensic anthropologists help identify and analyze skeletal remains that have legal significance. b. They also aid in the identification of remains after mass disasters; the identification of the September 11 terrorist attack victims is a recent example. 7. Anatomy is an important area of interest; a thorough knowledge of soft tissue anatomy is essential to understanding the biomechanical relationships involved in movement. 8. Primatology is the subfield concerned with the study of nonhuman primate biology and behavior.

F. Applied Anthropology 1. Applied anthropology is aimed at the practical application of anthropological theories and methods outside of the academic setting, yet it includes both academic and applied methods. a. Forensic anthropologists are a good example of the applied approach. 2. Applied approaches in biological anthropology are numerous. V. Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method A. Science is a method for gaining information to explain natural phenomena. 1. A hypothesis is defined as a provisional explanation of phenomena. 2. The hypothesis must be tested through additional quantitative data collection and analysis. The goal is to falsify the hypothesis through empirical research. a. If the hypothesis cannot be falsified through rigorous testing, then it rises to the level of a theory; a broad statement of scientific relationships substantiated through hypothesis testing. (i) Theories are not absolute truths, since they may be disproved in light of new empirical evidence. (ii) Theories are not facts but tested explanations of facts. 3. Scientific Testing refers to the precise repetition of an experiment or expansion of observed data to provide verification; the procedure by which hypotheses and theories are verified, modified, or discarded. a. Any proposition that is stated as absolute or does not allow the possibility of falsification is not a scientific hypothesis and should never be considered as such. VI. The Anthropological Perspective A. The anthropological perspective stresses that human beings can only be understood by broadening our perspectives over space and through time. 1. By extending our knowledge to include cultures other than our own, we hope to avoid the ethnocentric bias. 2. In a relativistic view of culture, anthropologists seek information from as many different cultures in as many different ecological circumstances as possible (broadening perspective over space) as we become an increasingly interdependent global community. Key Terms and Concepts Adaptation, p. 5 Anthropology, p. 4-5 Applied anthropology, p. 11 Artifacts, p. 11 Behavior, p. 6 Bioarchaeology, p. 15 Biocultural evolution, p. 10 Bipedally, p 4-5 Continuum, p. 6 Culture, p. 6 Data, p. 19 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), p. 15 Empirical, p. 19 Ethnocentric, p. 21 Ethnographies, p. 11 Evolution, p. 5 Forensic anthropology, p. 16

Genetic, p. 5 Hominins, p. 3-4 Hypotheses, p. 19 Osteology, p. 15 Paleoanthropology, p. 12 Paleopathology, p. 16 Primates, p. 4-5 Primatology, p. 17 Quadrupedal, p. 21 Quantitatively, p. 19 Relativistic, p. 21 Savanna, p. 3-4 Science, p. 19 Scientific method, p. 19 Scientific testing, p. 20 Species, p. 3-4 Theory, p. 20 Worldview, p. 6 Lecture Suggestions 1. Discuss any previous knowledge students had about anthropology and how this changed after reading the chapter. How does anthropology address the question of what it means to be human? 2. Describe your own research interests and explain how the focus fits into the discipline of anthropology. How does it address broader anthropological questions? 3. Discuss the importance of cultural diversity today. How is culture an adaptive strategy? What examples can students suggest to this question? 4. Ask students to define culture in their own words. Compare students’ definitions to suggest ways that different backgrounds may influence how people regard themselves and their culture. 5. Compare and contrast biological and cultural evolution. What examples do students know of each of these types of change? How are they alike and different? How does each relate to the concept of adaptation? 6. Give various examples of applied anthropology projects and discuss the importance of anthropology in our world today. What current problems do students think could most benefit from an “anthropological perspective”? 7. Expand the discussion of the scientific method. Explore how most people tend to generalize from isolated events and anecdotal information. Point out that this approach differs significantly from that of data collection and hypothesis testing. 8. Explore the differences between objective and subjective data. Suggest that students track the information they receive in one hour, noting whether the information is subjective or objective. 9. Present an interesting current events item to students. Compare, evaluate, and discuss ethnocentric and relativistic viewpoints associated with the story. 10. Present several case studies in physical anthropology and ask students to evaluate what type of approach is being used (e.g., osteological, forensics, primatological, paleopathological, etc.) Internet Exercises 1. Visit the American Anthropological Association’s web site, http://www.aaanet.org/ to learn more about the discipline of anthropology. What non-academic careers are available for anthropologists? (For more on Careers in Anthropology, see the link, “Advance Your Career.”)

2. The official web site for the American Association of Physical Anthropology is http://physanth.org/ What careers are available to physical anthropologists? (At the link http://www.physanth.org/jobpostings you can read current academic postings in Physical Anthropology.) 3. Forensic anthropology is a growing field within physical anthropology. For more on this applied approach, see http://fac.utk.edu/forensic.html. In what areas are forensic anthropologists most commonly employed? 4. For more information on various specialties in anthropology (especially cultural, or social, anthropology), see http://www.discoveranthropology.org.uk/. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Approximately 3.7 million years ago, two or three hominins left their footprints across the savanna of modern-day Tanzania, clear evidence that: a. apes were present in Tanzania. b. hominins walked bipedally. c. modern-day Tanzania continues to be a savanna environment. d. hominins traveled in small groups. e. Tanzania is 3.7 million years old. ANS: b REF: Introduction 2. A group of reproductively-isolated organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring is called a(n): a. infrastructure. b. species. c. family. d. hominid. e. populace. ANS: b REF: Introduction 3. The order Primates includes all of the following except: a. monkeys. b. prosimians. c. humans. d. tarsiers. e. marsupials. ANS: e REF: Introduction 4. What unique strategy allows humans to adapt to the natural environment? a. Evolution b. Culture c. Biological adaptation d. Walking on two legs e. Genetic change ANS: b

REF: The Human Connection 5. The term evolution refers to: a. changes in the genetic make-up of a population from one generation to the next. b. the process of biological specialization. c. genetic changes within populations, but not the appearance of new species. d. a response of organisms or populations to the environment. e. patterns of inheritance from parent to offspring. ANS: a REF: Introduction 6. Human evolution is: a. not subject to the same factors that have produced other species. b. complete and no longer a driving force as it once was. c. subject to the long-term interactions of biology and culture. d. solely the result of biological factors. e. solely the result of cultural factors. ANS: c REF: Biocultural Evolution 7. Culture, as defined in Chapter 1: a. is important only as it pertains to modern humans. b. is genetically determined and does not alter over time. c. includes only those aspects of human lifestyle that relate to the arts. d. can be defined as the strategy by which humans adapt to the natural environment. e. was not an important factor in human evolution. ANS: d REF: Biocultural Evolution 8. Which statement is not true of human culture? a. It is learned. b. It includes such things as technology, language, religion, and gender roles. c. It is genetically determined. d. It plays a critical role in human evolution. e. All people are products of human culture. ANS: c REF: Biocultural Evolution 9. Which of the following is not one of the subfields of anthropology in the United States? a. Cultural b. Physical c. Psychological d. Archaeology e. Linguistics ANS: c REF: What Is Anthropology?

10. What is meant by the term biocultural evolution? a. Biological changes in a species over time b. Changes in human culture from generation to generation c. The interaction between biology and culture in human evolution d. Biological evolution in all species except humans e. The influence of genetic engineering on culture ANS: c REF: Biocultural Evolution 11. ______ is the practical application of the subfields of anthropology. a. Linguistics b. Archaeology c. Applied anthropology d. Physical anthropology e. Cultural anthropology ANS: c REF: What Is Anthropology? 12. Cultural anthropology: a. was first developed as a discipline in the 17th century. b. includes the recovery and analysis of material culture from earlier civilizations. c. focuses solely on the study of traditional societies. d. has no practical application in modern society. e. is the study of the patterns of belief and behavior found in modern and historical cultures. ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology? 13. Ethnographies are: a. detailed descriptive studies of contemporary living peoples. b. studies of only Western European societies. c. studies of nonhuman primates. d. studies done by archaeologists. e. the practical application of anthropological theories. ANS: a REF: What Is Anthropology? 14. Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins are called: a. data. b. empiricism. c. ethnographies. d. fossils. e. artifacts. ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology?

15. Archaeologists: a. focus primarily on biological imperatives. b. are interested in human behavior when it pertains to osteology. c. study earlier human groups using artifacts and structures as their evidence. d. never work with physical anthropology. e. only examine complex civilizations that have left architectural ruins. ANS: c REF: What Is Anthropology? 16. Which subdiscipline of anthropology is concerned with various aspects of human language? a. Primatology b. Linguistic anthropology c. Ethnology d. Applied anthropology e. Anthropometry ANS: b REF: What Is Anthropology? 17. The study of human biology within the framework of human evolution can be said to be the domain of which of the following? a. Cultural anthropology b. Physical or biological anthropology c. Primatology d. Osteology e. Archaeology ANS: b REF: What Is Anthropology? 18. The origins of physical anthropology arose from two areas of interest among 19th-century scientists. What did these areas concern? a. The origins of modern species and human variation b. The genetic determinants of behavior and osteology c. Nonhuman primates and origins of modern species d. Human variation and osteology e. Human evolution and nonhuman primates ANS: a REF: What Is Anthropology? 19. ____________ is the study of human anatomical and behavioral evolution as evidenced by the fossil record. a. Paleoanthropology b. Osteology c. Primatology d. Anthropometry e. Paleopathology ANS: a

REF: What Is Anthropology? 20. Fields of inquiry fundamental to studies of adaptation in modern human populations include: a. factors that have produced only visible physical differences. b. factors that have produced only genetic variation. c. traits that typify certain populations that have not evolved as biological adaptations. d. traits that typify certain populations that have evolved as biological adaptation to environment. e. examinations of modern groups but not populations over time. ANS: d REF: What Is Anthropology? 21. Which of the following includes genetic alterations within populations? a. Macroevolution b. Anatomy c. Osteology d. Paleopathology e. Microevolution ANS: e REF: Introduction 22. Which is not true about paleoanthropology? a. It is the study of human evolution. b. It includes the fossils of ancient reptiles and amphibians. c. Its goal is to identify the various human ancestors. d. It attempts to gain insights into human adaptation and behavior. e. It is a valid way to conduct anthropology. ANS: b REF: What is Anthropology? 23. Which specialty focuses specifically on the study of skeletal material? a. Paleoanthropology b. Osteology c. Molecular anthropology d. Forensic anthropology e. Paleopathology ANS: b REF: What is Anthropology? 24. Primatology is the study of: a. the beginnings of human evolution. b. human skeletal material. c. skeletal remains at crime scenes. d. diseases in earlier human groups. e. the biology and behavior of nonhuman primates. ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology?

25. Which of the following is not an important reason why primatology has become increasingly important since the late 1950s? a. Behavioral studies have implications for understanding natural forces that have shaped human behavior. b. The behavioral studies of any species provide a wealth of data on adaptation. c. Nonhuman primates are our closest living relatives. d. Many nonhuman primates are threatened or seriously endangered. e. Through primatology we can better address the needs of primitive humans. ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology? 26. _______ focuses on the study of skeletal remains from archaeological sites. a. Osteology b. Bioarchaeology c. Paleopathology d. Forensic anthropology e. Primate paleontology ANS: b REF: What Is Anthropology? 27. ________ is the subdiscipline of osteology that is concerned with disease and trauma in earlier populations. a. Forensic anthropology b. Primatology c. Anthropometry d. Paleoanthropology e. Paleopathology ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology? 28. Forensic anthropologists: a. study disease and trauma in ancient populations. b. apply anthropological techniques to legal matters. c. are primarily concerned with the recovery of material culture remains. d. examine the relationships between medical treatment and culturally determined views of disease. e. study nonhuman primates. ANS: b REF: What Is Anthropology? 29. Who uses anthropological techniques to assist in crime investigations and to identify skeletal remains in cases of disaster? a. Paleoanthropologists b. Primatologists c. Archaeologists d. Cultural anthropologists

e. Forensic anthropologists ANS: e REF: What Is Anthropology? 30. What is a hypothesis? a. It is a statement that has been proven to be true. b. It is equivalent to a theory. c. It is a provisional statement regarding certain scientific facts or observations. d. It is proof of a theory and occurs after testing a theory. e. It is a fact from which conclusions can be drawn. ANS: c REF: Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method 31. What is the initial step in the scientific method? a. Form a theory b. Form a hypothesis c. Perform an experiment d. Publish a scientific article e. Collect data under precise conditions ANS: b REF: Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method 32. Which of the following does not apply to theories? a. They are tested explanations of facts. b. They are usually concerned with broader and more universal views. c. They are not absolutes and are open to falsification. d. They are specific statements of scientific relationships that have not been verified. e. They are the result of repeated testing. ANS: d REF: Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method 33. The anthropological perspective does not: a. offer a wider appreciation through time and space. b. look at the diversity of the human experience. c. help to avoid ethnocentric pitfalls. d. give a wider appreciation of the human experience. e. narrow our viewpoint of how our species has evolved through time and space. ANS: e REF: The Anthropological Perspective 34. Which of the following is true of the relativistic view of culture? a. It allows us to understand our own culture from a narrower perspective. b. It allows us to understand other people’s concerns and view our culture from a broader perspective. c. It allows us to judge other species using well-tested human criteria. d. It provides us with data to prove that the human species is better adapted than others.

e. It allows us to understand which culture is superior to another. ANS: b REF: The Anthropological Perspective True/False Questions 1. The 3.7 million year-old footprints of two hominins were discovered in a riverbed in Texas. ANS: False REF: Introduction 2. Physical anthropologists are interested only in the study of biological systems. ANS: False REF: Introduction 3. All cultures share the same worldview. ANS: False REF: Biocultural Evolution 4. The anthropological perspective proposes to broaden our viewpoint though time and space. ANS: True REF: The Anthropological Perspective 5. The focus of anthropology is very narrow and has only two subfields. ANS: False REF: What Is Anthropology? 6. Forensic anthropology is an applied subfield which benefits from a background in physical anthropology. ANS: True REF: What Is Anthropology? 7. The human predisposition to assimilate culture and function within it is profoundly influenced by biological factors. ANS: True REF: Biocultural Evolution 8. Anthropology can be applied to practical issues outside the university setting. ANS: True REF: What Is Anthropology? 9. Physical or biological anthropologists are only interested in the human fossil record.

ANS: False REF: What Is Anthropology? 10. Molecular anthropologists have used genetic technologies to investigate the relationships between human populations and between humans and nonhuman primates. ANS: True REF: What Is Anthropology? Short Answer Questions 1. What is meant by the term adaptation in a biological sense? ANS: It is an anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. REF: Introduction 2. What are the four major subfields of anthropology? ANS: The subfields are Cultural Anthropology, Linguistics, Archaeology, and Physical (or Biological) Anthropology. REF: What Is Anthropology? 3. Define the term biocultural evolution. ANS: It is the mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture. REF: Biocultural Evolution 4. Why are physical anthropologists concerned with studying human variation today? ANS: Their studies of human variation help us to better understand adaptive significance and to identify factors that have produced physical and genetic variation. REF: What Is Anthropology? 5. Briefly differentiate between paleoanthropology and paleopathology. ANS: Paleoanthropology is the study of early hominins and paleopathology is the study of early diseases and injuries in human skeletal remains. REF: What Is Anthropology? 6. What are the primary steps involved in the scientific method? ANS: It involves formulating a question, doing background research on what others have done on the subject, determining a hypothesis, developing a research design or methodology, collecting data and doing very precise analysis to test the hypothesis. REF: Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method 7. What is a relativistic view of culture and why is it important in anthropology?

ANS: It is an approach that allows anthropology to view other cultures from a broader perspective, by viewing them as they relate to something else. It is very important because our world is increasingly interdependent. REF: The Anthropological Perspective Essay Questions 1. Define osteology and then discuss which subfields of physical anthropology require knowledge of osteology. ANS: Will vary REF: What Is Anthropology? 2. Explain what “the anthropological perspective” means and why it is important. ANS: Will vary REF: The Anthropological Perspective

3. What is the role of the scientific method in physical anthropology? Discuss the various steps and how they might be applied to a specific case study in physical anthropology. ANS: Will vary REF: Physical Anthropology and the Scientific Method 4. Explain each of the subfields of anthropology and how they each contribute to our understanding of what it means to be human. ANS: Will vary REF: What Is Anthropology?

CHAPTER 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Chapter Outline I.

Introduction A. Misconceptions about evolution result from the poor quality of education (particularly science education) in the U.S. B. By the end of this course, due to studies in evolution students will learn what we know to be true in science: 1. Earliest human ancestors evolved from a species that lived 6 to 8 million years ago. 2. Humans separated from the last common ancestor with monkeys some 20 million years ago. C. In the United States, evolution is considered to run counter to religious beliefs and is often denigrated as being “only” a theory. 1. Evolution is, in fact, a scientific theory that has a wealth of support and is the unifying theory of the biological sciences, including physical anthropology.

II. A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought A. Discoveries of evolutionary principles took place in Western Europe through many ideas borrowed from other non-western cultures. B. Charles Darwin is credited with explaining the basic mechanics of the evolutionary process and formulating the theory of natural selection; Alfred Russel Wallace independently reached the same conclusion. C. The predominant European worldview throughout the Middle Ages was that all aspects of nature, including all life and their relationships, never changed. 1. Christian teachings that God created all life were taken literally. a. The universe was perceived as being part of the Grand Design, created as recently as 4004 B.C. 2. The belief that the earth was very young, coupled with the notion of fixity of species, was a significant obstacle to the development of evolutionary thought. D. The Scientific Revolution 1. In Europe, the scientific revolution developed as fundamental ideas of the earth and the biological world were overturned. However, in Arabia and India, scholars developed concepts of planetary motion centuries earlier. 2. Europe made scientific advances due to: a. Discovery of the New World. b. Circumnavigation of the globe. c. Emerging intellectual ideas: i. In 1514, Copernicus argued that the earth was not the center of the universe. ii. In the 1600s, Galileo Galilei restated Copernicus concepts’ and was sentenced to house arrest. iii. The laws of physics, motion, and gravity were developed throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. iv. Invention of scientific instruments, including the microscope. E. Precursors to the Theory of Evolution 1. The first step to understanding the many forms of organic life was to list them and describe them. a. John Ray (1627-1705), a minister at Cambridge University, was first to recognize that groups of plants and animals could be distinguished from other groups by their ability to produce offspring. i. These groups of reproductively isolated organisms were termed species.

ii. Ray also coined the term genus, recognizing that similar species could be grouped together. b. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist and believer in the fixity of species, developed the binomial nomenclature system of classification plants in his publication, Systema Naturae (1735). i. Taxonomy added class and order. ii. Humans were classified as genus Homo species sapiens. c. George-Louis Le Clerc de Buffon (1707-1788) stressed the importance of change in the universe and the dynamics between nature and living forms in Natural History (1749). d. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Charles Darwin’s grandfather, was a freethinking physician who wrote about evolutionary ideas in poetic verse. i. The degree to which he influenced his grandson’s ideas is unclear. e. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first to propose an explanation of the evolutionary process. i. He proposed a theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, in which an animal’s body parts are altered through use or disuse. (a) These altered characteristics are transmitted to their offspring. (b) Although this is biologically impossible, he is credited with being the first to recognize the importance of the interaction between organisms and their environment in the evolutionary process. ii. He coined the term biology to refer to the study of living organisms. f. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) was a French vertebrate paleontologist who was an opponent of Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas. i. Cuvier introduced the concept of extinction to explain the existence of hitherto unknown fossil forms. ii. Cuvier was a proponent of catastrophism, the idea that the earth’s geological features are a result of catastrophic events. (a) These events destroyed old life forms, and the newer forms were the result of creation events. g. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), an English clergyman and economist, wrote An Essay on the Principles of Population. i. He noted that population sizes increase exponentially but food supplies remain stable. (a) This concept inspired both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. h. Charles Lyell (1797-1875), author of Principles of Geology (1830-1833), is considered the founder of modern geology. i. He demonstrated that uniform processes (uniformitarianism) could account for present geological features. (a) His ideas provided the “deep time” necessary for biological evolution to have occurred. i. There were other precursors who are less recognized today. i. Mary Anning was trained by her father to hunt fossils. (a) Discovered the first Pleiosaurus. (b) Contributed to what we understand of the evolution of marine life. F. The Discovery of Natural Selection 1. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed the first credible mechanism for evolutionary change, natural selection, in On the Origin of the Species (1859). a. After graduating from Cambridge University, where he studied theology but also cultivated his interests in natural science and geology, he was recommended to join the five-year expedition of the HMS Beagle.

Darwin began the voyage as a believer in the fixity of species, but his observations of, among other things, fossils of giant ancient versions of living animals and varieties of Galápagos finches eventually convinced him to the contrary. ii. A concept of evolution was prevalent in European scientific circles at the time. (a) There was a growing Reform Movement in England to undo the inequalities of the class system. (b) Evolutionary ideas were seen as related to these types of reforms and were socially feared by certain groups. b. After his return to England in October 1836, Darwin began to formulate the theory of natural selection based on what he had observed, especially of Galapagos finches. i. He began experiments in selective breeding with domesticated animals, developing and testing the theory of natural of selection. ii. He wrote summaries of his ideas by 1844, but felt he needed more evidence before he published. G. In Darwin’s Shadow 1. Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) developed his own theory of natural selection after collecting bird and insect specimens in Southeast Asia. a. He first published some of his ideas in 1855, and then in 1858, Wallace wrote “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type.” b. These papers caused Lyell and others to urge Darwin to publish his work. Wallace later sent his papers to Darwin which spurred him to put his ideas in writing On the Origin of Species (1859.) III. Natural Selection A. Darwin envisioned natural selection as a process in which individuals with favorable variations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than those with unfavorable variations. The basic processes, as he understood them, are as follows: 1. All species are capable of producing offspring at a faster rate than food supplies increase. 2. There is biological variation within all species. 3. In each generation more offspring are produced than survive, and because of limited resources, there is competition among individuals. 4. Individuals who possess favorable traits have an advantage; they have greater fitness because favorable traits increase the likelihood that they will survive to adulthood and reproduce. 5. The environmental context “determines” whether or not a trait is beneficial. 6. Traits are inherited and passed on to the next generation. Because individuals who possess favorable traits contribute more offspring to the next generation, over time those favorable traits become more common in the population. Individuals who produce more offspring at a higher rate have greater reproductive success. 7. Over long periods of geological time, successful variations accumulate in populations, resulting into later generations being distinct; thus new species appear. 8. Geographical isolation may lead to the formation of new species because over time populations in distinct areas face different selective pressures. B. Natural Selection in Action 1. One of the most frequently cited examples of natural selection is the coloration changes of a species of moth. a. Prior to the 19th century in England, the most common variety of peppered moth was a mottled gray color. During the day, the moths would rest on the lichen-covered tree trunks and their coloration provided camouflage. Due to changes driven by industrialization, coal dust covered the tree trunks, killed the lichen, and the mottled gray moths became more conspicuous and targeted by birds and over time the moths’

(subjective to selective pressures) numbers dwindled. Darker moths then became more common. i. Evolutionary shifts in response to the environment are called adaptations. b. Natural selection has been demonstrated on the Galápagos Islands. i. Measurements of beak thickness that changed through time among the medium ground finch indicate the thicker-beaked individuals had greater reproductive success during droughts. c. Natural selection, through the use of antibiotics by humans, is responsible for the increased number of antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms. d. These examples of natural selection in action indicate that certain common principles apply. i. A trait must be inherited if natural selection is to act on it. ii. Natural selection cannot occur without variation in inherited characteristics. iii. Fitness is a relative measure that will change as the environment changes. Fitness is differential reproductive success. iv. Natural selection can act only on traits that affect reproduction. C. Natural Selection and Reproductive Success 1. Natural selection acts through not only differential death rates, but also through differential fertility rates. a. This leads to a differential net reproductive success. IV. Constraints on 19th Century Evolutionary Theory A. Darwin argued that natural selection acts on variation within species, yet could not explain the source of this variation. D. Darwin also did not know how favorable traits were passed from generation to generation. 1. The laws of heredity were unknown, and most believed that parental traits were blended in the offspring. 2. Gregor Mendel had worked out the modern principles of heredity, but his work was not recognized until the beginning of the 20th century. 3. In 1953, the DNA structure was identified and the field of genetics became supportive evidence for evolutionary theory. 4. In 2003 the human genome was sequenced, followed by the chimpanzee genome in 2005. V. Opposition to Evolution Today A. Darwin’s formulation of evolution was offensive to some Christians and some Muslims. B. Today, evolution is considered to be a fact by most biologists. 1. Most belief systems do not emphasize biological continuity between species or offer scientific explanations for natural phenomena 2. Scientific explanations are grounded in data analysis, hypothesis testing and interpretation, while religion is a system of faith-based ideas not amenable to scientific testing and falsification. a. Yet, evolutionary theories are accepted, in part, by the Catholic Church and most mainstream Protestants. 3. Most fundamentalists reject all scientific explanations of evolution. C. A Brief History of Opposition to Evolution in the United States 1. After WWI conservative Christians in U.S. revived “traditional values” and avoided mention of Darwinism in public schools. 2. “Scopes Monkey Trial,” involved John Scopes who was arrested and tried for teaching evolution

a. Christian fundamentalists oppose the teaching of evolution in public schools at the prebaccalaureate level, although recent attempts to legislate against the teaching of evolution have been overturned in courts. i. Creationists have dropped the term “creationism” in attempts to mask their fundamentalist ideologies with less religious-sounding terms such as “intelligent design theory.”

Key Terms and Concepts Binomial nomenclature, p. 29 Biological continuity, p. 43 Catastrophism, p. 31 Christian fundamentalists, p. 44 Fertility, p. 41 Fitness, p. 38-39 Fixity of species, p. 27 Genome, p. 42 Natural selection, p. 26 Reproductive success, p. 38-39 Reproductively isolated, p. 29 Selective pressures, p. 38-39 Taxonomy, p. 29 Uniformitarianism, p. 32 Lecture Suggestions 1. Present the various theories on life-forms (fixity of species, catastrophism, uniformitarianism, and natural selection). Discuss with students which pieces of these theories continue to be used in popular culture despite evidence to the contrary. 2. Very carefully review the differences in science between hypotheses, facts, theories, and laws. 3. Most students have heard of Darwin, but few really understand the full impact of his ideas, not only on scientific thought but also on his personal life. The video Charles Darwin: Evolution’s Voice from A&E’s Biography series is particularly relevant. Be sure to reinforce the fact that Darwin waited over twenty years to publish his ideas after returning from the voyage of the HMS Beagle, mostly because he was aware that his theories ran contrary to widely-accepted Biblical doctrines. 4. The Human Genome Project has allowed many advances in medicine and molecular studies. Use the Project as a case study in class, providing a background on the work and its implications.

Internet Exercises 1. Visit the National Center for Science Education’s website, http://ncse.com/ and read about creationist attempts to teach “creation science” in public schools. Use the “Critiques of Creationism” link and write a paragraph summarizing one of the critiques. 2. One historical figure that vehemently opposed Darwin’s ideas was Louis Agassiz (1807-1873). Go to the University of California, Berkeley’s Museum of Paleontology website for information on Agassiz http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ and write a brief paragraph on his life and ideas. 3. Evolution is both a simple and complex theory, depending on how it is taught. Discuss with students the wide-ranging applications of evolution in medicine today. University of California-Berkeley has an excellent website on “understanding evolution” with teaching suggestions and materials at: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/medicine_01.

4. Visit the PBS Evolution website and select several of the lesson plans, activities, and videos about evolution to enhance understanding and class discussion on evolution (www.pbs.org/evolution).

Multiple Choice Questions 1. In Europe during the Middle Ages, it was most commonly believed that: a. all species had evolved from a common ancestor. b. evolution was the result of natural selection acting upon genetic variation. c. all forms were created by God and did not change over time. d. most species had become extinct over time. e. life was created slowly, over millions of years. ANS: c REF: A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought 2. The concept of a theory in science is associated with all of the following except: a. it has robust support. b. it has been tested. c. it has not been disproved. d. it is a hunch or intuitive idea. e. it has evidentiary support. ANS: d REF: A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought 3. What is the belief that species do not change but are the same as when they were first created? a. Fixity of species b. The Great Chain of Being c. Catastrophism d. Uniformitarianism e. Natural selection ANS: a REF: A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought 4. Growing attacks on traditional beliefs occurred simultaneously with growing awareness of biological diversity. _________challenged a notion proposed by Aristotle to account for the movement of the sun and planets. a. Copernicus b. Linnaeus c. Darwin d. Wallace e. Mendel ANS: a REF: A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought 5. Several events combined to alter Western Europeans’ ideas about the earth by the 18th century. These did not include: a. the circumnavigation of the globe. b. the discovery of the New World.