Terrorism Intelligence And Homeland Security 3Rd Taylor Test Bank by dferdinan

Test Bank for Terrorism Intelligence and Homeland Security 3rd Edition by Taylor, Yayla, Clarke

ISBN: 9780135439944

Online Instructor’s Manual with

Test

Bank for Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security

3rd Edition

Robert W. Taylor Magellan Research Corporation

Ahmet S. Yayla, DeSales University

Colin P. Clarke University of Pittsburgh

Instructor’s Manual & Test Bank Prepared by Bridgette Aicher

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ISBN-13: 978-013-5439944 www.pearsonhighered.com

ISBN-10: 0135439949

TO THE INSTRUCTOR

The instructor’s manual is a comprehensive document that includes a chapter overview, chapter objectives, a lecture outline with teaching tips and movie notes, answers to the “Box” exercises in the main text, and suggested answers to the end-of-chapter assignments (Review Questions and Critical Thinking Exercises).

COURSE SYLLABUS (10 weeks

Course Title: Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security

Course Number:

Credit Hours:

Course Length: 10 weeks

Date:

Course Schedule:

Prerequisite:

Instructor:

Phone:

Email:

Course Description:

This course covers historical and contemporary issues interrelating terrorism, intelligence, and homeland security. The course represents not only a strong scholarly approach to the study of terrorism but also incorporates the real-world experience of federal agents, police officers, and soldiers tasked with preventing the next terrorist attack on our country. It is designed to help students develop a working knowledge of people, ideas, organizations, and current issues in the field. The approach of this course provides students with a unified and cutting-edge understanding of terrorism, intelligence, and homeland security and their interrelationship.

Course Materials

• Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security 3rd Edition Taylor Robert W , Magellan Research Corporation

ISBN 9780135439944| ISBN 0135439949

Course Assignments

• Exams – quarterly (50 points each – 150 points)

There are three (3) multiple-choice exams. The exams are not cumulative but will be based on the chapters presented immediately preceding each exam.

• Final exam (100 points)

There will be a final exam for this class. The format for the exam may consist of some type of multiple choices, fill in the blanks, and/or essay questions that pertain to all of the information presented.

• Instructor assignments (10 points each 80 points) Assignments will be given out throughout the semester. Students are expected to complete each assignment and submit them on the due date.

• Miscellaneous graded assignments in class (10 points each for 120 points) Students will complete assignments in class for points

• Project Paper (50 points)

Students will write a research paper about a relevant topic of their choice from the textbook. The paper will be in APA format and contain at least three outside sources in addition to the textbook.

APA Style:

Papers that you write in your program of study must follow the guidelines set by the American Psychological Association.

Long Island University

Purdue Online Writing Lab

Visit the Online Writing Lab (called OWL) whenever you have an APA question.

Find the APA Tutorial on the APA website, which teaches how to write using the APA format.

Academic Dishonesty/Plagiarism

In the learning environment, a professional attitude begins in the classroom. For that reason, students and faculty will not tolerate or commit any form of academic dishonesty. Any form of deception in the completion of assigned work is considered a form of academic dishonesty. This includes but is not limited to:

• Copying work from any source.

• Assisting, or allowing another to assist you, to commit academic dishonesty.

• Any attempt to share answers, whether during a test or in the submittal of an assignment.

• Any attempt to claim work, data, or creative efforts of another as your own.

• Resubmitting graded assignments for use in multiple classes (recycling your work).

• Knowingly providing false information about your academic performance to the college.

• To avoid plagiarism, do not “copy and paste” into assignments without using quotation marks and citing, in APA format, the source of the material.

Plagiarism

Avoid Plagiarism Some students truly do not understand what plagiarism is, and therefore plagiarize unwittingly or unintentionally. But ignorance is not an excuse for unethical academic conduct. To combat such ignorance, here are rules and resources to help you avoid any problems with plagiarism. Of course, these rules apply regardless of the citation form or style you may be using.

a. Direct Quotations Whenever you directly quote someone else, you must provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are quoting. Moreover, you must put the material in quotation marks or otherwise set it off in an indented quote, so the reader knows what words yours are and what words are quoted. It is unacceptable to use the words of others and only partially quote the original source. This is true even if you provide a citation to the source in the text and in your references section!

b. Paraphrasing/Indirect Quotations Whenever you indirectly quote someone else (i.e., you paraphrase the work of another), you must provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are paraphrasing. Simply changing the structure of a sentence, or a few words in a sentence so that the sentence you write is not an exact quote from the original source does not mean a citation is not needed. This is because the idea you are expressing is not your own, but rather someone else’s.

c. Using Others’ Ideas Even if you compose an entire paragraph of writing in your own words (i.e., neither quoted nor paraphrased), if the idea you are expressing in that paragraph is not your own, original idea, you must provide a citation to the source from which you obtained this idea.

d. Collaborative Work If you collaborate on any work with someone else and fail to acknowledge that collaboration, you are guilty of plagiarism. If you have received permission from your professor to collaborate on some assignment, be sure that all contributors’ names appear on the submission.

e. Altering or Revising Another’s Work If you alter or revise the work done by someone and submit that work as your own, you have plagiarized. Similarly, if you allow someone else to alter or revise work that you have done and then allow that person to submit it as his or her own work, you are both guilty of plagiarism. Work that is not entirely your own must be credited by citation, both in the text and in your references page.

f. Altering or Revising Your Own Prior Work You should also be aware that altering or revising your own work that was prepared for another class or another professor, and not bringing it to the attention of the professor to whom you are submitting the revised work is also academic dishonesty. If, for example, you have two classes that require a term paper, and you can write one paper that meets the requirements of both classes, you may not submit that paper to both professors unless you get permission to do so in advance from both professors. Similarly, if you wrote a paper several semesters ago that can be revised and submitted in satisfaction of a paper requirement for a course in which you are currently enrolled; doing so is academic dishonesty unless you get the permission in advance from your professor to do so. The reason this is dishonest is that it is not original work prepared in satisfaction for the requirements on the course you are currently taking.

Consequences of Academic Dishonesty/Plagiarism

All violations of academic policy are documented and made a part of the student's academic record. When academic dishonesty is confirmed, the student will immediately be notified of the incident, which may result in one or more of the actions listed below:

• Reduction in grade on the assignment on which the violation occurred

• No credit on the assignment, paper, test, or exam on which the violation occurred

• A failing grade for the course

• Suspension or dismissal from the college

Class Rules

• Attendance

The requirement to attend class should not be taken lightly. Attendance is considered an important part of the course. Excessive unexcused absences will negatively impact on the classroom participation grade as well.

• Make-ups

Students who have scheduling conflicts with an exam are expected to make arrangements with the instructor in advance. Students are allowed one make-up exam per semester. The instructor will announce the make-up date and time. There is no make-up for the final exam.

• Student Conduct

Students are responsible for knowing the regulations of the department, college, and university with regard to topics such as withdrawals, incomplete grades, student conduct, and academic misconduct (those who engage in any form of academic dishonesty will fail this course). Students may review these rules at: ___________.

No use of cell phones will be allowed in the classroom.

Grading Scale

Letter Grade Point Scale Interpretation

A 450–500 Excellent

–449 Good

C 350–399 Average

D 300–349 Below Average

F Below 300 Failed to Meet Course Objectives

Class

Wk 1

Introduction

Overview of syllabus and course material

Icebreaker activity

Pre-Test

Chapter 1: Defining, Conceptualizing, and Understanding Terrorism

Wk 2

Wk 3

Chapter 2: Political Ideology and the Historical Roots of Terrorism

Chapter 3: Islam and the Middle East: History, Culture, and Conflict

PowerPoint lecture

Chapter 4: New Threats at Home

Chapter 5: Terrorist Organizations and Structures

PowerPoint lecture

Class Schedule

During this first week you will be introduced to the course and walked through the syllabus. You will be given the first Instructor Homework Assignment. You will also receive clarification on the research paper so you can get started. You will view the first PowerPoint lecture and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points. Lastly, you will take a pretest that is not graded.

Reading for next week: Chapters 2 and 3

During this class you will participate in a discussion about IHA #1. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapters 2 and 3 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide will be passed out for exam #1 over Chapters 1–3.

Reading for next week: Chapters 4 and 5

During this class you will take your first exam and also participate in a discussion about IHA #2. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapters 4 and 5 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapters 6 and 7

IHA #1 – (10 points) Due ___________

#1 In-class assignment (10 points) Due __________

IHA #2 – (10 points) Due __________

#2 In-class assignment (10 points) Due __________

#3 In-class assignment (10 points) Due __________

Exam #1 (50 points)

IHA #3 - (10 points) Due __________

#4 In-class assignment (10 points) Due __________

Wk 4

Chapter 6: Critical Processes of Terrorist Organizations

Chapter 7: Typologies of Terrorism: StateInvolved and Single or Special Issue Movements

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 5

Chapter 8: Typologies of Terrorism: The Right and Left Wings and Separatist or Nationalist Movements

Chapter 9: Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 6

Chapter 10: Intelligence, Terrorism, and Homeland Security

During this class you will participate in a discussion about IHA #3. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapters 6 and 7 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for exam #2 over Chapters 4–7

Reading for next week: Chapters 8 and 9

IHA #4 – (10 points)

Due ________

#5 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

#6 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

During this class you will take your 2nd exam. You will participate in a class discussion on last week’s assignment. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapters 8 and 9 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Paper is due next

Reading for next week: Chapter 10

Exam #2 (50 points)

IHA #5 – (10 points)

Due ________

#7 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

PowerPoint lecture

You will submit your paper this week. During this class you will discuss IHA #5 and view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapter 10. You will participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for exam #3 over Chapters 8–10.

Reading for next week: Chapters 11 and 12

Paper (50 points)

IHA #6 - (10 points)

Due __________

#8 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Wk 7

Chapter 11: The Agencies of Homeland Security

Chapter 12: America’s Vulnerability to Terrorism

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 8

Chapter 13: Emergency Management

Chapter 14: Counterterrorism Strategies and Organizations

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 9

Chapter 15: Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security: The Future

During this class you will take your 3rd exam. You will also receive your graded papers. You will participate in a class discussion on IHA #6. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapters 11 and 12 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapters 13 and 14

During this class you will discuss IHA # 7 and view a PowerPoint for Chapters 13 and 14. You will participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 15

Exam #3 (50 points)

IHA #7 - (10 points)

Due ________

#9 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

#10 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

IHA #8 (10 points)

Due ________

#11 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

During this class period you will possibly hear from a few guest speakers in the criminal procedure field. If no guest speakers are scheduled, you will participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for the final exam over Chapters 11–15 and anything else selected by the instructor.

Post-test (not graded)

#12 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________ Wk 10

Grading Rubric

Content and Development

35 Points

All key elements of the assignment are covered in a substantive way.

• Students chose a relevant topic.

• The body of the paper is at least ___________ in length

The content is comprehensive, accurate, and persuasive.

Major points are stated clearly; are supported by specific details, examples, or analysis; and are organized logically.

The introduction provides sufficient background on the topic and previews major points.

The conclusion is logical, flows from the body of the paper, and reviews the major points.

Readability and Style

7.5 Points

Paragraph transitions are present, logical, and maintain the flow throughout the paper.

The tone is appropriate to the content and assignment.

Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.

Sentences are well constructed, with consistently strong, varied sentences.

Sentence transitions are present and maintain the flow of thought.

Mechanics

7.5 Points

The paper, including the title page and reference page, follows APA formatting guidelines.

. Citations of original works within the body of the paper follow APA guidelines.

The paper is laid out with effective use of headings, font styles, and white space.

Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed.

Spelling is correct.

Total 50 Points

Overall Comments:

Points Earned /35

Additional Comments:

Additional

Points Earned /50

COURSE SYLLABUS (16 weeks

Course Title: Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security

Course Number:

Credit Hours:

Course Length: 16 weeks

Date:

Course Schedule:

Prerequisite:

Instructor:

Phone:

Email:

Course Description:

This course covers historical and contemporary issues interrelating terrorism, intelligence, and homeland security. The course represents not only a strong scholarly approach to the study of terrorism, but also incorporates the real-world experience of federal agents, police officers, and soldiers tasked with preventing the next terrorist attack on our country. It is designed to help students develop a working knowledge of people, ideas, organizations, and current issues in the field. The approach of this course provides students with a unified and cutting-edge understanding of terrorism, intelligence, and homeland security and their interrelationship.

Course Materials

• Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security 3rd Edition Taylor Robert W., Magellan Research Corporation ISBN 9780135439944| ISBN 0135439949

Course Assignments

• Exams quarterly (50 points each 150 points)

There are three (3) multiple-choice exams. The exams are not cumulative but will be based on the chapters presented immediately preceding each exam.

• Final exam (100 points)

• Instructor assignments (10 points each 70 points) Assignments will be given out throughout the semester. Students are expected to complete each assignment and submit it on the due date.

• Miscellaneous graded assignments in class (10 points each for 130 points) Students will complete assignments in class for points

• Project Paper (50 points)

Students will write a research paper about a relevant topic of their choice from the textbook. The paper will be in APA format and containing at least three outside sources in addition to the textbook.

APA Style:

Papers that you write in your program of study must follow the guidelines set by the American Psychological Association (http://apastyle.apa.org/)

Long Island University

Purdue Online Writing Lab

Visit the Online Writing Lab (called OWL) whenever you have an APA question.

Use the APA Tutorial on the APA website, which teaches how to write using the APA format.

Academic Dishonesty/Plagiarism

In the learning environment, professional attitude begins in the classroom. For that reason, students and faculty will not tolerate or commit any form of academic dishonesty. Any form of deception in the completion of assigned work is considered a form of academic dishonesty. This includes, but is not limited to:

• Copying work from any source.

• Assisting, or allowing another to assist you, to commit academic dishonesty.

• Any attempt to share answers, whether during a test or in the submission of an assignment.

• Any attempt to claim the work, data, or creative efforts of another as your own.

• Resubmitting graded assignments for use in multiple classes (recycling your work).

• Knowingly providing false information about your academic performance to the college.

• To avoid plagiarism, do not “copy and paste” into assignments without using quotation marks and citing, in APA format, the source of the material.

Plagiarism

g. Direct Quotations Whenever you directly quote someone else, you must provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are quoting. Moreover, you must put the material in quotation marks or otherwise set it off in an indented quote, so the reader knows what words yours are and what words are quoted. It is unacceptable to use the words of others and only partially quote the original source. This is true even if you provide a citation to the source both in text and in your references section

h. Paraphrasing/Indirect Quotations Whenever you indirectly quote someone else (i.e., you paraphrase the work of another), you must provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are paraphrasing. Simply changing the structure of a sentence, or a few words in a sentence so that the sentence you write is not an exact quote from the original source does not mean a citation is not needed. This is because the idea you are expressing is not your own, but rather someone else’s.

i. Using Others’ Ideas Even if you compose an entire paragraph of writing in your own words (i.e., neither quoted nor paraphrased), if the idea you are expressing in that paragraph is not your own, original idea, you must provide a citation to the source from which you obtained this idea.

j. Collaborative Work If you collaborate on any work with someone else and fail to acknowledge that collaboration, you are guilty of plagiarism. If you have received permission from your professor to collaborate on an assignment, be sure that all of the contributors’ names appear on the submission.

k. Altering or Revising Another’s Work If you alter or revise the work done by someone and submit that work as your own, you have plagiarized. Similarly, if you allow someone else to alter or revise work that you have done and then allow that person to submit it as his or her own work, you are both guilty of plagiarism. Work that is not entirely your own must be credited by citation, both in text and in your references page.

l. Altering or Revising Your Own Prior Work You should also be aware that altering or revising your own work that was prepared for another class or another professor, and not bringing it to the attention of the professor to whom you are submitting the revised work, is also academic dishonesty. If, for example, you have two classes that require a term paper, and you can write one paper that meets the requirements of both classes, you may not submit that paper to both professors unless you get permission to do so in advance from both professors. Similarly, if you wrote a paper several semesters ago that can be revised and submitted in satisfaction of a paper requirement for a course in which you are currently enrolled, doing so is academic dishonesty unless you get the advance permission of your professor to do so. The reason this is dishonest is that it is not original work prepared in satisfaction of the requirements of the course you are currently taking.

Consequences of Academic Dishonesty/Plagiarism

• Reduction in grade on the assignment on which the violation occurred.

• No credit on the assignment, paper, test, or exam on which the violation occurred.

• A failing grade for the course

• Suspension or dismissal from the college.

Class Rules

• Attendance

• Make-ups

Students who have scheduling conflicts with an exam are expected to make arrangements with the instructor in advance. Students are allowed one make-up for an exam per semester. The instructor will announce the make-up date and time. There is no make-up for the final exam.

• Student Conduct

No use of cell phones will be allowed in the classroom.

Three quarterly

Grade Categories

Total Points

Grading Scale

Letter Grade Point Scale Interpretation

A 450–500

B 400–449 Good

C 350–399 Average

300–349 Below Average

F Below 300 Failed to Meet Course Objectives

Class Date

Wk 1

Introduction

Overview of the syllabus and course material

Icebreaker activity

Pre-Test

Chapter 1: Defining, Conceptualizing, and Understanding Terrorism

Wk 2

Chapter 2: Political Ideology and the Historical Roots of Terrorism

PowerPoint lecture

Class Schedule

Reading for next week: Chapter 2

During this class you will participate in a discussion about IHA #1. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapter 2 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 3

Wk 3

Chapter 3: Islam and the Middle East: History, Culture, and Conflict

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 4

Chapter 4: New Threats at Home

PowerPoint lecture

During this class you will participate in a discussion about IHA #2. You will view a PowerPoint lecture for Chapter 3 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 4

During this class you will participate in a discussion about IHA #3. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 4 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide will be passed out for exam #1 over Chapters 1–4

Reading for next week: Chapter 5

IHA #1 – (10 points)

Due ___________

#1 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

IHA #2 – (10 points)

Due __________

#2 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

IHA #3 (10 points)

Due __________

#3 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

#4 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Wk 5

Chapter 5: Terrorist Organizations and Structures

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 6

Chapter 6: Critical Processes of Terrorist Organizations

PowerPoint lecture

During this class you will take your 1st exam. You will participate in a class discussion on last week’s assignment. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 5 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Paper is due next

Reading for next week: Chapter 6

You will submit your paper this week. During this class you will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 6 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 7

Wk 7

Chapter 7: Typologies of Terrorism: StateInvolved and Single or Special Issue Movements

PowerPoint lecture

During this class you will receive your graded papers. You will participate in a class discussion on IHA #4. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 7 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for exam #2 over Chapters 5–8.

Reading for next week: Chapter 8

Wk 8

Chapter 8: Typologies of Terrorism: The Right and Left Wings and Separatist or Nationalist Movements

PowerPoint lecture

During this class you will take your 2nd exam. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 8 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Exam #1 (50 points)

#5 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Paper (50 points)

IHA #4 - (10 points)

Due ________

#6 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

#7 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Wk 9

Chapter 9:

Reading for next week: Chapter 9

Exam #2 (50 points)

IHA #5 - (10 points)

Due ________

#8 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

During this class you will participate in a #9 In-class

Wk 10

Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism

PowerPoint lecture class discussion on IHA #5. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 9 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Chapter 10: Intelligence, Terrorism, and Homeland Security

PowerPoint lecture

Wk 11

Chapter 11: The Agencies of Homeland Security

PowerPoint lecture

Reading for next week: Chapter 10 assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Wk 12

Chapter 12: America’s Vulnerability to Terrorism

PowerPoint lecture

During this class you will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 10 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 11

#10 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Wk 13

Chapter 13: Emergency Management

PowerPoint lecture

You will participate in a class discussion on the lab assignment from last week. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 11 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for exam #3 over Chapters 9–12.

Reading for next week: Chapter 12

During this class you will take your 3rd exam. You will participate in a class discussion on IHA #6. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 12 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 13

During this class you will participate in a class discussion on last week’s assignment. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 13 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 14

IHA #6 - (10 points)

Due __________

#11 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

Exam #3 (50 points)

#12 In-class assignment (10 points)

Due __________

IHA #7 - (10 points)

Due ________

Wk 14

Chapter 14: Counterterrorism Strategies and

During this class you will participate in a class discussion on IHA #7. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 14 and participate

#13 In-class assignment (10 points)

Wk 15

Organizations

PowerPoint lecture in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Reading for next week: Chapter 15

Chapter 15: Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security: The Future

PowerPoint lecture

During this class period you may hear from a guest speaker in the criminology field. You will view a PowerPoint for Chapter 15 and participate in class exercises and discussions to earn participation points.

Study guide handed out for the final exam over Chapters 13–15 and anything else selected by the instructor.

Post-test (not graded)

Wk 16

Final Exam

Final Exam (100 points)

Grading Rubric

Content and Development

35 Points

All key elements of the assignment are covered in a substantive way.

• Students choose a relevant topic from the textbook.

• The body of the paper is at least ___________ in length

The content is comprehensive, accurate, and persuasive. Major points are stated clearly, are supported by specific details, examples, or analysis, and are organized logically.

The introduction provides sufficient background on the topic and previews major points.

The conclusion is logical, flows from the body of the paper, and reviews the major points.

Readability and Style

7.5 Points

Paragraph transitions are present, logical, and maintain the flow throughout the paper.

The tone is appropriate to the content and assignment. Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.

Sentences are well constructed, with consistently strong, varied sentences.

Sentence transitions are present and maintain the flow of thought.

Mechanics

7.5 Points

The paper, including the title page and reference page, follows APA formatting guidelines.

Citations of original works within the body of the paper follow APA guidelines.

The paper is laid out with effective use of headings, font styles, and white space.

Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed.

Spelling is correct.

Total:

50 Points

Overall Comments:

Points Earned /35

Additional Comments:

Points Earned: /7.5

Additional

Points Earned: /50

Chapter 1

Defining, Conceptualizing, and

Understanding Terrorism

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This chapter introduces the subject of terrorism and some of the topics and issues that are explored in more detail in later chapters. In the introduction section, reasons why it is important, or perhaps essential, to understand terrorism are identified; for example, challenges such as the emerging tactic of system disruption and Black Swan events that are so different, they will be difficult to predict but will impact us nonetheless.

There was terrorism before we had a name for it. To this day, scholars, governments, and international organizations, such as the United Nations, struggle to find a common definition of terrorism. One barrier to understanding terrorism is the surplus of competing and conflicting definitions. The chapter also addresses how our individual and cultural perspectives affect how we think about terrorism and create barriers to understanding it. The chapter concludes by contrasting war and war crimes, irregular war, and terrorism.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 1.1 State six reasons why it is important to understand terrorism.

• 1.2 Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

• 1.3 Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

• 1.4 Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

• 1.5 Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

It is important, perhaps essential, to understand terrorism. There are a number of reasons why.

(1) For most of its history, terrorism was subnational or regional. In recent decades, a few movements have shown the ability to launch attacks transnationally. This leaves people wary and changes how some people live.

(2) Terrorism can be adapted with terrifying speed to the needs of many causes.

(3) Terrorism is not a uniquely American problem.

(4) There will be no quick and easy resolution to terrorism. The continuous possibility of attacks is like learning to live with an incurable disease.

(5) Service members and their families make collective sacrifices to give us a measure of security and deserve our respect.

(6) Terrorism evolves and adapts, presenting a continuous series of new challenges.

Understanding Terrorism

The 9/11 attacks precipitated the largest and most expensive reorganization in our history. This led to the creation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and prompted the United Nations (UN) Security Council to form a Counter Terrorism Committee. It also changed how Americans live.

Terrorism adapts at a frightening speed to the needs of many causes. An example of this occurred when Iraq and Syria were faced with loss of territory while fighting the international force, the Islamic State (IS), which adapted and spread. While IS had been substantially reduced or driven out of most of Iraq and much of Syria, some experts believe they will once again attempt to establish their sought-after caliphate there.

Although a great deal of attention is focused on radicalized Muslims from abroad, “homegrown terrorists” are much more common. Homegrown violent extremists (HVEs) have no formal connection to or receive material support from a terrorist movement but may have some psychological affinity with one or have their own particular cause.

HVEs become radicalized through stages that include exposure to and immersion in radical ideology; they then accept the ideology and link it to their own ideas; they begin to plan a crime in response to their new beliefs; and can end with planning, preparing, and carrying out a crime or attack.

• Teaching Tip Have students research recent lone-wolf attacks in the United States and share with the class.

Syria

Since 2020, when Russia (which backed the Syrian government) and Turkey agreed to a ceasefire and joint patrols in the Idlib corridor, Syria had been relatively quiet, giving many around the world a false sense of security that things had perhaps settled, despite the fact that Syria’s government had never regained control of all of its territory.

In 2024, Syrian rebel forces took advantage of several factors: a massive 2023 earthquake in Turkey and Syria pulled resources from the patrols and general governance of the area as it struggled to address basic infrastructure. In 2024, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), a former alQaeda affiliate, took control of the capital city and assumed power. HTS is a designated terrorist organization. The United States still maintains a military presence in Syria backing the Kurdishdominated SDF forces, which claim democratization of Syria as one of their goals. The United

States has economic sanctions in place that were initially meant to target the Assad regime and has not yet re-established a formal diplomatic relationship with Syria.

The Israeli/Palestinian Conflict

Hamas attacked Israel in October of 2023, killing over 1,200 Israelis and taking 251 hostages. Israel responded forcefully, formally declaring war against Hamas and bombing its strongholds throughout the Gaza Strip As of this book’s publication, there is a temporary and very tenuous ceasefire in Gaza. Both anti-Semitism and Islamophobia have spiked globally because of this conflict and continue to inspire acts of violence across the Western world.

At an in-person meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in the first days of his presidency, President Donald J. Trump suggested that the Palestinian people be permanently resettled in other countries. President Trump also suggested that the United States would take over the Gaza Strip. This sparked global controversy among people on all sides of the conflict. Both anti-Semitism and Islamophobia have spiked globally because of this conflict and continue to inspire acts of violence across the Western world.

Yemen

The Houthis, officially known as Ansar Allah, have proven to be one of the most difficult challenges for the United States to deter. They are backed by Iran and align themselves with Hamas and Hezbollah. In 2015, they took over large areas of western Yemen. In 2024, the Houthis began a campaign of attacks against commercial ships in the Red Sea. In 2025, the United States redesignated the Houthis as a Foreign Terrorist Organization and continues to use air and naval forces to eliminate Houthi rebels throughout the Red Sea area.

Sub-Saharan Africa

According to the United Nations, Africa has become the “global epicenter of terrorism.” IS and al-Qaeda are taking advantage of failed states and ungoverned nations.

Terrorism in the Pacific, South America, and Europe

Threat to Philippines by Abu Sayyaf and IS have significantly been deterred by counterterrorism efforts.

As of 2017, Great Britain had suffered five terrorist attacks.

In South America, both Hezbollah and IS maintain a presence, as they do to an extent in the Caribbean.

Turkey, due to its geographic location, is also a transit point for terrorists from neighboring countries, including Syria, Iran, and Iraq. The country has been active in identifying and arresting or deporting individuals with terrorist ties to the Islamic State, PKK, and other foreign terrorist groups.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) can be nuclear, biological, chemical, radiological, or high-explosive weapons capable of producing major destruction, mass casualties, or significant infrastructure damage. Terrorists have not forsaken the use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs), suicide bombers, or attacks on specific targets.

Concept of terrorists waging a “New War” is directed at infrastructure cyberattack destruction and sending or activating small teams to wreak havoc and death, like Black Swan events, which are so different from what we know that they will be difficult to predict. System disruption to oil pipelines, communication, transportation, electrical, and water systems, and banking is also part of the “New War ”

“New War” Targets

In a New War, protecting the infrastructure is at least as important as fighting terrorists “over there” and perhaps even more difficult.

Terrorism compels local, state, tribal, and national governments to have significant policies and diplomatic discussions about how to combat it. The U.S. government is charged with preventing new attacks; it must simultaneously preserve those constitutional liberties and rights that define it.

The Concept of Terrorism

There was terrorism before there was a word for it. The Romans conquered portions of the Middle East in the first century B.C.E. In Palestine, for decades afterward, the Jewish Sicarii (Dagger men) concealed knives under their robes and used them to murder Romans and their supporters in crowds. “Terrorism” only emerged as a term during the late eighteenth century in France. Early terrorism in the United States was typically racial, labor, or anarchist-related.

Terrorism as Peripheral to U.S. Affairs

Despite such terrorist events, America’s level of concern regarding terrorism has historically been quite low. And until relatively recently, terrorism has been at the margin of U.S. policy. A variety of events account for this position. For example: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had people focused on manned orbits of the earth and landing on the moon. The American Civil Rights Movement was also prominent in news media reports. Finally, the Vietnam War consumed our resources and energy, particularly from 1965 through 1975.

Terrorism in the Late Twentieth Century

From the 1960s to 9/11, several important radical movements, such as Students for a Democratic Society, existed in the U.S., and some terrorist attacks were launched on Americans abroad. Between the 1960s and the time of writing, several radical movements occurred. Examples include Pan Am Flight 103, truck bombs in Lebanon, Kenya, and Tanzania, and the attack on the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1993.

The attacks on September 11, 2001, were devastating and frightening, and they compelled a national response. The attacks focused the United States on preventing terrorism from reaching our shores. Terrorism is currently the most important word in our political vocabulary, and America annually spends billions of dollars to combat it.

A Working Definition of Terrorism

A general working definition of terrorism is the deliberate, unlawful use of threats, force, or actual violence to inculcate fear, intended to intimidate or coerce individuals, groups, or governments to change their political, social, religious, or ideological basis. The United Nations has not been able to draft a definition of terrorism acceptable to all member nations because they reserve the political right to determine what acts constitute terrorism.

• Teaching Tip Use Table 1-1 for a class discussion on why it is hard to define terrorism. Ask students to classify recent events as terrorism based on this definition. What is the difference between terrorism and “violent extremism”?

The Challenges of Defining Terrorism

The United Nations has not been able to draft a definition of terrorism acceptable to all member nations. In 2002 the European Union adopted a framework for terrorism legislation. Additionally, each European country is allowed to add its own legislative framework “New Terrorism” targets non-combatants, using indiscriminate violence to cause mass casualties among defenseless civilians. While selective terrorism uses selective violence to focus on the people and institutions that don’t support the terrorist’s cause. An example of selective terrorism is the IRA.

Issues in Conceptualizing, Defining, and Understanding Terrorism

A number of factors contribute to the difficulties we have in understanding terrorism, including:

(1) Multiple and complex definitions have proliferated.

(2) The evidence base for terrorism is insufficient.

(3) Terrorism is a contested concept.

(4) Terrorism is evocative; it appeals to emotion, and not intellect.

(5) Political power often determines those who are labeled “terrorists ”

(6) Past prosecutorial decisions within the United States have confused people.

Definitions Have Proliferated

Social constructs help us understand and organize our lives by virtue of the meaning we attach to them. Examples include marriage, loyalty, social status, happiness, and terrorism. Terrorism is a non-natural world event and cannot be measured and characterized with scientific accuracy. It is a process that can be repeated endlessly, which accounts for the numerous and complex definitions. Definitions are intended to allow people to accurately distinguish one construct from another so that when we apply a label, such as terrorism, it is done with clear meaning. However, the surplus of terrorism definitions prevents us from doing so.

The Evidence Base for Terrorism Is Insufficient

The terrorism evidence base supporting planning, strategic thinking, and policymaking is weak. The lack of publicly accessible empirical data may contribute to some misunderstandings about terrorism.

Terrorism Is a Contested Concept

There is a hotly contested question of “who is the terrorist?” For example, Israel views Hezbollah as a terrorist organization. However, Latin America views it as a legitimate political organization that does not pose a security threat. This view hampers America’s counterterrorism efforts because Hezbollah’s presence in Latin America gives it a closer geographic location to the United States than its Middle East home.

Hamas (The Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement) is another radical fundamentalist Muslim Middle Eastern organization designated as an FTO (a foreign terrorist organization) by the U.S. government. Hamas is opposed to the existence of Israel and maintains a well-armed militia or paramilitary arm. It also provides substantial social services in Gaza, the West Bank, and Israel. Hamas’s funds have traditionally come from private donors in Saudi Arabia, oil-rich Persian Gulf nations, and charities operated for its benefit. Syria and Iran also provide support to Hamas.

Under the 1947 United Nations plan that partitioned Palestine, Israel was created. The Gaza Strip was to be an independent Arab country. However, Arab leaders rejected the plan because it created a Jewish homeland from territory formerly occupied by Arabs, and religious sites sacred to Islam were located in Israel. The Gaza Strip is now claimed and governed by the Palestinian Authority under the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The Gaza Strip’s long border with Israel has been problematic for many decades and remains so today.

Terrorism Is Evocative It Appeals to Emotion and Not Intellect

Something that is evocative has the power to stir people. It produces strong feelings and causes them to recall potent images and revisit powerful memories. The mention of terrorism on the news rivets our attention, and we are compelled to pay attention until we know the details. The public reaction to the 9/11 attacks was evocative and instructive.

Some people recall evocative events with great accuracy. In contrast, others dissociate from gruesome details to prevent being emotionally overwhelmed. They develop “cognitive blind

spots” to preserve themselves. In one study, subjects were asked to put five key events about 9/11 in order. Surprisingly, 63 percent could not do so even though they believed it was “the most unforgettable day” of their lives.

Armed Drones

The United States uses drones to inflict casualties and destroy targets, and considers this effective military action. Limits on counterterrorism drone strikes and commando raids outside conventional war zones were removed by President Trump in early 2025, suggesting that the administration was willing to engage in airstrikes in areas such as Somalia and Yemen. Previously, the White House had to authorize strikes by military and CIA drone operators unless they were in self-defense; the loosened rules gave field commanders the latitude to carry out attacks for broader counterterrorism purposes. Shortly after the updates, U.S. Africa Command conducted an airstrike against ISIS-Somalia, killing two militants. Those on the receiving end might consider it terrorism because it causes the deaths of unarmed non-combatants.

Political Power Determines Who Are Terrorists

Governments have the political authority to apply labels that carry significant consequences. For example, they may determine eligibility for various types of assistance or preclude people from exercising certain rights. The difference between a group being labeled “insurgent” or “terrorist” may depend less on what they actually do and more on what the ruling government calls it in pursuit of national policy agendas.

Immigration, Border Control, and Homeland Security

Prior to 2025, an examination of the United States’ list of foreign terrorist organizations (FTOs), which are defined as foreign terrorist organizations that are designated by the Secretary of State in accordance with section 219 of the Immigration and Nationality Act,151 would have yielded a who’s who of Islamic extremist and Middle Eastern terrorist groups (and the Irish Republican Army). However, a new executive order by President Donald J. Trump on February 20, 2025, designated eight new groups on the list, all with ties to Central America or Mexico none of which ascribe to any particular political or religious ideology. Indeed, the same executive order includes language designating sophisticated drug cartels as terrorist organizations and a threat to the national security of the United States, opening the door to potential use of military actors to combat this threat.

Terrorist organizations could feasibly form alliances with these powerful cartels and provide ample opportunity for mutually beneficial relationships that could also include the sharing of strategic, tactical, and training resources, as well as carrying out attacks on U.S. interests.

Upon President Donald J. Trump’s election, deportation was prioritized almost immediately. On the day of his inauguration, the “Protecting the American People Against Invasion Executive Order” was signed, requiring increased Homeland Security enforcement of immigration laws; expediting the removal of illegal immigrants, especially those with criminal histories; limiting humanitarian parole and temporary protected status for Venezuelans and other nationals; and

implementing many more punitive and enforcement provisions.

Past Prosecutorial Decisions Confuse Us

The public does not have an expert knowledge of terrorism. We form our opinions on a basic and incomplete understanding of events and the laws that we think should be applied. It is not surprising that sometimes we agree and at other times disagree with how the government charges suspects. At the heart of our confusion is the expectation that certain perpetrators should be charged with terrorism and instead authorities charge them with a conventional criminal act.

• Teaching tip: There are two case studies for this section in the textbook on pages 35–36. These could be used for discussions and written assignments. For example, compare the case of Abdulhakim Muhammad with the case of Nidal Malik Hasan. How would you classify them and why?

These case studies illustrate that the specific charges applied in terrifying and perhaps terroristic events are impacted not only by the factual situations, but also by a matrix of legal, operational, and political factors whose weight the public rarely learns. Moreover, we are not privy to the clash of views and needs among agencies in making such decisions. To some degree, our confusion about what is terrorism is grounded in the reality that charging decisions are a “witch’s brew” of factors.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Numerous additions have been made throughout the book to reflect significant changes in the Middle East and other geographic areas where terrorism has been a continual issue and problem.

An expanded and updated introduction to Chapter 1 sets the tone for the entire book, with a special focus on the war in Syria and the emergence of the Islamic State.

• Updated all material relating to defining and conceptualizing terrorism. • Presented new boxes on homegrown violent extremists and their stages of radicalization, including discussion of the incel movement and its linkage to lone-actor attacks in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. • Updated statistical information on global terrorism, with focused attention on the Middle East, featuring discussion of Syria, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Yemen, sub-Saharan Africa, the Pacific region, South America, and Europe. • Featured box on the use of private military contractors (PMCs) linked to acts of terrorism, such as Blackwater and the Wagner Group. • An updated and featured box on recent Black Swan events and a discussion of the current frameworks for examining terrorism, including the development of a general working definition of the term “terrorism.” • A general discussion of current immigration issues and homeland security, focusing on newly listed foreign terrorist organizations such as Tren de Aragua, MS-13, and other international and organized crime cartels.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Have the students discuss the concept of terrorism versus war. Consider having the discussion in a debate format.

Activity 2: Split the students into small groups. Have each group research and report to the class about a particular terrorist group, which includes a history, a present-day update, and a prediction of the future activities of the organization.

Box questions

1-1 Do you think legitimate as well as rogue governments will continue to use PMCs, like the Wagner Group and Blackwater in conflicts around the world? What advantages and disadvantages do PMCs offer their client governments or groups?

A: Answers will vary, but may contain some of the following points. Both legitimate and rogue governments will probably keep using PMCs in the future. They give states a way to project military power without officially taking responsibility for what happens basically allowing them to act with some level of deniability. PMCs can also be cheaper and quicker to deploy than regular military forces, so they’re appealing for countries that want results without the political or bureaucratic costs that come with sending in national troops. But there are major downsides too. PMCs often operate in a gray area of the law, which can lead to human rights abuses and little accountability if things go wrong, like what happened with Blackwater in Iraq or Wagner in Africa. They can also complicate international relations by blurring the line between state and nonstate actors in conflicts. So, while they’re useful tools, they raise serious ethical and legal questions that make their growing role in warfare concerning.

1-3 How are the old terrorism and the lone wolf attacks contrasted?

A: The “old terrorism” generally is described as having specific political, social, and economic goals. Because many, if not most, old terrorism goals were subnational, they had some potential of being achieved by negotiation between the terrorists and the national government. The new terrorist organizational structures are often difficult to discern because many of the new terrorist groups are autonomous or only loosely affiliated. Unlike the prior generation of terrorism, the new terrorism is more international. Such movements also inspire the “amateur” lone wolf attacks. The new terrorist organizations are nimble, quick to learn, and increasingly technologically savvy and operationally competent.

1-4 How have politics impacted Rapoport’s “wave” theory of domestic terrorism in the United States? Do you think Rapoport’s theory has merit today? Why or why not?

A: Answers will vary, but might include the following points. Politics has influenced how Rapoport’s “wave” theory is applied to domestic terrorism, especially in the United States. The events of January 6 made many people rethink what terrorism looks like it wasn’t foreign or

religious extremists this time, but U.S. citizens motivated by political ideology. That’s what pushed Rapoport to suggest a possible “fifth wave,” focused on far-right extremism. But because political opinions about January 6 are divided, his update hasn’t been widely accepted. Some see the event as terrorism meant to disrupt democracy, while others argue it was a political protest that got out of control. That political split makes it very difficult to agree on whether far-right domestic actors belong in a new “wave” or are part of ongoing extremism within the existing religious or political waves.

Rapoport’s theory still has value because it helps explain how terrorism evolves over time and responds to political and social changes. But the idea of a separate “fifth wave” is debatable. Those who support it may say the rise of organized far-right movements worldwide shows a real shift in motivations and tactics; enough to call it a new wave. Critics may argue that the same patterns already fit within the older framework, and labeling it separately might be more about politics than theory. Overall, it still offers a useful lens, but today’s threats are more complex and overlapping than what a “wave” model can fully capture on its own.

1-5 Do you think there will be credible threats like the Eras Tour threat in the future? What, if anything, can be done to prevent such threats?

It’s very possible there will be credible threats like the Eras Tour plot in the future. Large concerts and festivals are attractive targets for terrorists because they bring together huge crowds in open, emotionally charged environments with limited security in certain areas. Groups like IS have shown that they deliberately target these kinds of “soft targets” to create maximum psychological fear, not just physical damage. With the reach of social media and online radicalization, it’s easier than ever for individuals or small groups to plan attacks or spread extremist ideas globally.

Some might argue that governments and event organizers can reduce these threats through stronger intelligence sharing, tighter background checks, and improved venue security, for example, better screening, surveillance systems, and crowd control. Others might believe that, realistically, it’s impossible to fully prevent such threats without making concerts feel like military zones, which would take away from the experience itself.

Both sides make valid points. People don’t want to live in constant fear, but we can’t ignore that these events remain symbolic and vulnerable targets. Investment in intelligence coordination, community awareness programs to catch potential radicalization early, and evolving security measures that protect both concertgoers’ safety and their sense of normality.

1-6 Do you think the use of drones as either a surveillance vehicle or as a weapon is Constitutional? Why or Why not? What do you think about the recent use of drones to combat drug smugglers crossing the sea to the United States from Venezuela?

A: Whether the use of drones is constitutional really depends on how and where they’re being used. Some argue that using drones as weapons outside of declared war zones violates both U.S. constitutional principles and international law. They point out that drone strikes often happen without due process, blur the line between combatants and civilians, and can target U.S. citizens

abroad without a formal trial, which raises serious Fifth Amendment concerns. Critics also say that targeting people in foreign countries without their government’s consent violates sovereignty and gives too much unchecked power to the executive branch.

Supporters could argue that drone strikes are constitutional under the president’s authority as commander-in-chief to defend the nation against terrorist threats. They claim drones are more precise than traditional warfare methods, reducing risk to both U.S. soldiers and civilians. When used under authorization of Military Force), they see drones as a legal and necessary tool in modern counterterrorism.

Both sides can raise valid points. Drones serve an important purpose in national security, but without transparency and proper oversight, their use can easily cross constitutional lines. Ensuring clear legal limits and accountability would be the best way to balance safety and constitutional rights. Opinions regarding using them on Venezuela may vary.

1-7 Should criminal gangs be classified as Foreign Terrorist Organizations? Why or why not?

A: Opinions will vary, but answers should be supported with rationales. So, arguments for and against are provided, but are not the only correct responses. Arguments for classifying criminal gangs as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs):

• Many transnational gangs, like Tren de Aragua, use violence and intimidation to control populations and governments in ways similar to terrorist groups. Their activities can destabilize regions and threaten national security.

• Classifying them as FTOs allows governments to use stronger counterterrorism tools like financial sanctions, intelligence operations, and international cooperation to disrupt their networks.

• It sends a political and legal message that their behavior (mass violence, human trafficking, and corruption) isn’t just organized crime but a direct threat to public safety and global order.

• The label could make prosecution easier by broadening the legal options for charging members and supporters, particularly when their crimes cross borders. Arguments against classifying criminal gangs as FTOs:

• Traditional gangs are usually motivated by profit, not ideology, religion, or political goals the core elements of terrorism so grouping them with terrorist organizations may blur important legal distinctions.

• Expanding the FTO classification too broadly could dilute the meaning of “terrorism,” making it harder to focus on groups that actually engage in politically or ideologically motivated violence.

• It could also lead to civil liberty concerns, especially if law enforcement applies counterterrorism laws in ways that target migrant or marginalized populations associated with these gangs.

• Some argue that these groups should be handled through the criminal justice system and international law enforcement cooperation rather than through military or counterterrorism responses, which can escalate conflicts unnecessarily.

Review questions

1. Following 9/11, a national survey revealed some businesses and Americans made important changes to their lives. What are three of them?

A: Answers could include Americans reducing travel and avoiding certain cities and crowded places. Some businesses have provided employees with emergency kits. Families have created emergency plans because they don’t feel the government can protect them. Some Americans have become “survivalists”.

2. What are homegrown violent extremists?

A: A person of any citizenship who mostly lives in the United States and who commits terrorist activity to advance an ideology when that person is influenced by a foreign terrorist organization (FTO). Although there may be an exchange of electronic messages with a terrorist organization sending encouraging messages, homegrown terrorists have no formal connection to or material support from a terrorist movement but may have some psychological affinity with one or have their own particular cause

3. Terrorism is not just an American problem. What data supports that assertion?

A: The American preoccupation with protecting the homeland, as well as citizens, interests, and facilities abroad, can lead us into thinking that terrorism is a uniquely American problem. The data reveals a different picture: Terrorism is an international problem. The top ten countries most affected by terrorism, in rank order, are: Burkina Faso, Israel, Mali, Pakistan, Syria, Afghanistan, Somalia, Nigeria, Myanmar, and Niger. The United States ranks 30th on that list. Terrorism is demonstrably a worldwide issue and not simply an American phenomenon.

4. What areas and conflicts do you think contribute most to our current perception of terrorism?

A: As the chapter points out, terrorism is a global phenomenon, and several countries are addressed in this chapter. They include the United States, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Yemen, Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Pacific, South America, and Europe. This is not an inclusive list, and other countries also impact the perception of terrorism.

5. What does the “Bermuda Triangle of Terrorism” mean?

A: The combined efforts to define terrorism have created what Jenkins describes as the “Bermuda Triangle of Terrorism,” which indicates that there are hundreds of competing definitions of terrorism. Definitions are intended to allow people to accurately distinguish one construct from another so that when we apply a label, such as terrorism, it is done with clear meaning. However, the surplus of terrorism definitions prevents us from doing so.

6. What is a “force multiplier”? What is an example of it?

A: A military term that means a capability that, when added to and employed by a combat unit, significantly enhances its combat potential and increases the likelihood of a successful mission.

7. What is a “foreign terrorist organization (FTO)?”

A: The U.S. Department of State lists an organization as a “foreign terrorist organization” if it engages in terrorist activity or has retained the capacity or intention to do so and threatens United States nationals or America’s national security.

8. How does political power shape our ideas of what terrorists are?

A: Political power often determines those who are labeled “terrorists.” What one nation has labeled a terrorist group may not be considered a terrorist group in another nation. These labels are politicized and become a national policy agenda within the government agency. These labels are dispersed and indoctrinated into the people.

9. What are examples of how emotion and psychology shape our perception of terror?

A: Our understanding of terrorism and our experience of it can turn on a dime: political transitions; policy and legislative decisions at home and abroad; immigration patterns; religious ideology; cultural shifts; extremist influencers on social media; and evolutions in technology can all influence the formation of terrorist ideology. Perception of, and response to terrorism are based on where you live, your ideology, your religion, and what is going on in the world around you.

10. What new steps has President Donald J. Trump initiated to safeguard the homeland?

A: President Trump has plans to focus homeland security on securing the border of the United States and protecting the country from drug cartels. He designated eight new groups with ties to Central America or Mexico as foreign terrorist organizations. The new executive order by President Trump also focuses on the use of the U.S. military to act as immigration and border enforcement officers and prioritizes the construction of a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border, all aimed at securing the homeland and ridding the country of organized, sophisticated, and dangerous foreign criminals.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Terrorism in History. Think about some of the major historical events, from assassinations to revolutions to world wars. How many of these events could be perceived as acts of terrorism? For example, just considering World War II, think of all the incidents that occurred that could be “labeled” terrorist: The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan; the Bataan Death March; the treatment of Jews, the Roma people, people with mental illness, gay people, and other political prisoners in the Nazi concentration/death camps; the Nazi bombing of civilian population

centers, such as London, England; the Allied fire-bombing of Dresden; and America’s dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Some of these events caused heavy civilian casualties. Looking at them, how do they fit into the framework of acts of terrorism?

A: Answers will vary. Based on the numerous definitions of terrorism, each of these examples can fit the framework, yet they can also be considered acts of war or war crimes.

2. The Hamas Attack on Israel: On October 7, 2023, this multi-level attack overwhelmed Israeli defenses and caught the country off guard. Over 1,200 people were killed, and hundreds of hostages were taken. How has this changed our perception of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict? What was the Israeli response to the attack, and how will this influence future radicalization and terrorist acts? What does this attack mean for the security of the United States?

A: Answers and opinions will vary. However, this will likely shape the evolution of terrorism for generations. Hamas could easily capitalize on anger against Israel and the United States with pro-Palestinian sentiment, inspiring terror attacks in the West, including plots against Israeli embassies and consulates, cultural sites, and other interests. Furthermore, it should be noted that both anti-Semitism and Islamophobia have spiked globally as a result of this conflict and continue to inspire acts of violence across the Western world.

Chapter 2 Political Ideology and the Historical Roots of Terrorism

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 2 is a foundational chapter for the entire book. It represents a significant work on the historical development of terrorist ideology. The chapter begins with a discussion of political ideology as the general belief system on which society is based, and the mechanisms people undertake to achieve this perspective. Terrorism has a direct effect on the social structure of society. People depend on a framework of informal and formal rules that foster mutual respect and trust. Terrorism substitutes this trust with insecurity and fear. Essentially, terrorism attacks the very bases of social order, culture, and government.

Chapter 2 explores the political and social theory that motivates certain groups from the genesis of revolutionary ideology and terror to contemporary hate crime and radical Islamic movements. We start with the historic left-wing ideologies of socialism and communism as expressed by Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and Vladimir Lenin in Europe and Russia at the end of the nineteenth century and trace ideological ties to more contemporary perspectives of revolution in South America and the Middle East as expressed by Che Guevara, Carlos Marighella, and Sayyid Qutb. A focus on the development of Latin American leftist groups like FARC and ELN in Colombia, the Tupamaros in Uruguay, and Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in Peru brings our discussion to the concept of a “guerrilla war” as part of a revolutionary strategy in some cases and as terrorism in others. We also explore the development of the “new left” in Europe during the 1960s, including the Red Brigades, the Red Army Faction (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang), the Revolutionary Cells, and its feminist-leaning auxiliary group, the Red Zora, bringing us full circle from the inception of leftwing political revolutionary thought to more contemporary anti-imperialist and anticolonial ideology.

The final part of this chapter focuses on the historical roots of terrorism in the Middle East, from early anticolonial ideology and the mandate system developed at the end of World War I to the establishment of Israel and the beginning of the Palestinian Resistance movement.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 2.1 Describe the concept of political terrorism.

• 2.2 Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

• 2.3 Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

• 2.4 Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

• 2.5 Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

The subject of “politics” often provokes intense emotion, generates passionate discussion, and can frequently create extreme resistance to considering another person’s point of view Identifying with a particular political theory or ideology can also help reduce uncertainty, make a person feel more secure and increase feelings of solidarity with others. As such, it’s easy to understand “how” terrorists can add to and indoctrinate their ranks, particularly during times of perceived societal upheaval. Early historical writers on the subject of terrorism suggested that terrorism must be part of a revolutionary strategy and that it poses significant social consequences as well:

• Terrorism has a direct effect on the social structure of a society.

• Terrorism upsets the framework of precepts, images, and symbols on which society is based on, which society depends and trusts.

• Terrorism destroys the solidarity, cooperation, and interdependence on which social functioning is based and substitutes insecurity, distrust, and fear.

• Terrorism attacks the very bases of social order, culture, and government.

Revolutionary Ideology and Terror

Much of the collective “modern” experience with terrorism from the Middle East is based in radical Islam. Terrorism today is not seen as purely a political phenomenon, but rather as something that is mostly motivated by religious zealots that misinterpret the peaceful constructs of various world religions, whether Islamic, Judaic, or Christian. Political terrorism is designed to influence political behavior based on extranormal means, entailing the use or threat of violence.

Surprisingly, even those terrorist groups (like al-Qaeda) that spring primarily from religious ideology are deeply rooted in political and historical movements hailing from mid-nineteenthcentury Europe. Left-wing extremism is heavily rooted in the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in Russia during the 1800s. Their theory (now called “Marxism”), seeks to change or eliminate a capitalist system that is perceived to be corrupt and oppressive in nature and restore power and autonomy to the working class.

Anarchism

Anarchism is a belief that there should be no centralized government and that society should be based on voluntary cooperation and free association between individuals. It was first expressed by a radical contributor to the ideology of the 1848 uprising in France, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.

For the most part, violent revolution and destruction were advocated via largely passive propaganda accomplished through leaflets, parlor meetings full of intellectuals, and newspapers with pro-revolutionary language.

Necheyev and his contemporaries promoted “propaganda by the deed,” wherein acts of violence were advocated as a principal means of revolution. A rash of political assassinations in the early twentieth century can also be traced to the anarchist tactics espoused by Necheyev and Bakunin.

The Anarchist Cookbook

Antifa is short for “anti-fascist.” It is a relatively new, decentralized, and loose affiliations of activists in the United States reflecting a radical and often violent far-left political sentiment. The group denounces capitalism and current U.S. government structure.

Marxism

The Marxist movement sprang from the belief that power and wealth were too concentrated in the hands of just a few it championed the industrial working class as the creators of society’s wealth and sought to share that wealth equally, rather than putting it all in the hands of the very elite (the bourgeoisie).

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engel prescribe a political and social theory that directed the working class to violent revolution in an effort to overthrow the existing monarchies of Europe and Russia.

Marx believed that the entire history of man and society was a drive toward a new, utopian state of government: communism. Communism is characterized by the total elimination of private property as well as of government. Under the communist state, all goods and services are owned in common and are available as needed. Socialism is the elimination of private property and the means to produce.

Marx’s entire theory is based on his perspective of history as a constant struggle between classes of society. Marx believed that revolution was sparked by the vanguard, described as advanced and tenacious representatives of the working class, who would organize revolution and overthrow the bourgeois ruling class.

The Vanguard

Vladimir Lenin further developed the concept of the vanguard in the early twentieth century. The vanguard exploits the differences among people existing in a heterogeneous population. They use differences among people to agitate and disrupt society, while at the same time attacking government through a variety of tactics.

“Che” Guevara and the Promotion of World Revolution

Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–1967) was a Marxist revolutionary who became an iconic cultural hero throughout the world during a time when the tenets of capitalism were questioned and the United States was engaged in the controversial Vietnam War (1956–1975).

Guevara believed that there needed to be an immediate impact on the political consciousness of

the ruling party, and that immediate impact involved an armed revolution sparked by those most oppressed the rural, agrarian-based population of a country. Much of Che Guevara’s writing formed the basis for communist rhetoric during the Vietnam War, and his picture symbolized the anti-American sentiment prevalent during this period.

The concept of the vanguard did not die with Guevara. Today, elements of the process are seen in Islamist terrorist cells, and in many cases, terrorism remains the mark of the vanguard.

Latin American Leftist Groups

In Latin America, for example, several groups furthered Marxist ideology in action, engaging in guerrilla warfare just as “Che” Guevara advocated. Today, the most infamous of these is the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), established in 1964 as the military wing of the Colombian Communist Party, with 20,000 members. FARC is heavily armed and primarily funded by the drug trade.

The National Liberation Army (ELN) is also a Marxist group that operates in the Colombian countryside. Though much smaller than FARC, it too has profited heavily from the drug trade as it looks to replace the Colombian government with an egalitarian democracy that represents the rural peasant class. In 2016, FARC-ELN signed with the Colombian government, ending its armed dissident group in exchange for political recognition. Today, less than 2,000 hard-core dissidents remain.

Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil

The Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), a.k.a. Tupamaros, founded in Uruguay in the late 1960s. Their goal was and is to reform the government of Peru and Uruguay, removing all imperialist elements. They were true to their word and redistributed their spoils to people living in poverty. Today, they have been virtually wiped out by the Uruguayan government.

Peru’s most notorious leftist group is Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, which adopted core Marxist principles and added the teachings of its leader Abimael Guzmán, resulting in a mishmash of mysticism, Marxism, teachings of Mao, and even racial bigotry

In Argentina, complex political upheaval spawned several leftist groups. The Montoneros and the People’s Revolutionary Army rose to infamy after a 1966 military coup in the country established an authoritarian-bureaucratic state. The Montoneros sprang from the Marxist left, viewing themselves as a vanguard for revolution, but also incorporating radical Catholic principles into their calls for justice and unity for all Argentinians.

The People’s Revolutionary Army in Brazil grew out of guerrilla groups.

European Leftist Groups

While leftist groups in Latin America were fighting ostensibly a “guerrilla” war on behalf of the peasant and agrarian classes, European leftist terrorist groups of the same period identified more

as “revolutionary thinkers.”

One of the most active of these new left groups was the Red Brigades, based in Italy. The group formed in 1969 and became one of the largest leftist groups in Europe, with thousands of members at its peak. Their blend of Marxist and Leninist ideology sought to overthrow the government in three phases, all involving campaigns of urban terror.

The Red Army Faction

In Germany, the notorious Red Army Faction (RAF) also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang was the most prominent leftist group of its era. Its members, forever casting it in the lore of terrorist history, carried out three major incidents. First, a public prosecutor in Berlin was killed by a hit squad in April. Second, in July 1977, a banking executive was murdered in his home. Third, in September 1977, Hanns Martin Schleyer a powerful industrialist linked to the old German Nazi Party was forced out of his car and kidnapped.

The Revolutionary Cells, and its feminist-leaning auxiliary group, the Red Zora, were the least prominent of the three major European leftist groups. The group was Marxist in nature but eschewed the “underground” terrorist tactics of the RAF.

Members of the Revolutionary Cell, in concert with members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), hijacked an Air France plane with 248 passengers. Acting on intelligence from various sources, the famous Operation Thunderbolt was planned for the raid on Entebbe on the night of July 4, 1976. The “Raid on Entebbe” became a significant world event and marked the beginning of elite commando forces in countries around the world in an effort to counter terrorism with opposing tactical and military means.

• Movie note Show the movie “Raid on Entebbe” (1977) or “7 Days in Entebbe” (2018) in class. Discuss the significance of this event and what led it to become a flagship event in the history of counterterrorism.

Historical Roots of Terrorism in the Middle East

Marxist theory has also acted as the ideological foundation for groups interacting throughout the world for example, the collaboration between German leftist cells of the RAF and members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) during the 1970s.

Colonialism and the Mandate System

The term colonialism refers to the practice of inhabiting a specific area outside the native country. Unfortunately, it often includes the social, political, and economic domination of the indigenous people of an area. Further, when a colonial power takes over a new territory, the natural resources and/or wealth of that territory is often transferred to the colonizing country.

During World War I, both the British and the French realized the significant strategic importance of the Middle East, especially the potential wealth from oil that lies under its desert sands. In

1916, the Sykes-Picot Agreement was developed. The Sykes-Picot Agreement essentially carved up the Middle East into British and French “spheres of influence.”

In addition, the Balfour Declaration emerged from Great Britain in 1917, formally signaled British support for the development of a new sovereign Jewish state in the Middle East. The Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Balfour Declaration sadly laid the early foundation of mistrust against Western countries that persists to this day.

The fight against colonialism throughout the Middle East was informed by the same philosophical ideology: Marxism.

Responses to the Mandate System

Arab uprisings began immediately as a result of the mandate system. The first began in 1920 as a revolt against British control in Egypt, followed by another in Iraq the same year. Arab resistance also increased in the British mandate area of Transjordan, containing what is now the Palestinian Territory, Israel, and Jordan.

The events of World War II loomed large in the Palestinian Territory as well as throughout the Middle East, changing the course of Palestinian history and signaling the end of the mandate system of traditional colonialism in the Middle East.

The Impact of World War II and the Establishment of Israel

After World War II ended, areas subject to the mandate system in Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Egypt gained full independence from British and French rule. In the Palestinian Territory (referred to simply as Palestine), however, control of the land was handed over to the newly formed United Nations (1947). The UN developed a Special Committee on Palestine, which set forth two proposals calling for the creation of separate Arab and Jewish states.

The United Nations adopted the partition plan on November 29, 1947. It gave just over 56 percent of Palestine to the Jewish state and about 43 percent to the Arab state, with the holy sites in Jerusalem remaining an international enclave.

The approval prompted the withdrawal of British forces and immediately pitted Arabs against Jews living in the area. Arab military forces invaded Israel; most were unsuccessful, and hostilities ended in early 1949 with an armistice agreement that set the recognized boundaries of a new Israeli state and divided Jerusalem in half between the Jewish and Arab settlers.

In addition to the dispute about whether Israel should even exist, other contentious factors are at work. Many of the sites located in Israel generally and in Jerusalem particularly have great meaning to all three of the monotheistic religions of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and often they are within just a few feet of each other.

The Palestinian Resistance Movement

The problem of Palestine quickly became the “lightening rod” for many Arab Muslims against Western influence in the region.

In early 1964, Egyptian President Jamal Abd al-Nasser convened the first Arab Summit Conference in Cairo regarding the plight of Palestine. The conference, held in 1964, gave birth to a new organization known as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), with a Palestinian Congress headed by Ahmad Shuqayri.

Predictably, the PLO fractured into over a hundred different groups, each linked to the concept of a free and independent Palestinian state, but with a different ideology or methodology for achieving such a status. Some of these groups had existed well before the PLO was even chartered.

The Six-Day War

One such group was al-Fatah, which translates as “to open” in Arabic. By the end of 1965, alFatah had become an accomplished guerrilla force, carrying out a variety of bombings and attacks against Israeli military and civilian targets. Israel retaliated by attacking al-Fatah strongholds in the West Bank, culminating in the Six-Day War. The Israeli military seized Gaza, the Sinai, and several other Arab-held strongholds, doubling the size of Israel and displacing an additional half-million Palestinians.

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) was the second-largest group.

Leadership of the PFLP rested in the hands of two Christian Marxist physicians; George Habash became the political figurehead, while his longtime friend, Wadi Haddad, directed military and guerrilla actions. In July 1968, the PFLP began a terrorist strategy aimed at bringing the Palestinian agenda to the attention of the entire world. The PFLP came to the forefront of PFLP Skyjackings.

It came to the forefront of Palestinian organizations as a result of successful skyjackings that hit the world stage, forcing one terrorism expert of the time (Brian M. Jenkins of the RAND Corporation) to coin the phrase that “terrorism was grand theater.”

Black September

The Black September Organization (BSO) is perhaps the most notorious, though short-lived, of the early Marxist Palestinian terrorist organizations. The Black September Organization carried out a significant number of very violent attacks in Israel and left a lasting mark on the IsraeliPalestinian conflict. No attack during this period was more shocking than the events at the Summer Olympic Games in Munich, Germany, in September 1972.

The Abu Nidal Organization

The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) was the last of the first-wave, primarily Marxist-oriented Palestinian groups to gain major international notoriety. Headed by a former PFLP member named Sabri al-Banna, the group was highly entrepreneurial, working for a variety of countries, conducting “missions” that included paid assassinations and bombings throughout the Middle East. From 1972 to 1994, the group conducted ninety attacks in twenty different countries, claiming the lives of more than nine hundred people.

• Movie note Several films address the 1972 Munich Olympic massacre and can be shown in class: Munich (2005); One Day in September (1999); Sword of Gideon (1986); 21 Hours at Munich (1976).

Israel and Palestine Today

Arab position against Israel has not changed: The establishment of a Jewish state within Palestine was and is against all international law. The Zionist entity, according to the Palestinian Arabs, was never interested in sharing the land, but the development of a singular Zionist state (Israel). Even today, Israel is not formally recognized as a separate country by Palestinians and most Arab countries. Israel strongly argues that it has a right to exist as a separate nation, as a homeland for all Jews worldwide.

Many of the sites located in Israel generally, and in Jerusalem particularly, have great meaning to all three of the monotheistic religions of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Often, they are within just a few feet of each other.

Much of the dialogue around the Israeli-Palestinian conflict revolves around the proposed “twostate solution.” According to supporters of the concept, this action would effect a compromise between age-old enemies. Israel would achieve security and a demographic Jewish majority within its land, and Palestinians would have their own, separate, and recognized state. While not official, in effect, this has been a diplomatic policy for the last fifty years and has formed the basis for the majority of international peace talks concerning this conflict.

There is no indication that the “two-state solution” will ever be officially implemented: The border issue is very complex, due in a large part to the development of new Israeli settlements in the West Bank that, if relegated to the Israelis, would result in a noncontiguous Palestinian state. Further, Jerusalem has overlapping holy sites that cannot be physically divided both sides (Jewish Israelis and Palestinian Muslims) lay historical and religious claims to the city.

Politics, Oil, and Terrorism in the Modern Era

The Palestinian groups discussed so far were the forerunners of modern Middle East terrorist organizations, but notably they were secular meaning that their ideology was not based in religion, but rather in the political theories of Karl Marx. These prominent Palestinian terrorist groups clearly paved the way for more contemporary terrorist groups that eschewed political theory in favor of more radical Islamic (religious) ideology.

Since 1948, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been a central point of outrage for Arab radical

groups in the Middle East. Bolstered by Marxist ideology and further inflamed by the perspectives of Fanon and other philosophers, these groups have also pointed to colonialism by European powers as a means of exploitation of the natural resources (particularly oil) in the Middle East.

Oil as the Basis for Neocolonialism

Fundamentalist Arab groups argue that the presence of the U.S. military in the Middle East was used to “fan the flames” of neocolonialism. The presence of half a million coalition soldiers near Mecca during the 1990s was seen as a defilement and defamation of Muslim holy land, and further represented America’s desire for oil, backed up by a compelling military force in the region. 89 Radical Islamic groups led by Usama bin Laden rallied around his call to “purge” the United States from the Middle East

On March 20, 2003, the United States launched ground attacks in Iraq to “disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein’s support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people.” From March 2003 to February 20, 2014, 5,314 American soldiers died in Iraq military operations and another 51,895 were wounded. Estimates for Iraqi deaths range from 120,000 to 200,000 people, and economic loss is in the billions of dollars. Iraq has become the symbol of anti-American sentiment among terrorist groups, and again, a breeding ground for radical Islamic ideology.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Numerous additions have been made throughout the book to reflect significant changes in the Middle East and other geographic areas where terrorism has been a continual issue and problem.

• Added material on a new domestic anarchist group, Antifa, using old symbols of anarchism to express their political statements of today. • Updated material on Latin American leftist groups, including discussion on FARC and ELN. • Developed new material for the section titled “Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil.” • Developed new information link on antisemitism. • Revised Box 2–3 reflecting a new era in U.S.-Israeli relations resulting from recent presidential and prime minister elections in the United States and Israel, respectively. • Reorganized material on the Palestinian Resistance Movement. • Updated Quick Facts on Jewish and Arab Palestinians in Israel.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Have students compare and contrast Marxism with federalism.

Activity 2: Make up a timeline game by listing 10–20 events. Have the students work in groups to place the events in the proper order from first to last.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO BOX QUESTIONS & END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS

Box questions

2-1 What other similarities or differences between left and right extremist groups?

A: On the far-right fringe of the spectrum, groups advocate for a specific race or ethnicity, religion, or nationality. Their endgame is a change based on a reaction to a perceived threat, that is, a changing value system or a new and pervasive culture that is upending a long-standing social order. Their methodology for achieving their endgame involves a retreat or return to the “good old days” a social movement that seeks to restore that cherished social order. These are characterized by the neo-fascist, neo-Nazi, and skinhead hate groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations and the Christian Identity Church.

Far-left groups, by contrast, are much more future-oriented; they look to radical change, hoping to topple the social order of the past on behalf of certain societal classes (e.g., the working class or proletariats). Their movements are often based in a complex theoretical groundwork that describes those that have wealth and those that are oppressed (e.g., anti-colonialism, anticapitalism, Marxism). The ultimate goal is liberation from a real or perceived oppressive government. This designation contains groups that often self-identify as communist, socialist, or anarchist, such as the Black Blocs, Earth Liberation Front, Weather Underground, and Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).

What really sets leftist terror groups apart and in fact, distinguishes all ideological groups from each other is the types of groups that they “advocate,” their techniques, and their endgame. For example, modern or centrist groups advocate for society in general, not focusing on one group or another but instead looking at the whole. Their process for advancing their cause is a group consensus generally as part of a partisan democratic event, such as voting and the outcome is generally a balance between gradual change and a nod to tradition or the status quo. This is a good characterization of most modern American political groups, with labels from liberals to conservatives.

2-2 Can you think of other philosophers who influenced revolutionary writers in the future?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

2-3 Do you think Arafat was a criminal or a legitimate representative of his people?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

2-4 How do you think this incident impacted American policy? Do you think we should have a “no negotiation with terrorists” perspective or have things changed with more sophisticated terrorist groups?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question)

2-5 Do you think that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the Middle East could someday involve the superpowers of China, Russia, and the United States?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

Review questions

1. What are the basic tenets of Marxism, and how do you see its effects in modern Middle Eastern terror?

A: Marxism seeks to change or eliminate a capitalist system that is perceived to be corrupt and oppressive in nature and restore power and autonomy to the working class. Although the goals are certainly laudable to provide a better future for working people Marxism is heavily focused on the means of overthrowing government versus the maintenance of law and order. Left-wing theories are focused on revolution and anarchy, versus peaceful demonstration, to change governmental processes.

According to Marx, man’s history is that of a social class and class struggle. Social class is based on wealth and the ownership of private property, and that all class struggle has been over attaining control of private property. Marx believed that man’s history of existence was based on materialism, or the ownership of private property. He strongly believed that there was no god or divine creator, and that all earthly functions are explained in terms of economic and social class, based, again, on the ownership of private property.

The discussion of terrorism in this chapter has traced its evolution from Marxism and left-wing terror groups full circle to Islamic fundamentalism. The historical roots of terrorism in the Middle East lay in nineteenth-century France, and weave their way through Eastern Europe to World War I’s colonial legacy of the mandate system. The establishment of Israel after World War II, the frequent intervention of military forces in the holy lands of Islam, and the quest for oil by Western nations only helped to coalesce Arab groups against one enemy. The vestiges of those actions remain a threat to the stability of the entire Middle East, and to the safety and security of Western nations especially the United States.

2. How do you think Latin American and European terror organizations inspired presentday Arab terror organizations?

A: Under Article 22 of the “Covenant of the League of Nations,” the mandate system of dividing the Middle East into European colonies was established. Syria, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Algeria were placed under French control, while Palestine, Transjordan (the area composed now of Israel and Jordan), and Egypt fell under Great Britain. The British also took, as part of their mandate, the three Ottoman provinces of Mesopotamia, Mosul, and Baghdad and Basra, defining what is now modern-day Iraq. The mandate system essentially charged Great Britain and France with administrative oversight of these territories, with responsibility for leading them toward eventual self-rule, but in reality, the two superpowers had no intention of ceding their newly acquired, wealthy territories. Immediately following the implementation of the mandate, Arab nationalism rose throughout the Middle East and resistance against the new colonialism began.

3. What was the mandate system, and how do we see its lasting effects in Middle Eastern conflict?

A: At the end of World War I, a series of treaties divided the former Ottoman Empire into a series of British and French “spheres of influence.” This encroachment into Arab lands engendered a series of uprisings throughout the Middle East, further inflamed by the mandate system which gave Great Britain rule over Palestine, which had previously been legitimized as a Jewish homeland by the Balfour Declaration.

4. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) fractures into over a hundred separate groups. Identify the three primary groups and their respective leaders that gained worldwide notoriety for conducting terrorist attacks in the international arena.

A: One primary group is al-Fatah under the leadership of Yasser Arafat. A second group is the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) under the leadership of George Habash and Wadi Haddad. The Black September Organization, known for the 1972 Munich Olympic attacks, has halted and the group faded into anonymity. The final large fracture from the PLO is the Abu Nidal Organization, headed by former PFLP member Sabri al-Banna.

5. How is the United States perceived by the Arab world, and why? How does this perception and the continuing conflict between Israel and the Palestinians influence terrorist ideology?

A: United States oil interests plus its long-standing support of the Israeli state have long been a source of anger among Arab nationalists, who decry the imperialist actions of the United States and other Western countries. Nationalists and Islamic fundamentalists use Marxist-Leninist principles to inform their perceptions of and reactions to the unwelcome advances of the United States. Such sentiment has been further exacerbated due to United States actions in and around Iraq, most notably due to the United States presence in Arab holy lands as part of an offensive around Iraq and the long-standing occupation and destabilization of Iraq.

Critical thinking exercises

1. The Impact of Oil in the Middle East. Visit the homepage for Saudi Aramco at https://aram co.com/en/who-we-are/overview/our-history. Search these sites for stories on the discovery of oil in the Middle East. Learn about the history and culture of the Middle East in 1945 when the oil industry just began in that region. Notice the photos of the region and compare them to more modern times. How much has the landscape really changed in half a century? Visit the home pages of some of the wealthiest Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. Notice the significant improvements in health, education, and welfare of the individuals in those countries. Notice also that each of these countries is a royal monarchy. How do you think the form of government and the pervasive religion of Islam in the region have impacted the economic development of the Middle East both negatively and positively?

A: Answers will vary. It is helpful for the students to know that some of these countries are the

richest in the world. The United Arab Emirates has 95 percent of the world’s oil. Since the 1970s, the UAE has changed from a desert to a magical fairy tale. Their Islam religion does not tolerate alcohol, drugs, or guns. Their crime rate is low and the police force is respected. The country allows freedom of religion and can boast that a homelessness problem does not exist.

2. Terrorism as the Nexus of Politics and Violence. In 1997, Bruce Hoffman, an international expert on terrorism and political violence at the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica, California, wrote a compelling article titled “The Modern Terrorist Mindset: Tactics, Targets, and Techniques” (New York: Columbia International Affairs Online Working Paper, October 1997). See: https://degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7312/hoff17476-010/html?lang=en& srsltid=AfmBOorAhtfOpqIPQMNVINDTQnp137buVLYGKzPxkAqM0PtjBL4j9m8T. In that article, Hoffman explores the mindset of terrorists and the tactics they use in seeking political change. He contends that terrorism is where politics and violence intersect in the hopes of producing power … power to dominate and coerce, to intimidate and control, and ultimately to effect fundamental political change. Discuss this concept in history. Has any terrorist movement ever been successful in achieving not just political change through revolution, but also long-term international recognition as a ruling party or existing government? Can you give any examples? Interestingly, Hoffman indicates that in modern times, most terrorist groups do not reach the final steps of authority and governance of their homeland or country … but that was in 1997. Have things changed, particularly in the Middle East?

A: Answers will vary. This calls for an opinion. The students will find that there is continuous disagreement on this issue. Some will argue that terrorism is successful, while others disagree. This can make for a great discussion.

Chapter 3 Islam and the Middle East: History, Culture, and Conflict

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 3 explores the rich historical, religious, and political dimensions of the Middle East, providing students with essential context for understanding the region’s complexities. It begins by tracing the geographical and cultural significance of the Middle East as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of major world religions. The chapter addresses common Western misconceptions, emphasizing the region’s contributions to global knowledge and the enduring impact of colonial legacies and political intervention. Special attention is given to the diverse populations, faiths, and traditions that coexist across the Middle East, highlighting both the unity and tensions that characterize the region.

The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Islam, encompassing its core beliefs, practices, and foundational texts. Key theological distinctions such as the Sunni-Shi’a divide and concepts like jihad are explained within their spiritual and historical contexts. Instead of portraying Islam monolithically, the chapter highlights the faith’s internal diversity and the misuse of religious language by extremist actors. In doing so, it emphasizes the difference between normative Islamic teachings and the radical ideologies that have emerged over time, such as Salafi-jihadism and Khomeinism. Through these distinctions, students gain a clearer understanding of how political, social, and religious grievances can be manipulated to justify violence.

In addition to examining the roots of Islamic fundamentalism, the chapter provides critical case studies including the Arab Spring and the presidency of Mohamed Morsi in Egypt to illustrate the intersection of religion, governance, and popular movements. It also highlights interfaith efforts, such as the Abu Dhabi Declaration, and theological condemnations of terrorism, such as the Open Letter to Baghdadi. By contextualizing current events within deep historical and religious frameworks, Chapter 3 equips students with a balanced, informed, and respectful understanding of Islam and the Middle East in the context of global security and international relations.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 3.1 Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

• 3.2 Outline the origins and early development of Islam in the region, noting the distinctions between Sunni and Shi’a traditions, the concept of “jihad,” the Islamic creed, and the Five Pillars of Faith.

• 3.3 Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

• 3.4 Examine the rise and significance of the Wahhabi movement and the Muslim Brotherhood, highlighting key figures such as Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb.

• 3.5 Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

• 3.6 Explore the roots of extremist interpretations of Islam from the Shi’a perspective (Khomeinism) and assess the role of Hezbollah.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

The Middle East, often referred to as the “Cradle of Civilization,” is the birthplace of Jesus Christ and serves as a central hub in the intertwined histories of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The world of the Middle East and Islam is very different in comparison to the United States. It is characterized by a unique history, culture, religion, and perspective not observed in the West. Many Westerners have a limited understanding of the Middle East and Islam, often diluted by stereotypes, misinformation, and inaccurate characterizations by the popular media.

The Middle East: Strife, Misunderstandings, and Turmoil

The Middle East, often mischaracterized in public discourse, comprises a distinct geographic region encompassing countries in Western Asia, parts of North Africa, and the Eastern Mediterranean. It includes nations such as Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Egypt, among others. Countries like Afghanistan and Chechnya are often mistakenly associated with the Middle East.

The Middle East has been a crossroads of civilizations, fostering scientific, cultural, and intellectual advancements that have shaped the world. Despite this rich heritage, modern conflicts, terrorism, and external interventions often dominate its global image

Based both on real differences and misconceptions, terrorism often pits people and cultures against each other.

Comprehending terrorism in a deeper way requires a careful examination of the social, political, and/or religious positions taken by the parties involved in a conflict.

The Election and Overthrow of Mohamed Morsi

President Mohamed Morsi was democratically elected in 2012. He rapidly lost popular support and in 2013, after just one year in office, the military removed him from power and established an interim government. In response, the minority Muslim Brotherhood, strong supporters of Morsi, attacked, vandalized, and burned Egyptian Christian churches and Christian businesses. The military arrested some 35 Muslim Brotherhood members who died while in custody.

After the Muslim Brotherhood (MB) prisoners in the convoy were suffocated or executed, the MB canceled public demonstrations and rallies. The United States called the removal of President Mohamed Morsi by the Egyptian military a “coup d’état” and cut off much of its foreign assistance to one of its few friends in the region.

The Middle East: Geography, History, and Culture

The Middle East extends from the western Saharan plains of Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) across the vastness of Libya, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula, eventually reaching Iran. The Middle East is comprised of over a billion people representing almost every religion

and a variety of cultures.

The Middle East is also a region of the world dotted with thriving modern metropolitan cities such as Istanbul, Cairo, Tehran, Dubai, and Riyadh, yet in other areas people still live as they did centuries ago, herding a few sheep and making a marginal living from the land. This contrast between the coexisting new and ancient ways is among the contradictions found in the Middle East. Issues of governance, religion, and power can quickly transform into widespread upheaval, setting the stage for political struggles and social changes

Americans Ask: “Why Attack Us?”

After 9/11, a question many Americans asked was “Why attack us?” Contained within that question is the notion that we see ourselves as “good people” living in a progressive, humanrights-oriented nation.

Clashing Cultures

Part of the answer to “why us?” lies with Usama bin Laden (UBL) and al-Qaeda. UBL announced to the world that one of the primary reasons for the attack was our lack of knowledge about the true political and economic conditions of the Middle East. UBL justified the 9/11 attacks as a response to America and its allies that “disrespected” Islam by stationing their troops near holy sites.

Kingsley identifies four common “Whys” that explain terrorism: (1) Western scholars tend to blame it on radical Islamic interpretations of the Qur’an; (2) it arises from oppressive social and political conditions; (3) others see these conditions as being exacerbated by radical ideology, fueling terrorism; and (4) globalization and modernity threaten Islamic values and identities, prompting retaliation.

The Prophet Muhammad and the Beginning of Islam

Islam is more than just a religion; it is a prescription for a total way of life, both individually and collectively. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam traces its lineage to the “father of all people” Ibrahim (Abraham). Muslims do not believe in the divinity of Jesus but honor him as an especially esteemed prophet. The ultimate and final messenger within the Islamic tradition is the Prophet Muhammad.

Islam comes from the Arabic root “S-L-M,” which generally connotes meanings such as peace, purity, submission, and obedience. The people of Islam are called Muslims. A Muslim is literally one who submits to the will of God. This includes obeying Allah in his commandments, doing what is allowed, and avoiding what is forbidden. Muhammad was born around 570 C.E. in Mecca, a city in the western region of the Arabian Peninsula, located not far from the Red Sea. An orphan, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather. According to Muslim belief, Muhammad was 40 when Jibra’il (the Archangel Gabriel) visited him in Hira and revealed the first portions of what cumulatively became the Holy or Noble Qur’an. Gabriel’s revelations continued over a period of 23 years, ending the year

Muhammad died.

The Qur’an consists of 114 “suras” (chapters) defining everything from the nature of God and Man to the everyday rituals of cleanliness and bathing. The Qur’an contains Islam’s primary instructions and tenets.

The Death of Muhammad

In 632 C.E., Muhammad died, leaving the future of Islam to his followers. One unintended consequence was a conflict that produced, again, two factions: Sunni and Shi’a, or Shi’ite.

The Emergence of Two Muslim Traditions: Sunni and Shi’a

The death of the Prophet Muhammad led to a crucial question: Who is the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad?

A key distinction between the Shi’a (Shi’ite) and the Sunni is that the latter elect separate spiritual and political leaders. Sunnis believed that the Prophet’s successor should be selected by merit, not by inheritance, birth, or family. An assembly of Muslim clerics elected Abu Bakr as the first Caliph of Arabia and the leader of the Muslim community, or ummah. Muhammad’s followers accepted Abu Bakr as the new leader. For the Shi’a, leadership belongs to the successors of the Prophet Muhammad as ordained by Allah. Prophet Muhammad's clan argued that Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, should have been his successor. Each successor occupies the office of Supreme Imam and selects the next Supreme Imam to maintain the direct lineage from the Prophet to the present time.

Sunni vs. Shi’a Government

Sunni Muslims believe leaders should be chosen by consensus, maintaining a distinction between religious and political authority, with most modern Sunni-majority nations embracing governance structures separate from religious leadership. Shi’a Muslims, however, hold that leadership is divinely ordained, passed through the Prophet’s family, starting with Ali and continuing through imams who possess both spiritual and temporal authority.

Today the Shi’a tradition remains a much smaller yet vocal minority in the Islamic world. Only 10 to 13 percent of the Islamic population is Shi’a, and those Muslims are primarily located in Iran, Lebanon, Pakistan, India, and Iraq. The spiritual center of Islam remains in Mecca, the birthplace of Prophet Muhammad.

The Concept of “Jihad”

The term Islam is an Arabic term meaning “submission to the will of God,” with roots firmly planted in the common Arabic word for peace: salaam. Jihad means using all of one’s strength to overcome adversity and difficulty in the struggle to submit to the will of God. In the words of the Prophet Muhammad, the first is the greater jihad and the second is the lesser jihad. The struggle for greater jihad characterizes a spiritual front over one’s own ego and destructive emotions,

desires, and thoughts (e.g., malice, hatred, envy, selfishness, pride, arrogance, and pomp), which prevent man from attaining perfection.

The lesser jihad is much more materialistic in nature, consisting of physical acts to assist one’s family, relatives, neighbors, and country, a call to strengthen the overall “ummah” or community of Muslim believers.

According to Ibn Taymiyah, it was a sacred duty to preserve the Muslim community, land, and culture from the invading “infidel” through physical war that some later called a “holy war” mandated by Allah to safeguard Islam

In its truest sense, jihad was never meant to be associated with physical violence, and most certainly not with suicide bombing. Today, one of the most intense arguments among Muslim clerics is whether or not the suicide bombers observed worldwide will ever attain the spiritual bliss of Paradise, since suicide within the Muslim tradition is strictly forbidden.

Islam and Terrorism

The connectivity between religion and terrorism has not been without controversy. Several scholars have argued the role that religion plays in terrorism, yet few accurately depict the immense complexity of a decision to commit oneself to violence and/or suicide.

The words jihad and assassin have both been associated with Islamic terrorism today. Unfortunately, the spiritual and historical roots of these words are often forgotten and dismissed in our relatively weak understanding of the concept.

The Open Letter to Baghdadi

In 2014, an influential group of more than 120 Islamic scholars and clerics from around the world issued an open letter to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the self-declared caliph of the Islamic State (IS), condemning the group’s ideology and actions. Key points included: prohibition of atrocities, misuse of jihad, illegitimacy of the caliphate, and religious tolerance.

The Six Articles of Faith (the Islamic Creed)

The Islamic creed, commonly referred to as the Six Articles of Faith or Arkan al-Iman, establishes the foundational beliefs that guide a Muslim’s worldview and daily practice. 1. Belief in Allah (God); 2. Belief in angels; 3. Belief in divine books; 4. Belief in prophets; 5. Belief in the Day of Judgment; 6. Belief in predestination (Qadar).

The Five Pillars of Islam

Islam emphasizes that all people are equal through the love of God (Allah), and it is based on five major principles or pillars of faith. These “pillars” represent the essential tenets of Islamic faith. They are the primary obligations that Muslims must satisfy in order to live a good and responsible life according to Islam.

Pillar 1: Testimony of Faith (Shahada)

Shahada means to testify or bear witness, and it is often cited as the most important of the pillars. The Shahada is a testimony of faith in an eloquent yet simple prayer, similar to the Apostles’ Creed in Christian communities.

Pillar 2: Prayer (Salat)

Muslims perform prayers five times each day. They do so at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night, wherever they happen to be. Although each prayer takes only a few minutes, it is an acknowledgment by the supplicants of the importance of Allah in their lives.

Pillar 3: Giving Alms (Zakat)

“Zakat” denotes both purification and growth. Zakat is not a tax system that everyone pays in exchange for the delivery of some governmental service, such as the maintenance of roads.

Pillar 4: Fasting (Sawm)

Every year in the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Arab calendar, all Muslims fast from dawn until sundown, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. By depriving oneself of worldly comforts, even for a short time, a fasting person gains true sympathy with those who go hungry, as well as achieve spiritual growth.

Pillar 5: Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)

The final pillar of the Islamic faith is the pilgrimage to Mecca, which takes place in the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar. This is a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to the Holy Kaaba in Mecca. The Kaaba is the first mosque built by Abraham for worship.

Fundamentalism

Marty and Appleby describe fundamentalism as a “strategy or set of strategies in which beleaguered believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity as a people or group.” There are similarities between Islamic fundamentalists and other extremist ideologies that are seen in domestic terrorist groups within the United States.

Selective Interpretation of Scripture and Doctrine

Both Islamic fundamentalists and many extremist or domestic terrorist groups rely on selective interpretation or misinterpretation of important documents. Fundamentalist Christians believe they are locked in a vicious war (between good and evil) that will eventually culminate in an apocalyptic Armageddon pitting the white Christian race against people of color and Jews. In the United States, the Bible and the U.S. Constitution, with its amendments, are selectively “twisted” to form the ideological basis seen in right-wing, neo-Nazi groups such as the Skinheads, the Phineas Priesthood, and the Ku Klux Klan.

Misinterpretation of Symbolic Words

Fundamental and extremist Christian movements carefully select the words with which they identify themselves, such as “Christian Patriot,” “free man,” and “constitutionalist.” These selfidentifiers are intended to appeal to nationalistic and religious beliefs held by many people. Fundamentalist and extremist Islamic clerics have done the same thing with portions of the Qur’an. Illustratively, the Arabic word “jihad” is a symbolic word focusing on an individual’s inner struggle to submit to the will of God. In the Qur’an, jihad has little to do with physical war and nothing to do with a religious duty to kill Westerners.

The Justification and Use of Violence Called by God

Demonstrations, counterdemonstrations, and violence are common denominators among fundamentalists and radicals on both sides of the religious equation. They believe God is calling upon his faithful to challenge, refocus, and/or direct violence at the unworthy, non-believers, or other symbolic words they apply to justify their violence. Two benefits are derived from demonizing the group(s) at which they direct violence: (1) It conforms their identities as a “good people” because they are doing God’s work, and (2) psychologically and emotionally, within their movements, they are absolved of any culpability or sin, for their actions are required by God and therefore their actions are mandated by God and not optional

The misinterpretation of important documents by fundamentalist and extremist Islamic and Christian groups also creates a problem. Uninformed people assume these characterizations are true and that they really represent Islam or Christianity.

In the mind of the religious extremist, all actions are justified in the eyes of their God. The consequences are potentially devastating, with significant loss of innocent life and property

Charismatic Leadership

Both Christian and Islamic fundamentalist movements have been heavily influenced by charismatic leaders. Within the Christian right, examples of charismatic fundamentalists include David Koresh (1959–1993), Reverend Richard Butler (1918–2004), and William Pierce (1933–2002)

Fundamentalist Islam has been led by the writings of various fundamentalist philosophers and ideologues. Selective interpretation of scriptures and misuse of symbolic words, combined with philosophical writings from years ago, is married to current political conditions by very charismatic writers and leaders. Usama bin Laden not only had the ability to speak quite eloquently, but also had the financial means to support his ideological sentiments.

The Political Dimension of Islamic Fundamentalism

Islamic fundamentalism is often traced to three intertwined causes: the harsh legacy of colonialism, the ongoing Palestinian–Israeli crisis, and the widespread presence of oppressive regimes backed by Western powers.

Confronted with these realities, many perceive no viable path to political or social redress, driving some to embrace fundamentalism as a final resort, whether for collective change or spiritual salvation. In such desperate contexts, radicalization can appear as the only means to challenge oppression, fueling a cycle of violence and despair that persists across the region today.

The Arab Spring

Beginning in the spring of 2010 in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, events have yielded unprecedented changes in governments throughout the Middle East and North Africa. The Arab Spring is the term given to these events.

The Historical Roots of Islamic Fundamentalism

Radical fundamentalism can be traced to the early thirteenth century. Islamic fundamentalism is divided into two phases, which are represented throughout the history of the Middle East and the Muslim people. Muslims and Islamic fundamentalists interpret the first phase as a positive period. The second phase was the decline of Islam, marked by the Industrial Revolution in the West in the late 1800s and early 1900s. For Islamic fundamentalism, history holds the key to understanding not only the past but the future as well.

Events have further entrenched the belief among radicals that Western powers remain intent on destroying Islamic culture. Examples include the Jewish refugee movement, the U.S. military involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, which contributed to the rise of the Islamic State. Additionally, some Middle Eastern governmental leaders say the West (including the United States) wants to exploit regional resources.

Islamic Ideologies

Much like Christianity, Islam is a religion of “commandments”; these commandments shape all aspects of life. Islam not only deals with relations between God and man but also with everything that an individual believer or groups of believers encounter in everyday life.

Conflict over secularism can be traced to the early split between Sunni and Shi’a traditions after the death of Muhammad. Muslim reactions to the term secularism have been influenced by Western history, politics, and religion, and by the fear that secularism leads to the marginalization of their religion. Western ideologies and inventions such as democracy, capitalism, technology, and secularization are viewed as a direct challenge to Islamic existence.

Today, radical Sunni philosophers and traditional Shi’a beliefs merge to support the idea that government and religion should be one. This is a phenomenon that still rattles most scholars of the Middle East, as the Sunni and Shi’a traditions have been bitter enemies historically since their original split in the fourth century after the death of Muhammad.

The Ideologies of Islamic Fundamentalists

According to Davidson, Islamic radicalism and fundamentalism are rooted in the following assumptions:

1. Moral decay in the Muslim world began when the values within the Muslim religion were not respected or practiced diligently.

2. The Muslim world has been infected with immoral, secularist values and behaviors because of Western intrusion.

3. The Muslim world needs to be re-Islamized, the Sharia (Muslim law) must be reintroduced (and strictly enforced), and most aspects of Western cultural and political influence must be purged violently.

4. The only way to re-Islamize society is to re-politicize Islam itself.

5. The West is seen as evil as “adulterous nations” that pray to false gods and adhere to corrupt practices that worship money above all else.

The radical movements active in most Muslim countries today work on these assumptions. They combine militancy with visions to inspire and mobilize an army of Allah, whose manifestation of a physical jihad they believe will liberate Muslims at home and abroad.

The Wahhabi Movement

Wahhabism is the official form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia, other countries on the Arabian Peninsula, and elsewhere in the world. Wahhabi Islam was articulated by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), who is recognized as the first modern Islamic fundamentalist.

Al-Wahhab labeled all who disagreed with him as heretics and apostates. He justified the use of force and violence in imposing both his beliefs and his political authority over neighboring tribes as the desire of God.

Wahhabi Fundamentalism

The central point of al-Wahhab’s fundamentalist movement was that absolutely every tenet added to Islam after its establishment by the Prophet Muhammad was false and should be eliminated.

Today, Wahhabism continues to be the dominant form of Islam practiced on the Arabian Peninsula, although its influence has been greatly diminished and its strict obedience vastly relaxed.

The Muslim Brotherhood and the Beginning of the Salafi Movement

The Muslim Brotherhood movement was a political-religious movement beginning in Egypt in the twentieth century; its motivations and religious objectives were an ideological return to nineteenth-century militant Wahhabism. Hassan al-Banna (1906–1949) began the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928. He had two basic goals: to liberate Egypt from all foreign powers and to develop a free state functioning under the rules of Islam.

The Brotherhood gained so much momentum that several leading politicians hoped to use it for their own political agendas. By the end of 1948, the Muslim Brotherhood became a hidden nation inside Egypt, with its own leadership, military, factories, weaponry, schools, and hospitals. Its members prepared themselves to take over Egyptian politics after the war. But Prime Minister Mahmud Fahmi al-Nugrashi Pasha reacted to this threat by quickly jailing much of the Brotherhood’s leadership, as well as other political adversaries.

Almost every country in the Muslim world has an active chapter of the Muslim Brotherhood. Today, the FBI reports that the Muslim Brotherhood has established cells in the American Islamic community as well, predominantly among students.

Salafism

Salafism is an Islamic philosophy founded in the late nineteenth century by Muslim reformers. Salaf means “the first” or the earliest, which in their movement is regarded as the first generation of believers who were the companions of the Prophet Muhammad.

Wahhabism vs. Salafism

They are closely related Islamic movements with overlapping ideologies but are distinct from one another. Wahhabism is a specific, state-linked form of Salafism. Salafism is a broader, global movement with diverse manifestations.

The Great Philosopher: Sayyid Qutb

Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966) has been called the “architect of radical Islam” and the “father of modern terrorism.” Qutb transformed the ideological beliefs of Hassan al-Banna and the Muslim Brotherhood into a revolutionary call to arms throughout the Middle East. He is remembered not only as a martyr of the Islamic revival but also as one of the greatest of all revolutionary philosophers.

In 1965, the Egyptian government massively and ruthlessly suppressed the Muslim Brotherhood after it was blamed for an attempt on Nasser’s life. Qutb and several other leaders were arrested and executed. Today, Qutb’s writings are read throughout the Middle East.

The Rise of Palestinian “Jihad”

Three important groups emerged from the Palestinian movement, claiming that the liberation of

Palestine is a religious mandate and the key to uniting all Arab countries into one great Islamic state.

The first is the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade, which grew out of the Palestinian–Israeli struggle, aligning itself with the original principles of al-Fatah that armed struggle against Israel was the only way to achieve a Palestinian state.

The second is the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). Two men were particularly important to the development of the PIJ. Fathi Shaqaqi was expelled from Egypt with other Islamic radicals after the assassination of President Anwar Sadat in 1981 and was assassinated by Israeli forces in 1995. After Shaqaqi’s death, Dr. Ramadan Abdallah Shalah stepped into the leadership role of the PIJ.

The third is the Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas), which is the largest and most successful of the Islamic fundamentalist groups identified within the Palestinian movement. Hamas rejects all peaceful solutions and accords, deeming them a retreat from its primary goal. The primary modus operandi of Hamas has been suicide bombing against civilian targets in Israel. Israeli and American politicians were astounded and concerned when Hamas won a majority of the seats in the newly developed Palestinian Parliament in June 2007. Hamas had been formally designated as a “terrorist organization” by Israel, the United States, Canada, and the European Union.

Hamas

One of the earliest Palestinian movements to adopt an Islamist framework, including the use of armed resistance and suicide bombings, was Harakah al-Muqāwamah al-'Islāmiyyah (Hamas), or the Islamic Resistance Movement. Founded in 1987 during the First Palestinian Intifada, Hamas originated as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood in Gaza.

During the Oslo process in the mid-1990s, Hamas engaged in a series of lethal attacks inside Israel, leading to widespread condemnation and stalled talks. Yet supporters of Hamas contend that these attacks were reactions to ongoing Israeli settlement expansion, targeted killings, and other policies seen as violating the spirit of the accords.

Today, Hamas remains a complex political and social force in Palestinian society. It is designated a terrorist organization by Israel, the United States, and the European Union. The primary modus operandi of Hamas has been suicide bombing in Israel. Concerns that suicide bombing might occur in the United States, because the FBI had long suspected linkages between Hamas and various sympathizers in the United States.

Hamas won a majority of seats in the Palestinian Legislative Council elections on January 25, 2006. The election results highlighted Hamas as a freely elected representative of the Palestinian people, complicating international relations.

The election of Mahmoud Abbas as president of the Palestinian Authority by the Palestinian Legislative Council has caused significant internal conflict between Hamas and the remnants of

the PLO and al-Fatah organizations, which Abbas leads.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a large-scale coordinated attack on Israeli border towns and military outposts, firing dozens of rockets into southern and central Israel and sending armed fighters across the perimeter fence. According to initial reports by the Israeli government, 809 Israeli civilians and soldiers were killed or injured in the first wave of violence. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) responded swiftly with airstrikes aimed at Hamas military sites in Gaza.

While Israel intensified its military campaign to dismantle Hamas’s leadership and infrastructure, the human cost of the conflict mounted rapidly, plunging Gaza into a worsening humanitarian crisis and drawing sharp international reactions. The attacks sparked widespread international condemnation of Hamas, with leaders in the United States and the European Union.

With much of Gaza left in ruins, leading some observers to declare that the territory no longer exists in any functional sense, the conflict further galvanized anger toward Israel and the United States across the Middle East. In 2024, the International Criminal Court (ICC) concluded investigations into allegations of war crimes and genocide involving both Israeli and Hamas leaders.

Salafi Jihadism: The Ideology of al-Qaeda and the Islamic State

Salafi Jihadism is a label that has been given by many scholars to a second generation of Salafism. This group is a radical form of Salafism that emerged during the 1980s, rose in influence during the 1990s, and continues to dominate Middle Eastern and Islamic radical thought. Unlike traditional Salafis, Jihadist Salafis embrace violence as their only means to return to the original message of Islam.

Islamic fundamentalist movements such as Wahhabism, Salafism, Jihadist Salafism, and the Muslim Brotherhood all attempt to pursue change many times through violence. These movements have created a cycle of violence and the insurgence of modern-day terrorism. Their goal is to re-Islamize the Muslim world.

The Islamic State Today

The Islamic State (IS) represents the largest and most virulent strain of Jihadist Salafism in the Middle East today. It is a direct outgrowth of the Iraq War beginning in 2003. Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) was established in 2004 by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and was the primary precursor entity that became the current Islamic State.

Al-Zarqawi was a strong and experienced leader of AQI, and had developed a relatively sophisticated organization to thwart the U.S. military and coalition forces in Iraq He specifically targeted Shiite mosques and civilians across Iraq. It was al-Zarqawi who changed the focus of the Iraq War from fighting United States and coalition forces to a civil war between Sunnis and Shiites

In September 2005, he declared an “all-out war” on Shiites in Iraq, and became one of the most wanted men in the world with a bounty of a $25 million reward for information that led to his capture and arrest On June 7, 2006, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was killed in a targeted bombing by U.S. forces in Iraq.

Many of the radical Sunni fighters loyal to al-Qaeda suffered dramatic losses to U.S. forces during the Iraq War and fled to neighboring countries, in particular Syria Syrian rebel groups quickly welcomed these hardened fighters; however, they soon realized that the Iraqi group had a much larger goal than toppling the al-Assad regime their goal was to establish a new “Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant ISIL.” The Levant is a geographic and cultural area on the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, composed primarily of modernday Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel.

• Movie note The following movies tell the stories of women under the Islamic State’s regime and can be used for a class discussion: “Isis: The British Women Supporters Unveiled” (2015) and “The Dark Wind” (2016).

A New Caliphate

In July 2014, the leader of ISIL, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, declared himself “caliph” over the area he controlled and announced the establishment of the new “caliphate.” He then changed the name of the group to the Islamic State. However, the U.S. government continues to refer to the movement as ISIS, as a subtle means to not recognize it as a legitimate state. The new Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) was successful in carving out a portion of land in the heart of the Middle East in which to build an Islamic State and recruit other like-minded Sunnis worldwide.

The idea of a caliphate based upon radical Islam should not be thought of as an extension of al-Qaeda’s philosophy, but rather an “evolution” of its ideology. Much of the leadership within the Islamic State has a strong disdain for al-Qaeda and its current leadership (Ayman alZawahiri). The Islamic State believes it is the new Sunni Caliphate in the modern world today

Khomeinism

Khomeinism is one of the most noted fundamentalist movements in the Shiite (or Shi’a) tradition. It stems from the teachings of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (known in the West as simply Ayatollah Khomeini), the conservative and radical cleric who led the 1979 Iranian Revolution against Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Khomeini successfully led the downfall of the monarchy in Iran and subsequently rose to power in 1979 as the Supreme Leader of the new Islamic Republic of Iran. Under his rule, sharia was strictly enforced by a new group of radical soldiers called the Islamic Revolutionary Guard. He died in 1989 at the age of 86, giving rise to a more moderate, yet still very conservative,

leadership under the current Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.

Hezbollah

Hezbollah (Arabic for “Party of Allah or God”) is a paramilitary organization headed by Hassan Nasrallah and was originally developed by conservative Lebanese Shi’a clerics loyal to Ayatollah Khomeini.

Backed by Iran, Hezbollah has been extensively involved in Lebanese and Syrian politics for years. Although it has not claimed responsibility for any attack, it has been widely suspected in a number of bloody and vicious suicide bombings, as well as open missile attacks and military raids against Israeli forces from its strong base in Lebanon.

In September 2024, Israeli forces conducted a significant airstrike targeting Hezbollah's leadership in Beirut, Lebanon, reportedly resulting in the death of Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah and several high-ranking commanders. No formal successor to Nasrallah has been announced, but reports indicate that senior Hezbollah figures are consolidating power to ensure the group’s continuity in both Lebanese politics and its ongoing confrontation with Israel. These events coincided with the election of Lebanon’s new Prime Minister, Nawaf Salam, on January 13, 2025, a development seen as directly linked to the weakening of Hezbollah’s influence in the political landscape following Nasrallah’s death.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 3 was updated to merge historical, theological, and political contexts of Islam and the Middle East into a single, cohesive chapter, with expanded analysis of ideological movements, modern case studies, and theological refutations of terrorism. • Streamlined the Islamic context by integrating historical, religious, and cultural elements of Islam into one cohesive section, including clearer explanations of the Five Pillars, Six Articles of Faith, and early Islamic history. • Expanded ideological frameworks by providing clearer distinctions and deeper analysis of Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Shi’a (Khomeinist) ideologies, linking them to contemporary terrorist movements. • Comparative fundamentalism section incorporated Christian and Jewish extremist parallels to Islamic fundamentalism, reinforcing that radicalism is a cross-faith phenomenon. • New scholarly references included key theological rebuttals to terrorism, such as “The Open Letter to Baghdadi” and interfaith initiatives like the “Abu Dhabi Declaration.” • Updated or added figures, tables, and summary boxes to enhance student engagement and visual learning.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Invite a student or another person of the Muslim religion to visit the class as a guest speaker, with a question-and-answer period included. Formulate questions related to the relevant topics in case the students don’t ask them.

Activity 2: Have a religious discussion to compare and contrast religions of the students in the class. Use caution in this type of discussion. You may have to lay down some ground rules and allow students to sit the discussion out if they don’t feel comfortable. If any of the discussion becomes heated, be ready to use that as a good teaching moment for this and other chapters.

Box questions

3-1 Did 9/11 impact you or your family? What impact did 9/11 have on the United States? Are there lingering effects? If so, what are they?

A: Answers will vary.

3-2 How does the Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together, signed by Pope Francis and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, address the root causes of religious intolerance and extremism? In what ways can such interfaith declarations inspire practical steps toward global peace, and what challenges might arise in implementing these ideals in regions with ongoing religious or political conflicts?

A: Answers can include the following. The Document on Human Fraternity directly addresses the root causes of religious intolerance and extremism by focusing on shared human values instead of division. By emphasizing dignity, justice, and freedom of belief, it challenges the narratives that extremists use to justify violence. It also promotes education and dialogue as tools to counter ignorance, which often fuels intolerance. The joint leadership of Pope Francis and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb sends a powerful message that major religions can unite against hate and show moral accountability.

Declarations like this can inspire practical steps toward peace by encouraging cooperation among faith communities, supporting humanitarian projects, and creating spaces like the Abrahamic Family House where coexistence is lived, not just taught. However, implementing these ideals faces significant challenges, especially in regions where political interests, historic grievances, or poverty continue to breed distrust and radicalization. True progress will depend on whether local leaders and institutions adopt these values beyond symbolic gestures, transforming them into real policies and social change.

3-3 Organizations such as the Sons of Confederate Veterans and United Daughters of the Confederacy claim that they want to preserve and honor the history of their ancestors. However, many statues and places with Confederate figures and names were created decades after the Civil War, during the Jim Crow era to intimidate Black Americans. Can you create an argument as to why changing names and removing certain statues does not erase history? What argument can you construct not to rename them? Is there any middle ground?

A: Arguments and opinions will vary, but answers may include the following. Changing names or removing certain statues doesn’t erase history; it can reframe how that history is honored and interpreted. History itself belongs in books, museums, classrooms, and public archives, not necessarily in monuments that were often erected to glorify one side’s ideology. Taking down or relocating such symbols can actually create opportunities for deeper learning by encouraging communities to confront the full historical context, including the suffering and discrimination tied to those figures. It’s about shifting public spaces from celebration to education. On the other hand, those who argue against renaming or removing monuments often believe that these structures represent heritage and remembrance, not hate. They fear that removing them disrespects ancestors or whitewashes historical complexities. Preserving the names and statues, in their view, keeps alive the memory of all who lived through that era, good and bad, so future generations can understand how far the nation has come.

A possible middle ground could involve contextualization rather than removal. One option would be placing plaques or exhibits that explain the statue’s origins, its historical meaning, and why it’s controversial today. Another option might be to move such monuments to museums or historical parks where they can be studied critically rather than celebrated publicly. This approach respects the preservation of history while also recognizing evolving social values and the need for inclusive representation in public spaces.

3-4 Discuss how you think the United States can help in resolving the Syrian crisis. What do you think the U.S. policy toward Syria should be?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). The United States can play a constructive role in resolving the Syrian crisis by focusing on diplomatic engagement, humanitarian assistance, and long-term stabilization efforts rather than renewed military intervention. Now that a new administration has emerged following Assad’s fall, U.S. policy should aim to support democratic governance, rebuild infrastructure, and encourage accountability for war crimes committed during the conflict. Working with international partners through the U.N. and regional organizations can strengthen these efforts and prevent any single power from dominating postwar Syria. The United States must avoid repeating past mistakes of deep entanglement and should ensure that aid or recognition does not empower extremist elements within HTS or other armed factions.

3-5 What do you think are the “pros” and “cons” of long-lasting monarchies such as the House of Saud? Can you name any Western monarchies that continue today? How do monarchies differ from country to country?

A: Pros and cons will vary. Possible answers might include the following. Pros might include stability and continuity, national identity and unity, and efficient decision-making. Cons may include lack of democratic representation, potential for human rights issues, and economic dependency.

Examples of modern Western monarchies: The United Kingdom, Spain, Sweden, and the Netherlands all maintain constitutional monarchies, where kings or queens serve as ceremonial heads of state with limited political power. In Saudi Arabia, the monarchy is absolute, with

power rooted in both political and religious authority. In Western monarchies, rulers typically serve a symbolic role within a democratic government, constrained by constitutions and elected parliaments.

3-6 What do you think has been the impact of the brutal tactics employed by the Islamic State on world opinion? Do you think these tactics have galvanized international opposition against the Islamic State, or have they attracted a huge wave of foreign recruits to the IS cause?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

Review questions

1. What countries make up the Middle East, and why is it geographically and culturally unique?

A: The Middle East is a vast geographical and cultural region stretching from the western Saharan Plains of Africa to the eastern mountains of ancient Persia, which include present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the African continent to the south, housing significant historical sites such as the “cradles of civilization” in the Nile River Valley (Egypt) and Mesopotamia (Iraq). This region is the birthplace of the three major monotheistic religions, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, and encompasses countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Iran, Turkey, and many others.

2. What does the word “Islam” mean, and who was the Prophet Muhammad?

A: Islam comes from the Arabic word “aslam,” meaning total submission to Allah (God). A root Arabic word for aslam is “salaam,” which has several meanings, but is usually interpreted as “peace.”

The ultimate and final messenger within the Islamic tradition is the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims often say the phrase “peace be upon him” after speaking or hearing the name of the Prophet Muhammad, to show respect and humility in using the name of their most revered religious founder and leader. “Muhammad” in Arabic means “highly praised.”

Muhammad became a successful businessman who rejected the widespread worship of multiple deities and idols. Periodically, he would retreat to the mountains to a cave, “Hira.” There, Muhammad meditated, reflected, and prayed alone, seeking truth about religion and life. Allah selected Muhammad to be “Rasul Allah,” the final messenger of Allah. According to Muslim belief, Muhammad was forty when Jibra’il (the Archangel Gabriel) visited him in Hira and revealed the first portions of what cumulatively became the Holy or Noble Qur’an. Gabriel’s revelations continued over a period of twenty-three years.

In 632 A.D. Muhammad died, leaving the future of Islam to his followers. Like the early Christian Church, the response of the followers produced profound changes. One unintended

consequence was a conflict that produced, again, two factions: Sunni and Shi’a or Shiite. These Islamic factions have existed continuously since the seventh century, and their followers are, respectively, called Sunnis and Shiites. The Islamic scholar Husayn Jafri explains that the split within the Muslim world can be much better explained as a political difference rather than a spiritual separation.

3. What is the “Qur’an”, and why is it central to Islam?

A: The Qur’an consists of 114 “suras” (chapters) defining everything from the nature of God and Man to the everyday rituals of cleanliness and bathing. The Qur’an contains Islam’s primary instructions and tenets.

4. What are the differences between Sunni and Shi’a traditions?

A: Sunni and Shi’a (or Shiite) are two Islamic factions that have existed continuously since the seventh century, and their followers are, respectively, called Sunnis and Shiites. The Islamic scholar Husayn Jafri explains that the split within the Muslim world can be much better explained as a political difference rather than a spiritual separation.

A key distinction between the Shi’a and the Sunni is that the latter elect separate spiritual and political leaders. Sunnis believed that the Prophet’s successor should be selected by merit, not by inheritance, or birth of family. Therefore, in their view, it was proper for an assembly of distinguished clerics to elect a well-qualified, pious person with wisdom who would follow the customs established by the Prophet Muhammad. For the Shi’a, leadership belongs to the successors of the Prophet Muhammad as ordained by Allah.

5. What is Kaaba, and why is it significant to Muslims?

A: The spiritual center of Islam remains in Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and home to the Kaaba (Arabic for “cube”), or altar of Abraham, the sacred site Muslims face during prayer and visit annually during the Hajj pilgrimage.

6. What does the word “jihad” mean to Muslims, and how has it been misinterpreted Western perspectives?

A: The word “jihad” has a very special meaning to those following the Muslim tradition. Derived from the Qur’an, jihad means using all of one’s strength to overcome adversity and difficulty in the struggle to submit to the will of God. It is a spiritual struggle, not a temporal (or worldly) struggle, to do good over evil.

In its truest sense, jihad was never meant to be associated with physical violence, and most certainly not suicide bombing. Today, one of the most intense arguments among Muslim clerics is whether or not the suicide bombers observed worldwide will ever attain the spiritual bliss of Paradise since suicide within the Muslim tradition is strictly forbidden.

The perversion of jihad began in the twelfth century (during the Crusades), with a tribal leader in Morocco rallying his people to repel the European Crusaders invading their land. Similarly, other words were perverted and developed, such as the word “assassin,” derived from the radical Shi’a Ismaili sect in Iran during this same period of time the Ismailis. Literally translated, “assassin” means “hashish eater” in reference to the ritual intoxication the assassins undertook before embarking on their mission of murder.

7. What is monotheism, and what are the three major monotheistic religions?

A: Monotheism is the belief in the existence of only one God, who is typically viewed as supreme. The three major monotheistic religions are Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

8. What is Wahhabism, and who was Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab?

A: Wahhabi Islam was articulated by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), who is recognized as the first modern Islamic fundamentalist. In 1744, after receiving his religious education in Medina, he became the spiritual guide to the House of Saud. The central point of alWahhab’s undamentalism movement was that absolutely every tenet added to Islam after its establishment by the Prophet Muhammad was false and should be eliminated.

Al-Wahhab also emphasized the unity of God. He was upset about the widespread laxity in adhering to traditional Sharia (Islamic law), such as adultery, lack of attention to obligatory prayers, and the failure to allocate shares of inheritance fairly to women. According to alWahhab, only those who followed his teachings were true Muslims because they still followed the path laid out by Allah to Muhammad in the Noble Qur’an. Many followers of Wahhabism prefer to be called “muwahhidun,” or the unifiers of traditional Islamic practice.

9. What are Salafism and Wahhabism, and how do they differ?

A: Salafism is a broad intellectual movement spawned by the writings of Egyptian scholars such as Muhammad Abdu, Jamal al-Afghani, and Rashid Rida, focusing on the adoption of modernity and technology within Islam, and it soon became corrupted and blended with Wahhabism.

Wahhabism is a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam stemming from the teachings of Ibn alWahhab in the late 1700s, and it was widely adopted throughout the Arabian Peninsula, expressing the radicalization of Islam and the alternative meaning of “jihad” as “holy war” against those who do not accept strict adherence to Sharia.

10. What is Salafi Jihadism, and how does it differ from other Salafi movements?

A: Salafi Jihadism is a term widely used by scholars to describe a radical offshoot of Salafism that emerged during the 1980s, gained influence in the 1990s, and continues to shape radical Islamist thought. This ideology distinguishes itself from traditional Salafism by advocating violence as a means to achieve its goals, including the establishment of a society adhering to a strict and literal interpretation of Islam. The Soviet–Afghan War (1980–1989) was a critical

catalyst, radicalizing many Arab Salafis and forming the backbone of the transnational Salafi Jihadist movement. Unlike traditional Salafis, who prioritize internal reform, Salafi Jihadists view jihad as a global and violent struggle against both external enemies, such as the West, and internal enemies, including Muslims they regard as apostates. This militant ideology justifies the use of violence as the primary tool to restore what they see as the original purity of Islam. The prime targets of Salafi Jihadist organizations vary according to the country and organization involved. Some concentrate their attacks on the “infidel regimes.” These regimes, such as Saudi Arabia and Jordan, are denounced as Muslim in name only and for being subservient to the West. Salafi Jihadists also may engage in random violence against an entire society seen as having reverted to a state of pre-Islamic ignorance and for not siding with “true Muslims” in their struggle against the regime. For most Salafi Jihadist organizations (most prominently al Qaeda), the main enemy is the United States.

11. Who was Ayatollah Khomeini, and how did he influence radical Islamic thought?

A: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was the conservative and radical cleric who led the 1979 Iranian Revolution against Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Khomeini strongly believed in Muslim unity and solidarity and preached the union of all Muslim traditions. He also believed that secular states ultimately lead to the marginalization and destruction of Islam. Accordingly, he preached that government and religion must be united. Khomeini viewed the development of the Islamic state on a worldwide basis as the revolutionary duty of all Muslims. Khomeini saw this revolution as starting in Iran and moving first throughout the Middle East, reclaiming the holy sites of the Islamic faith, and then on to the rest of the world. Khomeini successfully led the downfall of the monarchy in Iran and subsequently rose to power in 1979 as the Supreme Leader of the new Islamic Republic of Iran.

12. What is Hezbollah, and who is Hassan Nasrallah?

A: Hezbollah (Arabic for “Party of Allah or God”) is a paramilitary organization headed by Hassan Nasrallah and was originally developed by conservative Lebanese Shi’a clerics loyal to Ayatollah Khomeini. Trained by members of the Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard, Hezbollah members continue to wage the revolution for a world Islamic order. The 1985 charter of Hezbollah focuses on Islamic unity, the destruction of Israel, and the expulsion of Western powers, including the United States, from the Middle East, “putting to an end any colonialist entity in our land.”

13. What was the Arab Spring, where did it begin, and what are its lasting impacts?

A: Beginning in the spring of 2010 in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, events have led to unprecedented changes in governments throughout the Middle East and North Africa. Many of these changes have resulted from violent uprisings, which have frightened tourists away and deepened the poverty in the Middle East. The Arab Spring is the term given to these events.

14. How did the Islamic State (IS) rise to global prominence, and how does it justify its violence?

A: The Islamic State (IS), also known as ISIS and DAESH, in Arabic, “al-Dawla al-Islamiya fil Iraq wa al Sham,” meaning Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, represents the most significant and virulent strain of Salafi Jihadism in the Middle East today. It is a direct outgrowth of the Iraq War beginning in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by the United States-led coalition forces that eventually toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) was the primary precursor entity that became the current Islamic State. It was established in 2004 by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Salafi Jihadist militant born in Jordan who operated one of the first major paramilitary camps in Afghanistan.

It was a movement of thousands of followers who were well organized, well financed by captured oil wells and reserves, and had developed a new legal and tax system based on the ideological premises set forth in radical Islamic thought, supported by a continually growing, sophisticated, and powerful army.150 In their minds, the Islamic State was fundamentally fighting a “medieval war” against the West in the modern age. It justified its horrific use of violence through perverted messages in the Qur’an.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Monotheistic Religions and Interfaith Interactions: Compare and contrast the three great monotheistic religions of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity by examining their shared beliefs in one God and their theological differences. Visit a mosque, synagogue, and church to engage with local religious leaders and ask about their knowledge of the other faiths, their interactions within the community, and whether they collaborate or share ideas about their beliefs. How do these religions coexist in the same community, and what challenges or opportunities do they face in fostering interfaith tolerance and understanding? How do historical tensions and exclusivity in their beliefs shape modern relationships among these faiths?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

2. Religious, Political, and Colonial Motivations of the Crusades: Explore the Crusades’ origins and impact by examining their political, economic, and religious motivations. How have the Crusades shaped modern perceptions and relations between Christians and Muslims in the Middle East? Additionally, consider how more recent colonialism after World War I, such as the mandate system and European partitioning of the region, has contributed to ongoing tensions and conflicts in the Middle East. How do these historical events collectively influence the region's modern dynamics?

A: Answers will vary. A crusade is a weaponized ideological narrative used by extremists to justify violence, recruit followers, and frame political conflicts as a struggle between good and evil. Students can reference the World War I mandates discussed in Chapter 2. Yes, these historical events influence the region’s modern dynamics.

3. The U.S. Presence in the Middle East: Consider the role of the United States in the Middle East and whether its presence is necessary for regional stability or whether it exacerbates tensions. Does the killing of civilians during conflicts, such as the Iraq War, contribute to increased radicalization and anti-American sentiment? Evaluate the impact of unconditional U.S. support for Israel on its relationships with other Middle Eastern countries and the safety of

American lives in the region and beyond. Reflect on President Trump’s decision to reduce United States military involvement in the Middle East and whether such a strategy should guide future policies. In the long term, should the United States maintain its presence in the Middle East, particularly in places like Iraq, where it may no longer be welcome, or should it adopt a different approach to engagement in the region?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

Chapter 4

New Threats at Home

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 4 looks at new threats at home essentially a deep dive into the terrorism threat landscape in the United States. This chapter looks at the threat posed by racially and ethnically motivated violent extremists, including groups like Atomwaffen and The Base, as well as a range of other neo-Nazi and white supremacist groups. The chapter also gets into depth on other types of violent extremists from across the ideological spectrum, including militia violent extremists such as the Oath Keepers and Three Percenters, and anarchist violent extremists, as well as associated far-left networks like Antifa.

There is also an analysis of radical environmental and animal rights groups, abortion-related violent extremists, and conspiracy theorists like QAnon. The chapter concludes with an assessment of more recent threats to the homeland, including cartels and gangs, such as MS-13 and Tren de Aragua, which have been designated as foreign terrorist organizations under the Trump administration.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 4.1 Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

• 4.2 Analyze the universe of anti-government or anti-authority violent extremists (AGAAVEs), including militia violent extremists (MVEs), anarchist violent extremists, and sovereign citizen violent extremists.

• 4.3 Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

• 4.4 Evaluate the evolution of abortion-related violent extremists and how these groups have changed over time.

• 4.5 Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

• 4.6 Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

There is a need to understand the range of new threats facing the United States, and it is essential to understand the ideologies underpinning these threats. A comprehensive study was conducted by the Center for Strategic and International Studies and made note of several findings. A few findings include an increased threat against government targets, there is a major shift in the ideologies and organization of anti-government terrorism, and that the lethality of attacks against government targets remain low. There are several categories of threats to the homeland, including racially motivated violent extremists, anti-government or anti-authority extremists, and animal rights/environmental violent extremists.

Racially or Ethnically Motivated Violent Extremists (RMVE)

Racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists is a category that includes the potentially unlawful use or threat of force or violence to promote ideological objectives related to bias, specifically race or ethnicity. This often includes white supremacists and neo-Nazis.

Some of the most heinous attacks on U.S. soil in recent years have been RMVE attacks, and several of them have been motivated in part by a conspiracy known as the great replacement theory, which posits that an “indigenous” European (e.g., white) population is being replaced by non-European immigrants.

Atomwaffen Division

The Atomwaffen Division (AWD) is a violent white supremacist, neo-Nazi organization that originated in the United States in 2015. Its ideology promoted a military form of accelerationism, which is the belief that societal collapse can be brought about by extreme acts of violence and terrorism in order to create a new fascist order. The group is vehemently anti-government. They revere figures like Adolf Hitler.

Brandon Russell, is the founder of the Atomwaffen Division, who started the group while he was still a serving member of the Florida National Guard. Fluidity of the fringes refers to the phenomenon in which individuals shift between different extremist ideologies, or even combine elements of seemingly contradictory ideologies, rather than adhering to a single, fixed belief system. This concept highlights the dynamic and interconnected nature of extremist movements, in which individuals may move between different forms of extremism or blend them together.

Atomwaffen has been classified as a terrorist organization in several countries, including Canada and the United Kingdom. This leads to the assertion that the United States is an exporter of farright extremism. Atomwaffen has served as an inspiration for other far-right extremist groups.

Feuerkrieg Division (FKD)

The Feuerkrieg Division is a neo-Nazi and accelerationist terrorist group that originated, largely online, around 2018. The group was heavily inspired by AWD and The Base. The group advocates using terrorism to accelerate societal collapse. They recruit heavily online. One of the vulnerabilities of operating mostly online is that the group was more susceptible to infiltration, as it becomes increasingly difficult to vet potential members in an almost exclusively online environment. Even after disbanding in 2020, FKD members remain active in other, adjacent extremist groups, which promote a similar, if not identical, ideology.

Sonnenkrieg Division (SKD)

The Sonnenkrieg Division is another prominent neo-Nazi accelerationist group that emerged in the United Kingdom around 2018, in part, as a splinter of the U.S.-based Atomwaffen Division.

Similar to many like-minded groups, SKD promotes neo-Nazism, white supremacy, and accelerationism. SKD spreads propaganda calling for assassinations, violence, and terrorism, while also promoting terrorist manuals and bomb-making instructions online.

The Base

The Base is a far-right extremist neo-Nazi accelerationist group advocating for the overthrow of the U.S. government and its replacement with a white ethno-state. Its leader and founder, Rinaldo Nazzaro, is a former U.S. government contractor now living in Russia and enjoying the protection of the Kremlin.

The group recruits its members online through encrypted platforms and is known for its decentralized organizational structure. It maintains highly secretive paramilitary training camps throughout the United States, where its members record videos and circulate them online, including on Telegram, as a form of recruitment, promotion, and propaganda. Like Atomwaffen, The Base has been weakened through arrests and defections, but in early 2025, it is once again reestablishing its networks and could be poised for growth over the coming years.

Patriot Front

Patriot Front is a white nationalist, far-right extremist group in the United States promoting an ultra-nationalist and fascist ideology, originally formed as a splinter group from Vanguard America.

The group engages in public demonstrations, so-called “flash rallies,” and vandalism, including defacing Black Lives Matter (BLM) murals and placing propaganda stickers in public places, such as colleges and universities. Another common tactic of Patriot Front is using heavily scripted marches, demonstrations, and protests to create the image of a mainstream and friendly group, even while its members march while covering and obscuring their faces

Black Identity Extremists

Black Identity Extremists is a term initially used by the FBI in a 2017 intelligence assessment to describe individuals or groups that were motivated by perceptions of racism and injustice against Black Americans. These individuals were described as being willing to use violence against a range of targets, including law enforcement.

Militia Violent Extremists

Militia violent extremists inherently view the U.S. federal government as a direct threat to the rights and freedoms of American citizens. Many of these groups including the Oath Keepers and Three Percenters are heavily armed and are major proponents of the Second Amendment.

Conservative Extremist Groups

Oath Keepers

The Oath Keepers is a far-right anti-government group and militia founded in 2009 by Stewart Rhodes, an Army veteran and Yale Law School graduate The group is known to actively and aggressively recruit from the ranks of law enforcement, first responders, and the military, including active-duty personnel, reservists, and retired veterans. It claims to uphold the U.S. Constitution or at least its perception of what the Constitution is and says. However, numerous Oath Keepers were arrested for storming the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, and taking part in the insurrection. Rhodes and other members of the Oath Keepers were charged and convicted of seditious conspiracy for their role in the insurrection. However, many of the Oath Keepers arrested in connection with the Capitol insurrection were subsequently released when President Trump pardoned all the so-called “J6ers.”

It is an anti-government organization that believes the government is attempting to strip U.S. citizens of their rights. The group is overwhelmingly pro-Second Amendment. The group spread large amounts of disinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Oath Keepers have been wracked by internal division, as well as lawsuits and legal scrutiny, over the past several years.

Three Percenters

The Three Percenters are another of the more well-organized, capable, and dangerous militia groups that form part of the broader militia movement in the United States. This group, like the Oath Keepers and other militia groups, is fixated on highly paranoid and conspiratorial beliefs about the U.S. government. Similar to the Oath Keepers, the Three Percenters see themselves as a vanguard against a range of societal ills. Similar to other militia groups, the Three Percenters present their activities in defensive terms, whether these are paramilitary training, firearms exercises, or survivalist training.

The Three Percenter movement expanded drastically in 2008, following the election of Barack Obama The group’s structure is highly decentralized and is more akin to a loosely affiliated network. They protest against gun control, lockdowns related to COVID-19, and were present during the January 6 insurrection.

Proud Boys

The Proud Boys is a far-right organization in the United States known for their involvement in political violence, with ties to anti-government and white nationalist ideology. It was founded in 2016 by Gavin McInnes, a co-founder of Vice Media. In many ways, the group could be considered a male chauvinist group, as it promotes Western chauvinism, opposes feminists and feminist ideology, multiculturalism in all its forms, and progressive policies and politics. When it was initially formed, the group focused intently on free speech as a major part of its platform. Over time, the group became more synonymous with street brawls and political violence.

The group has lost much of its influence over the past few years, due in part to law enforcement crackdowns, but it could be poised to make a comeback during a potential second term of the Trump administration. Canada has classified it as a terrorist entity.

Constitutional Sheriffs

Constitutional Sheriffs are a movement of current and former law enforcement professionals who believe that their position grants them the ultimate authority in their respective counties and districts, even beyond the powers of state governments and the federal government. They believe they have the right to resist any laws they themselves interpret as unconstitutional.

Boogaloo Movement, or Boogaloo Bois (Boogaloo Boys)

The Boogaloo Bois are a loosely organized, mostly far-right extremist movement in the United States united by an anti-government and anti-authority ideology driven by the engine of accelerationism. One of the primary objectives of the Boogaloo movement is to incite a second civil war in the United States. The term itself, Boogaloo, comes from Internet meme culture, specifically in reference to the sequel to a 1984 film called Breakin’ 2: Electric Boogaloo.

The movement is stridently anti-government in nature, often targeting politicians, federal agencies, and law enforcement officials. Some of its members claim to support libertarian ideals, while others embrace white supremacy and neo-Nazi beliefs. In 2021, the Department of Homeland Security warned that extremists linked to the Boogaloo movement posed a major domestic terrorism threat to the United States. The movement itself is not a single organization but rather a network of violent extremists, both individuals and small cells.

Not Fucking Around Coalition (NFAC)

The Not Fucking Around Coalition (NFAC) is a Black nationalist militia group that first emerged around 2020 and is primarily known for demonstrations and protests where its members are heavily (and visibly) armed. The group claims to stand for and advocate racial justice and self-defense for Black Americans. Unlike other militia groups like the Oath Keepers or the Three Percenters, NFAC’s ideology is based on Black empowerment rather than anti-government extremism. Its members advocate discipline and lawful gun ownership and frequently compare themselves to the Black Panther Party of the 1960s.

Survivalist and Prepper Extremists

The survivalist and prepper (sometimes called “doomsday” preppers) community overlaps with other far-right extremist communities. Survivalists focus on being self-reliant, especially in the face of natural disasters, and typically spend much of their time, energy, and resources preparing for extreme events. Preppers stockpile supplies, from food to water to weapons to medical gear, in order to prepare for surviving the impact of long-term crises. Some components of this category end up adopting virulently anti-government or sovereign citizen-like ideology. Over time, there have been a number of domestic incidents that were either directly related or peripheral to the prepper and survivalist community. The Oklahoma City bombing is an example. Both the FBI and DHS have labeled sovereign citizens as domestic terrorism threats, although the movement itself is not designated as a terrorist group.

Sovereign Citizen Violent Extremists

Sovereign Citizen Violent Extremists are those individuals within the broader sovereign citizen movement who reject government authority and, in the process, use violence to enforce their beliefs. The Sovereign Citizen movement is highly conspiratorial. A common practice of sovereign citizens is so-called “paper terrorism,” which includes fraudulent legal filings, tax evasion, and other scams. Some of these individuals go on to perpetrate violent acts against law enforcement. Paramilitary and/or survivalist elements are prevalent in this movement, with some members undergoing tactical weapons training to prepare for what they see as an eventual conflict with the government.

Tax Resisters

The tax resister movement is composed of individuals and groups who refuse to pay taxes, either based on ideological, religious, or legal arguments, or due to protest against government policies. Some tax resistance is symbolic or political, with tax resisters attempting to employ fraudulent legal theories to justify tax evasion, while, in more extreme cases, resistance leads to violent confrontations with law enforcement.

Liberal Extremist Groups

Anarchist Violent Extremists

Anarchist violent extremists advocate for violence in order to further promote ideas and concepts such as anti-racism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, and environmental extremism.

Antifa

Antifa stands for “anti-fascist” and is a decentralized, loosely knit network comprised of autonomous groups and individuals who say they are opposed to fascism, white supremacy, and far-right extremism. Antifa is not a single organization. Antifa’s core beliefs and objectives include opposition to all forms of fascism, including countering neo-Nazis, white supremacists, and authoritarian movements; anti-racism; and anti-capitalism, which extends to opposing systemic racism and corporate power and generally aligns with views across the spectrum of farleft ideologies. They participate in counter-protests and online doxing. Not all members support acts of violence, but many do, and some advocate for self-defense against far-right groups, against whom Antifa members engage in street clashes and brawls.

Antifa has become something of a useful foil for those on the right, with many making completely unfounded accusations that it was the real force behind the Capitol insurrection of January 6, 2021, though there is zero evidence for this claim. Furthermore, if that were the case, President Trump’s pardon of the so-called “J6ers” makes little sense, given his fierce opposition to Antifa. Antifa has been under surveillance by federal agencies, although no official classification of the group has been made

Anarchism

The anarchist movement, which has been around for more than a century, dating back to its earliest forms, is a broad political philosophy that has at its cornerstone an opposition to all forms of hierarchical authority and advocates for self-governed societies based on mutual aid and voluntary cooperation. Anarchists squarely reject centralized government, capitalism, and law enforcement, although to varying degrees based on the individual or strain of which there are several.

Anarcho-communism is the belief in communal ownership and resource sharing, with no role for the state or government. Anarcho-syndicalism focuses on worker-controlled industries and unions, while anarcho-capitalism works in support of free markets and voluntary transactions, though it still rejects government control. Green anarchism opposes industrial society and promotes environmental activism, while insurrectionary anarchism encourages sabotage, resistance against state power, and direct action.

Animal Rights/Environmental Extremists

Animal Liberation Front

The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) is a decentralized international movement that engages in direct action to advocate for the protection of animals and animal rights. ALF activists regularly engage in theft, property damage, and sabotage to free animals from industries they consider exploitative, such as fur farms, research labs, and factory farms.

Earth Liberation Front

The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) is a radical environmentalist movement known for using a range of tactics arson, sabotage, direct action to fight against industries that the group and its supporters view as destroying the environment. ELF believes in radical environmentalism, opposing deforestation, urban expansion, fossil fuel industries, and corporate pollution. The group’s organizational structure is flat.

Abortion-Related Violent Extremists (ARVE)

Abortion-related violent extremists are individuals or groups who commit or advocate for violence in connection with the issue of abortion. This category includes both those who are considered anti-abortion extremists, and who target abortion providers, clinics, or patients, but also pro-abortion extremists, who may use violence against anti-abortion groups or individuals.

Conspiracy Theorists

Violent conspiracy theorists are a relatively new phenomenon in terms of groups, movements, and organizations that pose a direct threat to the U.S. homeland.

QAnon

QAnon is a far-right conspiracy theory and movement that originated around 2017 on online message boards including 4chan and 8kun. It revolves around the claim that a secret cabal of

elites, who are often referred to as Satan-worshipping pedophiles, is in control of world governments, major institutions, and the media. Its followers and adherents believe that Donald Trump was working behind the scenes to help dismantle the cabal, and a figure known as “Q” was leaking insider information, including classified material, through cryptic posts online.

They believe in the so-called “Deep State” is the source of all evil, a shadowy group of elites that includes Hollywood figures, business titans, and politicians who control the government and promote child trafficking. There are also a range of election conspiracies that suggest that the 2020 U.S. presidential election was “stolen” from Trump through fraud (e.g., dead people voting, undocumented immigrants voting, ballots being burned), although no evidence to support this ever materialized. There are also a host of COVID-19 disinformation-related issues linked to QAnon followers.

Criminal Gangs, Cartels, and Violent Drug Trafficking Organizations

There are a range of criminal gangs, cartels, and violent drug trafficking organizations that can be considered new threats to the U.S. homeland. A number of these organizations, some of which will be analyzed below, were designated as FTOs by the Trump administration early in 2025.

Mexican Cartels Sinaloa Cartel

The Sinaloa Cartel is one of the most dangerous drug trafficking organizations in the world. For decades, it has remained a dominant force in the transnational drug trade, trafficking cocaine, marijuana, fentanyl, methamphetamine, heroin, and other drugs. Moreover, the group has a vast illicit criminal portfolio, which includes money laundering, extortion, and weapons trafficking. For a long time, the Sinaloa Cartel was led by one of the most infamous drug barons of the modern era, Joaquín “El Chapo” Guzmán, a ruthless and violent leader who was ultimately captured in 2016 and extradited to the United States, where he is serving a life sentence.

Despite the arrest of El Chapo and some of his sons, the cartel remains fully operational. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has targeted the group’s fentanyl operations, leading to some important indictments. Additionally, the U.S. intelligence community has become more involved since the Trump administration designated Sinaloa and other groups as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs).

Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación (CJNG)

The Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación (CJNG) was founded in the early 2010s after splintering from the Sinaloa Cartel. Since then, it has grown far more powerful and is now considered one of the most lethal and capable drug trafficking organizations in the world.

The primary activities of CJNG include drug trafficking, money laundering, assassinations, extortion, and human trafficking. CJNG’s brand is now associated with extreme violence what some might call anomic levels of violence and, as its calling card, it engages in brutal tactics such as public executions, mass killings, and direct attacks on law enforcement.

Gulf Cartel

The Gulf Cartel (sometimes referred to as Cártel del Golfo or CDG) is one of the longeststanding drug trafficking organizations in Mexico, with roots dating as far back as the 1930s. The Gulf Cartel has been weakened by defections, arrests, and fracturing but remains active, particularly along the Texas-Mexico border.36 It engages in drug trafficking, human trafficking, kidnapping for ransom (KFR), extortion, and oil theft, especially in northeastern Mexico.

Criminal Gangs Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13)

Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) is an extremely violent transnational criminal organization that was originally formed in Los Angeles, CA, in the 1980s, with its members comprised of Salvadoran immigrants fleeing civil war. The group then spread globally.

MS-13 resorts to extreme violence, with assaults commonly involving the use of machetes. Both the FBI and DHS have cracked down on MS-13 in the United States, and it has been designated as both a transnational criminal organization and, as of early 2025, a foreign terrorist organization. The United States has deported thousands of MS-13 members, strengthening the group’s presence back in Central America.

Tren de Aragua

Tren de Aragua is a Venezuelan transnational criminal organization that has expanded its operations across South America and, over the past several years, has gained a stronger foothold in the United States. Untold numbers of Tren de Aragua members came into the United States disguised among migrant flows of Venezuelan refugees, many fleeing violence and economic collapse. In turn, the gang members used force to take control of human-smuggling and sextrafficking networks. Unlike common street gangs, Tren de Aragua operates more like a cartel, with hierarchical leadership, strong financing, and high-tech communications. It is known for gruesome murders, public executions, and frequent attacks against law enforcement.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

The new Chapter 4 describes the concepts of transnational organized crime and terrorism and the linkages between them.

• This chapter is now about new terrorist threats in the United States. • New material on the threat posed by racially and ethnically motivated violent extremists. • New material on militia violent extremists, including The Oath Keepers and the Three Percenters. • New material on farleft extremists, including violent anarchists. • New material about conspiracy theorists such as QAnon. • New material about gangs and violent cartels, including Mexican cartels, MS-13, and Tren de Aragua.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Have the students pick one of the organizations discussed in this chapter to present an in-depth summary of the group and the most recent actions.

Critical thinking exercises

1. If you were an analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), how might you map out the transnational connections between violent extremist groups in the United States and those that operate abroad?

A: Answers will vary. Transnational criminal organizations share several links. As a CIA agent, focus might be placed on communication networks, shared ideology and training, online recruitment processes, and connections between terrorist groups and criminal and drug networks.

2. Create a Venn diagram of all the groups covered in this chapter and look for overlaps between their ideologies. What are the most commonly shared features and beliefs of these groups?

A: Answers will vary. Common shared features include anti-government sentiment, use of violence, leaderless resistance, online recruitment and coordination, opposition to existing political systems, and targeting of infrastructure.

3. You have just been called down for a meeting with the U.S. Department of State office responsible for designating terrorist groups as foreign terrorist organizations. Which groups currently on the list do not belong? Which groups not on the list should be there?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Older designations may need to be reviewed based on their current threat levels and organizational capacity. The text mentions several groups that have, for the most part, been disbanded. The recent inclusion of Mexican cartels being designated as foreign terrorist organizations in 2025 is a significant change. Students may add Mexican or other South American drug cartels not mentioned in the text. To date, there are no RMVE groups listed as foreign terrorist organizations, and some might warrant consideration given their transnational nature and violence. Some groups that might be considered are The Base or international neo-Nazi networks.

4. If you were asked to help advise the U.S. Department of Justice on the possibility of crafting and passing legislation that would help create a domestic terrorism designation for groups that threaten the U.S. homeland, what would the most important elements of such a designation be? Use examples in your response.

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Students may include topics such as a clear definition of domestic terrorism. Legislation may need specificity in regard to organizational structures for those that are formal and those that are more loose networks. Laws should be applied equally to far-right groups, far-left groups, and single-issue extremists. All laws must protect the constitutional rights of citizens.

Chapter 5 Terrorist Organizations and Structures

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 5 provides an in-depth analysis of how terrorist groups form, evolve, and sustain themselves through various organizational models. The chapter begins with a comprehensive exploration of the five key dilemmas faced by terrorist organizations: balancing secrecy and action, growth and control, recruitment and retention, success and longevity, and resource acquisition versus constituency support. These dilemmas are framed through both classical and contemporary theory, supported by real-world examples from groups such as al-Qaeda, Islamic State, and Hezbollah.

The chapter outlines the major organizational structures used by terrorist movements, including hierarchical, cell-based, networked, umbrella, and lone-actor models. It further details the functions and interdependency of specialized cells, such as operational, intelligence, financial, logistical, and propaganda units, and how their compartmentalization enhances operational security (OPSEC). The rise and impact of lone-actor terrorism are examined in depth, highlighting recent trends, psychological profiles, online radicalization, and challenges for law enforcement and counterterrorism agencies.

Also featured are critical discussions on suicide terrorism, recruitment techniques, radicalization trajectories, and the unique challenges of retaining trained members under pressure. Drawing from field interviews, case studies, and recent data, this chapter provides students with a nuanced understanding of the structural and strategic complexities that sustain modern terrorist groups. By unpacking the organizational anatomy of terrorism, this chapter establishes a strong foundation for understanding how to effectively disrupt and dismantle these threats.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 5.1 Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

• 5.2 Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

• 5.3 Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

• 5.4 Discuss how ideology influences terrorists in identifying targets and dehumanizing victims through propaganda and indoctrination.

• 5.5 Identify the ways terrorist organizations end, explain why the use of force alone may not be effective, and understand the importance of comprehensive counterterrorism strategies that respect human rights.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Organizations are oriented toward achieving goals. Even well-established organizations do not always run smoothly, and for new, “start-up” terrorist organizations “life” is very hazardous. Regardless of what organizational model or structure is adopted, dilemmas invariably “pop up.”

Terrorist organizations adopt various structural models to address these challenges, from hierarchical models, which ensure clear chains of command, to decentralized networks that allow for greater operational flexibility. Each model comes with trade-offs. Terrorist organizations often rely on specialized cell structures to enhance operational security and resilience.

Dilemmas of Terrorist Organizations

Terrorist movements need to develop an organizational structure in order to ensure their continued existence and to progress toward achieving their goals. Frisch notes that, in choosing an organizational structure, terrorist movements face five key dilemmas.

Action versus Secrecy

All terrorist movements are caught between two organizational imperatives: (1) taking action and (2) maintaining internal secrecy. Action is necessary to advance the cause, publicize it, and gain recruits and supporters Internal secrecy is needed to protect the location of operatives, the identity of future targets, and how the movement is financed. The dilemma is that as more attacks are made, it becomes more difficult to maintain internal secrecy because success attracts more attention from security services. Terrorist organizations are typically not concerned about external security.

Growth versus Control

As a terrorist organization attracts new recruits, its numbers increase and there may also be a growth in the geographic area it can control or have an impact on As growth occurs, one of the key decisions is determining what organizational model the movement will adopt. At some point, the leader has to delegate some tasks in running the organization to lower-ranking leaders. Leaders have less “face time” with fighters.

Recruitment versus Retention

Three main reasons why individuals choose to join a terrorist movement: (1) family members, friends, or individuals in the recruit’s social network are going to join or have already done so; (2) the recruit, family members, or members of the recruit’s social network have strong grievances against the government; and (3) deep religious and/or political beliefs inspire the recruit to fight for a cause. Pragmatic reasons also include a lack of jobs, the need for money to support themselves and their family, and joining provides a service for the person.

The consequences of poor recruitment choices are severe for terrorist organizations. It may result in arrests, casualties, and having entire operations terminated or “rolled up” by governmental agents. Retention of current members is essential because they have already been trained and proven to be reliable.

Success versus Longevity

Terrorist organizations must balance the risks associated with conducting operations with the need to ensure their own long-term survival. The use of terror tactics against unarmed, defenseless civilian targets fulfill both of these needs. One way for an organization to ensure longevity is to reinvent itself. Another potential way of acquiring longevity is to adopt long-term goals toward which the terrorist organization can work in perpetuity, but may never be able to achieve.

Resource Acquisition versus Constituencies

Modern terrorist organizations must also make decisions about how they obtain resources. Organizations that select a stationary approach and use violence sparingly are able to attract more highly committed, ideologically motivated recruits while maintaining popular support. IS imposed heavy taxation, confiscated property, and enforced strict regulations that financially burden residents. While IS members often lived comfortably, residents faced economic deprivation and harsh penalties for minor infractions. Excessive exploitation can erode local support, making it challenging to recruit new members, gather intelligence, or operate effectively within a community. Conversely, a strategy that considers the welfare of the local population can enhance legitimacy and operational security.

Terrorist Organizational Models

Terrorist movements do not have total discretion about what organizational form they adopt. Many factors shape that decision, including (1) the number of active followers; (2) the geographical locations in which they will locate; (3) the operational pace they intend to pursue; (4) the preferences of supporters; (5) their financial resources; and (6) the capabilities, intentions, and anticipated types of operations of opposing forces.

Lone Actor Organizational Model

The smallest terrorist unit or “organization” is the lone actor (a.k a. lone wolf). A lone actor is one person acting alone, and he or she can be every bit as dangerous or lethal as any major terrorist organization. However, the lone actor is neither controlled by nor receives material assistance from domestic or foreign terrorist movements, although their websites may be visited. Whether a citizen of the United States or a legal resident living here, the lone actor is a “homegrown terrorist.”

Lone actors may consume and interact with extremist material in virtual environments, which can include propaganda videos, online manifestos, and encrypted communication channels. The role of online radicalization is particularly pronounced among younger individuals who are adept at navigating digital platforms.

The autonomous nature of lone-actor terrorists presents significant challenges for law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Their lack of direct ties to extremist organizations

reduces opportunities for detection through traditional surveillance methods that focus on group activities and connections to a terrorist organization. Community engagement programs, mental health services, and initiatives aimed at countering violent extremism can help identify individuals at risk of radicalization. Early detection and support may help divert potential lone actors away from the path of violence.

The smallest terrorist unit or “organization” is the lone actor. The lone actor’s attack seemingly comes out of nowhere, with no warning. A lone actor is one person acting alone, and they can be every bit as dangerous or lethal as any major terrorist organization.

Radicalization

When studying lone-actor radicalization, it helps to take a careful, focused approach: People rarely follow a single, predictable path, and no single framework can capture every case. Still, models can give us a useful “map” of common patterns without pretending to explain everything.

Key components of radicalization, according to Schmid, include: process-oriented, ideological transformation, conflict with existing order, justification of violence, and individual or group level. Counterterrorism needs a holistic approach, early intervention, and the addressing of societal issues.

Connor and Flynn have five points toward radicalization: a person with a grudge or grievance, a cognitive opening, a common target, a justification process for using violence, and a lack of social skills.

Other Characteristics of Lone Actors

A discreet lone actor is hard to detect because they identify the target; plan the attack; assemble the materials needed; don’t have to communicate, coordinate, or get the approval of anyone; and execute the attack. Thus, the lone actor is self-contained, which enhances operational security (OPSEC). Lone-actor attacks are more prevalent in the United States than elsewhere.

Cell Organizational Models

A cell is multiple terrorists working cooperatively toward achieving a particular goal, such as raising funds, gathering intelligence, or executing an attack. Alternatively, a cell may not be specialized, and all of these functions may be performed within a single cell. Examples of cells with diverse missions include the following:

1. Sleeper cells: Members of FTO sleeper cells lead normal lives and engage in activities that call no attention to themselves.

2. Command and Control Cells: C2 cells make all of the final decisions about the execution of an attack and other matters pertaining to the activities of a cell.

3. Tactical Operations Cells: TAC-OPS cells actually execute attacks under the guidance of C2 cells.

4. Intelligence Cells: These cells collect data, select targets, provide information about the best route to approach the target and leave the area of the attack.

5. Logistics Cells: LCs provide supplies and other support to other cells, including bomb-making materials and the names and locations of sympathetic doctors to use for a medical emergency.

6. Financial Cells: FRCs almost exclusively commit illegal acts to raise funds for the terrorist movement or to be used in support of a particular attack.

7. Propaganda Cells: Propaganda cells are dedicated to disseminating the ideology and promoting the image of a terrorist organization through well-coordinated information campaigns.

Observations about Terrorist Cells and Their Members

Collectively, these sources shed light on the operational principles that guide terrorist cells: secrecy and compartmentalization, communications, secure safe houses and operational bases, false identities for properties, physical security measures, communication protocols, camouflage and community integration, and operational security measures.

Cell networks refer to an organizational structure of interconnected terrorist cells. These cells can be either decentralized or centralized under terrorist organizations’ designated hierarchies, depending on conditions on the ground, operational requirements, and factors such as the existence of a base or the need to operate in a hostile environment. The flexibility of cell networks allows them to adapt to changing environments, evade detection, and optimize operational security (OPSEC), making them a highly effective approach for sustaining terrorist activities.

Network Organizational Models

Cells are the “building blocks” of network models that are illustrated by the (1) chain, (2) hub or star, (3) wheel, and (4) all-channel structures.

The Chain Network

The simplest type of network model is the chain network, which has no hierarchy. In its simplest form, each courier passes information, material, or encrypted documents to the next courier.

The Hub or Star Network

In a terrorist hub or star network, the central “hub” may be a local operational commander, ideological leader, or other figure. In contrast, the outer “nodes” are more expendable members, such as fighters, whose loss is less critical to the terrorist movement. The lines between nodes in a cell are called links or edges and represent a communication channel between nodes and/or the hub.

The Wheel Network

A variant of the hub or star is called a wheel network. The nodes can communicate with the member to their “left” or “right” because of a link. This quickens the pace of sharing

information, but increases OPSEC vulnerability.

The All-Channel Network

The all-channel model is highly decentralized, and all nodes can communicate with each other and the hub. The advantage of this model is that it reduces the nodes’ feelings of isolation and has great potential for collaboration in problem solving and other activities. The disadvantage is that it is the most difficult to create and maintain because so many horizontal communication channels are required, which also pose a greater threat to OPSEC.

Hierarchical Organizational Model

The chief advantages of the hierarchical model are that the chain of command is clearly understood, people know what their jobs are, specialization can be accommodated, and control is normally high. The disadvantages are that horizontal communication between units may be difficult or impossible.

Umbrella Organizational Model

The UOM is a relatively recent hybrid organizational structure that is made up of two other organizational structures, the hierarchical and the networked. The primary advantage of the UOM is its flexibility, allowing affiliates to conduct locally important operations and still participate in transnational terrorist attacks. The disadvantages are that affiliates have varying ideologies and they squabble with the core about strategic goals and the allocation of scarce resources. The single most important disadvantage of the UOM is that the core does not have full authority over its affiliates.

Al-Qaeda’s Global Affiliates as an Umbrella Model

Al-Qaeda functions as an umbrella organization, providing support, coordination, and strategic guidance to a network of affiliates operating across various regions of the world. Rather than conducting attacks directly, al-Qaeda’s core leadership inspires and synchronizes the activities of its affiliates by promoting a shared ideological framework and fostering transnational objectives. Some al-Qaeda affiliates include AQAP, AQIM, al-Shabaab, AQIS, and HaD.

Target Selection and Attacks

Clarke and Newman use the acronym EVIL DONE to identify the characteristics that make a target attractive to terrorists. Attractive targets are:

1. Exposed and publicly visible. Damage done to hidden targets doesn’t produce visually compelling images for the news media to broadcast.

2. Vital to a society’s day-to-day functioning or perhaps even survival.

3. Iconic or symbolic. When a picture of it is shown many people can instantly identify it. For

example, the Statue of Liberty, the White House, the Pentagon, and the Golden Gate Bridge.

4. Legitimate, meaning that attacking them will not result in universal condemnation.

5. Destructible. Targets cannot merely be damaged; this is a failed attack.

6. Occupied, because mass casualties are essential to creating continuing fear.

7. Near, as illustrated by the fact that the IRA in Northern Ireland struck many more targets there than on the British mainland.

8. Easy, without significant and layered defense/security features.

Suicide Attacks as Terrorism

Suicide bombings are not spontaneous outbursts of emotion, but rather calculated, strategic moves by a particular group for a specific purpose.

One of the earliest instances of contemporary suicide terrorism occurred in Lebanon during the 1980s. Hezbollah, a Shia militant group, utilized suicide bombings against foreign military forces to significant effect. The tactic spread to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with groups like Hamas employing suicide bombings. The globalization of suicide terrorism was vividly demonstrated by al-Qaeda’s coordinated attacks on the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, which killed 224 people and injured over 4,500, and the September 11, 2001 attacks, which resulted in 2,977 casualties, illustrating the severe transnational threat posed by terrorist organizations.

Leftist Terrorism and Suicide Attacks

Organizations such as the Red Army Faction in Germany, the Red Brigades in Italy, and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) focused on kidnappings, assassinations, bombings, and guerrilla warfare aimed at overthrowing governments or promoting socialist revolutions. An exception within leftist movements is the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) in Turkey. The Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C), another leftist terrorist organization in Turkey, adopted suicide terrorism in its operations during the early 2000s.

The

Chechen-Russia

Conflict and Suicide Terrorism

The Chechen-Russia Conflict significantly contributed to the evolution and proliferation of suicide terrorism in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, during the First Chechen War (1994–1996) and especially the Second Chechen War (starting in 1999) Many of these female suicide attackers were known as “Black Widows.” They were called “Black Widows” because many had lost their husbands or close relatives who were men in the conflict with Russian forces, driving them to seek revenge through martyrdom operations. These women represented both a personal vendetta and a political statement against the perceived injustices and atrocities of the Russian government.

An asymmetric tactic is a method of warfare used by weaker actors against stronger opponents, exploiting vulnerabilities rather than engaging in direct confrontation. Terrorist groups often employ asymmetric tactics, such as ambushes, suicide bombings, or cyberattacks, to offset conventional military disadvantages.

Characteristics of Suicide Bombers

Suicide bombing has evolved into a prominent and devastating tactic in modern terrorism, characterized by attackers sacrificing their lives to inflict maximum damage on targets. This method has been adopted by various terrorist organizations worldwide, reflecting its perceived effectiveness in achieving strategic objectives such as causing mass casualties, instilling fear, and garnering global attention.

The Chicago Project on Security and Threats found that suicide attacks peaked between 2013 and 2016; 90 percent occurred in Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, and Nigeria; 74 percent targeted security forces and government institutions; and the perpetrators were from 37 different terrorist organizations.

Radicalization for suicide attacks relies on online propaganda; exploitation of grievances; the influence of social networks; exploitation of vulnerable individuals; the use of psychological manipulation and indoctrination; the utilization of socioeconomic factors; and recruitment in conflict zones.

How Do Terrorist Organizations End?

Rapoport speculates that the vast majority of all terrorist groups don’t survive their first year. “Start-up” small businesses and terrorist movements appear to be at significant risk of failure due to four common factors. Stated in terrorist terms, those four factors are:

1. Inexperience: leaders may not be able to sustain the zeal of followers.

2. Bad operational decisions, such as attacking “hard” targets beyond the capabilities of the group.

3. A lack of capital, for example, not being able to attract well-heeled financial supporters

4. An environment in which mistakes may lead to catastrophic failure, such as failing to carefully vet followers

Cronin envisions terrorist organizations ending in six different ways:

1. The group’s leader is captured or killed. This is referred to as the “decapitation” strategy, and its results are inconsistent.

2. The group enters into negotiations. All democracies publicly maintain they do not negotiate with terrorists, but virtually all do so secretly.

3. The group’s aims are achieved. If a group claims success, saying it has “achieved its aims,” the statement needs to be closely scrutinized.

4. There is an implosion or loss of the group’s public support, for example, the ideology loses its relevancy

5. The group is defeated by force.

6. There is a transition by the group from terrorism into other forms of violence.

7. Two important questions about how terrorist organizations end are: (1) What becomes of the military arms and supplies? (2) What becomes of the terrorist fighters?

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 5 includes updated organizational models, deeper analysis of recruitment and lone-actor terrorism, and new sections on suicide attacks and resource strategies, supported by current case studies.

• Expanded analysis of terrorist structures with improved definitions and operational implications of hierarchical, networked, umbrella, cell-based, and lone-actor models. • New section on specialized terrorist cells (e.g., command, logistics, financial, and suicide cells), highlighting their role in compartmentalization to enhance operational security (OPSEC). • Expanded coverage of suicide terrorism, including ideological grooming, structural support, and psychological drivers. • Detailed exploration of recruitment versus retention challenges, with case studies. • Updated and new case studies, including Joseph Bibeau’s lone-actor attack in Canada and a reference to IS’s use of social media and propaganda in Western recruitment. • Expanded discussion on lone-actor terrorism, including the rise of online radicalization, behavioral profiles, and counterterrorism challenges. • New comparative section on resource acquisition strategies, contrasting IS’s extractive and coercive methods with Hezbollah and Hamas’s service-based governance to maintain legitimacy and gain support. • New emphasis on propaganda and digital media, including how IS advanced recruitment via branding and digital platforms. • Refined terminology across organizational roles, with clearer distinctions between leadership, cadres, active supporters, and passive supporters.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Go to the free teacher resource site “The Cell.” Choose from the many choices of activities to help introduce the students to the topics of this chapter.

Activity 2: Select one of the over 300 videos about terrorism from the PBS News Hour website that coincides with this chapter. Assign students to watch the video and then follow up with a discussion about the topic of your choice.

Review questions

1. What are passive supporters of terrorist organizations?

A: Sympathetic to goals of terrorist organization, but not committed enough to take an active role. May assist a front for the terrorist organization and not be fully aware of its true purpose.

2. Lone wolf terrorists are hard to detect. Why?

A: The smallest terrorist unit or “organization” is the lone wolf. The lone wolf’s attack seemingly comes out of nowhere, with no warning. A lone wolf is one person acting alone, and he or she can be every bit as dangerous and lethal as any major terrorist organization. Simon notes that there are no constraints on their level of violence because lone wolves are not beholden to a financial or other type of supporter who might mediate their degree of lethality. Lone wolves have no group decision-making process, peer pressure, or supervisor to stifle their inclinations. Simon notes that lone wolves were responsible for the first midair plane bombing, vehicle bombing, hijackings, product contamination, and anthrax attacks in the United States. As Simon speculates, a lone wolf could deliver a crippling attack to our infrastructure through a cyberattack

3. What is a cell?

A: A cell is multiple terrorists working cooperatively toward achieving a particular goal, such as raising funds, gathering intelligence, or executing an attack. Alternatively, a cell may not be specialized, and all of these functions may be performed within a single cell.

4. How does a “leaderless resistance cell” function?

A: No leaders and equality of members who share the leadership functions characterize a leaderless resistance cell. Leaderless resistance cells are autonomous, self-enrolling, and selforganizing. Former Vietnam veteran Louis Beam popularized the leaderless resistance concept, and, although at one time he associated with right wing, racist groups, he has since kept a low profile.

5. What are “sleeper cells?”

A: Members of FTO sleeper cells lead normal lives, engaging only in lawful employment and activities that call no attention to themselves. The jobs they select may facilitate future terrorist activities. Illustratively, a taxi driver will learn a great about a city’s geography and can identify potential targets and move terrorists around. A sleeper cell may receive a signal that “awakens” it for a specific purpose, such as providing a safe house or sabotage. Iran has been inserting sleeper cells in Latin America with the goal of committing, fomenting, and fostering acts of international terrorism.

6. What is a “redundant leader protocol” in a cell?

A: If the leader of a cell is captured, killed, or otherwise not available, a designated member of the cell will assume the leadership role.

7. The hierarchy organizational model has what major features?

A: The hierarchical model incorporates this idea of grades of rank and has the following characteristics: (1) there is a principle of hierarchy each lower organizational unit is under the direct control and supervision of a superior organizational unit. This produces a pyramid-shaped form with a single leader at the top of the pyramid; (2) these organizational units are led by persons whose rank and authority ascend as we go from the lower to higher units, referred to as the chain of command; (3) organizational units are essentially stacked horizontal layers, and the more there are, the “taller” or more hierarchical the organization will be. “Tallness” may be produced by the organization growing in numbers and creating new units in which to place them, becoming geographically dispersed, or from the need to create specialized units, for example, snipers, hostage takers, financial experts, and identification forgers. This creates the need for more hierarchy to coordinate the many parts of the organization; and (4) there is also an expectation that when lower-ranking members of the organization receive a “lawful” order from a superior authority in their chain of command that the orders will be followed. Members may be disciplined for not carrying out orders.

8. What is the meaning of the acronym EVIL DONE?

A: Clarke and Newman use the acronym EVIL DONE to identify the characteristics that make a target attractive to terrorists. Attractive targets are:

1. Exposed and publicly visible.

2. Vital to a society’s day-to-day functioning or perhaps even survival.

3. Iconic or symbolic.

4. Legitimate, meaning that attacking them will not result in universal condemnation.

5. Destructible.

6. Occupied, because mass casualties are essential to creating continuing fear.

7. Near.

8. Easy.

9. What factors contribute to the global rise in suicide bombings, and which regions are most affected?

A: Suicide terrorism is used to achieve strategic objectives, such as instilling fear, attracting media attention, and provoking governmental overreactions that can be exploited by the terrorists for propaganda and recruitment.

10. How do terrorist organizations use propaganda and social networks to recruit individuals for suicide attacks?

A: The Internet and social media platforms serve as powerful tools for disseminating extremist content, reaching a global audience and facilitating remote radicalization. Terrorist groups create and share propaganda materials including videos, articles, and social media posts to spread their ideology and attract potential recruits. The anonymity and widespread reach of the Internet enable these groups to target individuals across geographic boundaries, tailoring messages to resonate with specific audiences. Personal relationships play a crucial role in the recruitment process. Many individuals are influenced by family members, friends, or community leaders who are already involved in extremist activities. Social networks provide trust and credibility, making recruitment efforts more effective. This peer influence can facilitate gradual indoctrination, as individuals are introduced to extremist ideologies through familiar and trusted sources.

11. In what ways do vulnerabilities, such as socio-economic hardships or personal grievances, make individuals more susceptible to becoming suicide bombers?

A: Real or perceived injustices, discrimination, or socio-political grievances are leveraged by terrorist organizations to radicalize individuals, particularly among marginalized communities. By capitalizing on feelings of alienation, oppression, or frustration, these groups offer a sense of purpose and belonging to susceptible individuals. They may highlight issues such as economic disparities, political corruption, or foreign intervention to justify their actions and recruit supporters. Terrorist organizations often exploit individuals who are vulnerable due to various factors, including health conditions, disabilities, or social marginalization. Lack of employment opportunities, educational disparities, and poor living conditions can create environments where extremist groups can offer financial incentives or promise improved status. Addressing these underlying issues is crucial for preventing radicalization.

12. As identified by Cronin, list the six different ways terrorist organizations commonly end.

A: The six different ways terrorist organizations end are: The group’s leader is captured or killed; the group enters into negotiations; the group’s aims are achieved; there is an implosion or loss of the group’s public support; the group is defeated by force; there is a transition by the group from terrorism into other forms of violence.

Critical thinking exercises

1. When IS conquers and occupies an area, it economically exploits the people living there and also punishes people for even minor matters. Based on the atrocities and governing activities of IS while it remained in control of a large swath of territory until 2019, create three scenarios that could have reasonably developed as a result and explain your rationale for each.

A: The three scenarios will vary. The balance between resource acquisition and constituency support is crucial for terrorist organizations’ sustainability. Excessive exploitation can erode local support, making it challenging to recruit new members, gather intelligence, or operate effectively within a community. Conversely, a strategy that considers the welfare of the local population can enhance legitimacy and operational security.

2. Joining Terrorist Movements. In the section “Recruitment versus Retention,” Frisch asserts that people join terrorist organizations for three main reasons: (1) family members, friends, or people they know are going to or have already done so; (2) family members and others have strong grievances against the government; and (3) out of deep religious or political convictions. Later in the chapter, Polko suggests that wanting to improve their financial situation is an equally strong motivation. Essentially, Polko argues that there are some “career-minded” terrorists who see their job as akin to having the worst job in a corporation. It is a pathway for upward mobility. Should that be added to Frisch’s main reasons? Explain how you reached your decision about it. Has Polko posited an interesting but unlikely possibility? People who join our armed forces expect to be promoted. Does that bolster the case for Polko’s career-minded terrorist? Why or why not? Think of some possible other main reasons to add to Frisch’s.

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

3. Imagine you are a counterterrorism analyst who has just read the data presented on suicide bombings. You must develop a holistic intervention strategy aimed at preventing radicalization and suicide attacks in a region facing political instability, socio-economic challenges, and persistent extremist propaganda. What steps or measures would you prioritize, and why, to address both the immediate threat of suicide bombings and the long-term prevention of recruitment into terrorist organizations?

A: Answers will vary. Prevention of recruitment and radicalization is key. Recruitment of suicide bombers is specialized, and understanding the tactics used to recruit suicide bombers as well as understanding the mentality of why a person would become a suicide bomber is essential. Early

intervention can disrupt the radicalization trajectory before individuals fully embrace extremist ideologies or resort to violence, offering potential preventive measures, and societal issues such as marginalization, discrimination, or political grievances can facilitate radicalization, necessitating broader social and political solutions, helping to understand the contextual factors of radicalization.

4. How can intelligence and law enforcement agencies effectively adapt their investigative strategies to identify, infiltrate, and disrupt highly compartmentalized terrorist cells that employ stringent OPSEC measures without compromising legitimate privacy rights and civil liberties?

A: The strength of local intelligence and law enforcement agencies significantly influences the selection of the cell type, as does the nature of the environment in which the cell operates. When police, intelligence officers, and counterterrorism professionals are aware of these operational characteristics, they can better anticipate and counteract the methods employed by these clandestine cell organizations.

Chapter 6 Critical Processes of Terrorist Organizations

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 6 explores how terrorist groups function as dynamic and adaptive organizations, akin to legitimate entities in structure and behavior. The chapter begins by categorizing terrorist movements based on their motivations and capabilities, introducing a six-group behavioral framework. It explains how groups evolve or regress in capability and how internal and external pressures influence tactical decisions. Through this framework, students learn that motivation alone is insufficient without operational capacity and that even capable groups may restrain their actions for strategic reasons.

The chapter then delves into how terrorist organizations operate as learning entities, continually evolving to enhance operational effectiveness, adapt to counterterrorism efforts, and innovate new tactics. Examples such as al-Qaeda’s decentralization and the Islamic State’s digital strategies illustrate how these groups embrace adaptive learning. A central feature of the chapter is a detailed eight-stage recruitment and radicalization process, showcasing how individuals are groomed through personal, ideological, and digital pathways. Contemporary cases, ranging from lone actors to online radicalization in gaming communities, highlight the tactics employed by both jihadist and right-wing extremist groups.

Finally, the chapter presents a comprehensive typology of terrorist attacks, encompassing thirteen categories such as suicide bombings, cyberterrorism, drone strikes, and vehicle rammings. It outlines the four organizational and six operational tools essential for group survival and strategic action, including ideology, leadership, operational space, finance, intelligence, command and control systems. Real-world case studies and updated visuals bring these processes to life, providing students with a nuanced and practical understanding of how terrorist groups organize, adapt, and act.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 6.1 Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

• 6.2 State why it is important for terrorist groups to become learning organizations.

• 6.3 Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organization tools.

• 6.4 Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Terrorist groups and movements represent complex organizations. Like other organizations in society, they have a basic rationale and motivation for existence, specific goals and objectives, divisions of labor and function, and a hierarchy of authority and responsibility.

Terrorist Motivations and Capabilities

Asal and Rethemeyer studied 395 terrorist organizations over an eight-year period. During that time, sixty-eight (17 percent) of them killed ten or more people, and only twenty-eight (7.1 percent) killed 100 or more in operations. Clearly, there is wide variance in how terrorist organizations behave. Ganor explains their actions by dividing them into groups based on their (1) motivations, meaning their intentions, and (2) their capabilities to achieve specific objectives, for example, to destroy a target. Beyond motivation and capabilities, there are many other ways to look at terrorist organizations. Examples include the driving ideology, quality of leadership, demands made, stage of development, size, degree of specialization, sponsorship, and extent of public support.

Terrorist Organizations as Learning Organizations

To achieve some longevity, terrorist movements must become learning organizations. Learning organizations are characterized by prizing the acquisition of new knowledge, being nimble when faced with new situations, and thinking “outside of the box.” Becoming a learning organization is a survival mechanism for terrorist organizations. By embracing learning, terrorist groups can enhance operational effectiveness, counteract counterterrorism measures, innovate tactics and strategies, and sustain recruitment and funding.

Types of Terrorist Attacks

A terrorist attack is a premeditated act of violence or threat intended to create fear and coerce governments or societies to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives. Non-state actors or clandestine groups typically orchestrate these attacks and can vary widely in method and scale. One of the significant challenges in counterterrorism is that terrorists possess the strategic advantage of choosing the type, time, and location of their attacks. This element of surprise allows them to exploit vulnerabilities and maximize the impact of their actions

Types of terrorist attacks include: bombings, armed assaults, assassinations, kidnappings, hostage-taking, human trafficking, hijackings, suicide attacks, cyberterrorism, weapons of mass destruction, sabotage, arson, vehicle-ramming attacks, drone attacks, and burglary and robbery.

The Two Essential Sets of Terrorist Organizational Tools

During the 1930s, the body of knowledge known as administrative theory emerged. Theorists and practitioners sought to identify “universal” methods of administration that could be applied in all organizational settings. In 1937, Luther Gulick coined the most enduring acronym of the functions of administration: POSDCORB: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting. In 2004, Cragin and Daly, either directly or indirectly, accounted for all of these functions and reframed them for the particular needs of terrorist organizations. They determined that there are two essential sets of terrorist organizational tools, four of which are organizational and six are operational.

The Four Organizational Tools

“Organizational tools” refer to the things an organization must accomplish to foster its viability.

The First Organizational Tool: Ideology

Adopting a guiding and motivating ideology plays the central role in communicating what “We are about.” It must also be powerful enough to motivate members to make sacrifices. Ultimately, it is at the heart of getting someone to “pick up the gun.” Al-Qaeda’s ideology inspires its followers to believe that the violent acts they are committing fulfills the ordained will of Allah.

All ideologies share three common characteristics: (1) a belief system that instructs people to do certain things; (2) the belief cannot be questioned or violated; and (3) the things to be done must be directed toward achieving some objective that resonates both with the general population and with potential recruits

Ideology, the PKK, and the FARC

The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) is a terrorist organization founded in the late 1970s, rooted in separatist ambitions and Marxist-Leninist ideology. The PKK has been engaged in armed conflict with the Turkish government since 1984, seeking greater autonomy and rights for Kurds within Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Over the decades, there have been episodic peace talks between Turkey and the PKK, but no agreement about a homeland has been produced, nor does one seem close at hand. In 2014, the military successes of the Islamic State, particularly in northern Iraq, created thorny public policy problems for the United States. There was no interest in putting large numbers of troops back into Iraq, but the Islamic State was murdering people who did not share and refused to join their faith.

The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia People’s Army (FARC) in Colombia waged an insurgency against its national government, but that insurgency was not nationalistic. FARC grew out of the Colombian Communist Party of the 1960s. It is therefore unsurprising that, traditionally, FARC’s ideology has been based on seizing control of the government to institute socialist reforms. What is notable about FARC is that from its inception in 1964 until a peace agreement was reached, its ideology resonated with the people. In 2016, FARC and the national government reached a written agreement that ended the hostilities. FARC will now have representation in Colombia’s legislature. By the end of the summer of 2017, demobilization of FARC continued, turning over their weapons to the government.

The Second Organizational Tool: Leadership

Providing leadership is a crucial enterprise. Terrorist leaders and facilities are vulnerable to special operations raids and drone attacks. The structure of a terrorist organization will dictate to some degree the importance of top and mid-level leadership. Charismatic leaders can draw people into terrorist movements and sustain their fervor. If there are few levels of leadership in the organization, the chain of command is simple, and the “Supreme leader” becomes more important because the leader is often present and available to followers.

The Third Organizational Tool: Recruiting

Recruiting identifies potential recruits and draws them into the organization, which fulfills four important needs for terrorist organizations: (1) import new energy; (2) acquire new sets of skills; (3) increase operational capabilities; and (4) replace losses caused by fighters being captured, fighters “quitting the cause,” defections to other terrorist groups or government forces, and casualties.

There is an eight-stage process detailing how individuals are recruited into a terrorist group. They include: Identifying the candidate, initiating contact, building rapport and friendship, advancing friendship and truck and introducing ideological indoctrination, isolating recruit and advancing indoctrination through networking, reinforcing the assumption of a new identity, introducing the recruit to simple terrorist activities, and assigning candidates to different parts of the terrorist organization.

There is no single uniform recruiting process used to bring recruits into a terrorism group; the process varies and is tailored to different geographic regions that have their own political, religious, and social histories, to the recruiting pool, and finally, the individual.

Recruiting Online

The key advantage Internet recruiting provides is that it allows terrorist movements to recruit without any geographical boundaries. Gaining recruits from other countries is a priority because it reduces the effectiveness of profiles aimed at identifying terrorists based on ethnicity. Therefore, investigative agencies mine data from Internet sites for intelligence.

According to Weimann, terrorist organizations are technologically sophisticated, using social media sites to recruit, including YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, TikTok, chat rooms, and other sites.

With some recruits, little or no recruitment is needed; they are already substantially selfradicalized.

Retention of existing members is somewhat akin to the ongoing recruitment of them. Despite such efforts, there is voluntary turnover in the ranks of experienced members, which Jacobson explains as (1) disillusionment with the strategies and tactics; (2) a lack of respect for the leader ship; (3) resentment from taking orders from leaders who have never served on the battlefield, particularly when unnecessary casualties are seen to be caused by the leaders’ inexperience; (4) a perceived inequity of compensation as compared to the members’ contributions; (5) favoritism by leaders; (6) pleas to leave the movement from families and friends outside of it with whom the member has maintained contact; and (7) switching from one group to another because they can be paid better, their families will be fed, or for other pragmatic reasons.

• Movie Note: The movie “Heaven Will Wait” (2016) tells the story of two middle-class French girls that are recruited by ISIS. The movie can be used to discuss ISIS recruitment strategies and the ways in which Internet and social media have “changed the game” for

terrorist groups in terms of recruitment.

The Fourth Organizational Tool: Publicity

Using the Internet is the cheapest and fastest way in which terrorist movements can achieve a substantial amount of publicity for: (1) fostering public awareness of their existence and goals, (2) distributing propaganda, (3) shaping a favorable opinion of them by their relevant publics, (4) inciting violence, (5) influencing groups that have been marginalized or “left behind” to take up arms, (6) radicalizing visitors to the site, (7) raising funds, for example, by potential or actual supporters making donations or buying publications and discs with music or propaganda on them, (8) providing training material on homemade weapons, such as grenades and pressure cooker bombs, as well as information on other topics, for example, how to conduct counter surveillance, (9) tailoring messages to particular audiences, such as impressionable teenagers, (10) executing cyber attacks, (11) communicating with operatives, (12) a virtual dead drop (a message is posted on the Internet and only the person for whom it is intended has the password to access it), (13) spread misinformation about their intentions, and (14) demoralize opposing forces and public support for opposing regimes.

The Internet has little to no regulation and censorship, it provides global coverage, it can reach huge audiences, it’s inexpensive to develop and maintain a website, there is anonymity for the communicator, and it provides a multimedia platform.

On the Internet, there are also some known password-protected sites believed to be jihadist chat rooms. To counter the publicity terrorist groups, seek, hackers, such as Ghost Security (GhostSec), work to make their sites inoperable.

IS, perhaps more so than any other terrorist movement, wants platinum-grade publicity every day. They do so with their grotesque and wanton violence, which is intended to shock us. One example involves IS burning a captured Jordanian pilot alive in Syria. A free press is a safeguard for all of us. There is, however, an irony that in the very act of being that safeguard, IS gets what it craves so much.

The Six Operational Tools

Terrorist movements need operational tools in order to generate attacks.

The First Operational Tool: A Command and Control System

A command and control system is the mechanism by which terrorist movements plan, staff, train, coordinate, and execute their attacks. This mechanism is also referred to as C and C or C2. The stage of development and size of a terrorist organization influences how this function is executed. In terms of disrupting terrorist operations, having intelligence that allows targeting of C2 is a major asset.

The Second Operational Tool: Acquiring Weapons

Acquiring weapons and a reliable source of spare parts, replacements for combat losses, and resupply of ammunition are essential tools for terrorists. The arms in the inventory of a terrorist movement are likely to consist of a mixture of those supplied by individual and state sponsors or by other terrorist organizations; those purchased with drugs, money, or gemstones from the illicit weapons black market; or those captured.

The Third Operational Tool: An Operational Space

Having an operational space means having a physical sanctuary or safe haven where attacks can be safely planned, trained for, and rehearsed.

Safe havens are a place or situation that allows illicit actors, including criminals, smugglers, and terrorists, to operate with relative impunity. Other advantages include that the terrorists can organize, plan, raise funds, communicate, recruit, train, and operate with a reasonable or higher degree of security. Lamb identifies four settings for safe havens: (a) The classic land safe haven (b) Urban safe havens (c) Maritime safe havens and (d) Virtual safe havens.

The Fourth Operational Tool: Training

For most recruits to terrorist groups, training begins with an initial emphasis on indoctrination, physical conditioning, small arms familiarization, marksmanship, and basic martial arts. More advanced topics include planting bombs and tactics for assaulting military convoys and installations. Some terrorists will receive training for specialized functions, such as sniping, bomb building, car hijacking, hostage-taking, and eliminating sentries.

The war on safe havens seems to have spelled the end of large training camps, such as those that al-Qaeda maintained in Afghanistan under the Taliban pre-9/11. The concurrent shift in alQaeda’s strategy to small independent cells and regional attacks has resulted in substantial terrorist e-learning courses becoming available on the Internet, including bomb-making manuals by one of al-Qaeda’s weapons masters.

The Fifth Operational Tool: Intelligence and Counterintelligence

From a terrorist organization’s view, intelligence is the collection, processing, integration, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of available information on a specific subject. In contrast, a terrorist organization’s counterintelligence (CI) activities are a security tool consisting of activities dedicated to undermining the effectiveness of the intelligence activities of America and its allies.

The Sixth Operational Tool: Finance

Finance is of continuing concern to terrorist leaders Following 9/11, substantial interest quickly developed in denying terrorists the use of normal banking channels. As a result, new banking regulations were put into place. As financial intelligence was created, it became a formidable weapon. A sample of 500 FBI terrorist investigations revealed that 42 percent of them were

aided by financial intelligence.

The annual incomes of the nine wealthiest terrorist organizations range from IS at the top, with a robust $2.5 billion; to al-Qaeda in the middle of the pack, with $150 million; to the Real IRA last, with $50 million (see Table 6–3). You might think that IS, with $2.5 billion, is the deadliest terrorist organization in the world, but that dubious recognition goes to Boko Haram.

IS has the funds to hire highly qualified scientists to develop more deadly strands of chemical or biological agents. Their wealth, ideology, and utter disregard for life make an ominous combination. After the overthrow of Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad in late 2024, there are growing concerns that IS will resurge again in the Levant.

Hawalas

In response to growing pressure from formal banking systems, terrorists began making greater use of alternative remittance systems (ARSs), particularly the hawala. This is an informal and often unregulated remittance system that operates in many countries, conducting domestic and international transactions.

Hawalas are distinguished from traditional banks by (1) strong trust; they are illegal in some countries, yet they operate effectively and efficiently without regulatory oversight or any legal recourse; (2) hawala dealers are often bound together by family, business partners, or regional connections; (3) they make minimal use of formal negotiable instruments; (4) no money is actually transferred between hawalas; (5) the transactions take place based on communications between members of a network of hawaladars or hawala dealers; (6) hawalas operate with little paperwork and what exists is minimal and often in codes; (7) they provide better currency exchange rates than banks offer; (8) the person receiving the money gets it quickly, within hours to a day or two at most; (9) some hawaladars are open and available 24 hours a day, such as local grocery stores; and (10) all taxes are avoided.

Cryptocurrencies and Online Payment Systems in Terrorism Financing

The system appeared online in 2009, apparently developed by an anonymous person identified as Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin can be bought, transferred to someone else, and sold online. If sold, a check is sent to your bank account, where all transactions are recorded. A few merchants online accept Bitcoin. Although it is an interesting system, Bitcoin is struggling to find even modest acceptance in the marketplace. In mid-2014, Bitcoin was being studied by several federal agencies to determine if terrorists could use it as an alternative remittance system or otherwise gain an advantage from using it.

In a more recent development, the neo-Nazi terrorist group The Base, founded by former U.S. special forces contractor Rinaldo Nazzaro, has not only resumed paramilitary recruitment and training within the United States but has also solicited cryptocurrency donations, specifically Bitcoin and Monero, to support activities such as armed training. The group is also actively planning a national paramilitary training event set for summer 2025.

Beyond cryptocurrencies, other digital payment systems, such as PayPal, Wise (formerly TransferWise), Venmo, Cash App, and similar peer-to-peer or cross-border transfer platforms, offer potential channels for illicit transfers.

As with most emerging technologies, wider public adoption tends to create more cover and concealment for illicit activity. Just as drones, 3-D printing, and encrypted communications have expanded operational possibilities for terrorist groups, digital payment systems, whether blockchain-based or traditional e-wallets, are likely to feature more prominently in financing strategies as global reliance on such tools increases.

Narco-Terrorism

As the efforts to financially strangle terrorists continued, state and individual sponsorship of terrorists generally declined. An unintended consequence was that it pushed terrorist organizations toward the drug trade.

Narco-terrorism originally referred to campaigns of extreme violence, including torture, beheadings, bombings, and assassinations by drug traffickers against competitors, the police, and others. Narco-terrorism also refers to some nexus or connection between terrorist organizations and the drug trade.

To reduce the income of terrorists and criminal organizations, the police adopted the strategy of eradicating poppy fields and coca tree crops. In response, terrorist and criminal organizations began producing synthetic drugs to make up for their lost revenue.

The most significant national security and human security threat to the United States from synthetic drugs now comes from fentanyl, a synthetic opioid that is one hundred times more powerful than opium and is responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Americans over the past several years. The Chinese Communist Party has allowed the shipment of precursor chemicals from China to Mexican drug cartels, including the Sinaloa Cartel, which is driving the explosion of fentanyl overdoses in the United States, an issue that the Trump administration promised to focus on upon arriving in office.

Traditional For-Profit Crimes

The U.S. Treasury calculates that in 2013, $165 million was paid in ransom to terrorists worldwide. Each transaction reinforces the terrorists’ belief that kidnapping is a good line of business in which to be. One al-Qaeda leader described it as “an easy spoil.”

Terrorists are not known to have counterfeited United States currency, although there is a report that a terrorist group counterfeited Indian rupees. The best counterfeiter of the United States $100 bill is North Korea, which does so to bring in cash and to try to destabilize the American economy. In an era of unfettered globalization and porous borders, the merging of terrorism and criminality has taken shape in some regions of the world, especially where high levels of corruption exist.

Sponsorship, Donations, Charities, Zakat, and Sadaqah

Although it is accurate to state that state-sponsored funds and individual donations have generally declined, there are exceptions. Notably, the U.S. Department of State has called attention to an increase in Iran’s support for Hezbollah, which has reached levels not seen since the 1990s. As another means of expanding their financial resources, some terrorist organizations have established shell corporations that claim they are for philanthropic and humanitarian purposes, but the funds collected are used to support terrorism.

Convergence

There is a significant danger to terrorist organizations of becoming too involved in for-profit crimes: They may lose their ideological zeal because of the substantial profits to be made. When this happens, they convert from one type of organization to another.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 6 features expanded content on terrorist recruitment processes, attack typologies, organizational tools, and learning dynamics, with new examples and updated visuals to enhance understanding.

• New section on terrorist learning organizations, with added examples such as al-Qaeda’s decentralized training and IS’s tech-savvy adaptations (e.g., Dabiq, Rumiyah). • Enhanced content on recruitment featuring an eight-stage terrorist recruitment and radicalization process, including new real-world case studies and right-wing extremist tactics. • Added detailed comparative examples of recruitment by groups like IS, Proud Boys, Atomwaffen Division, and online gaming platforms. • Expanded typology of terrorist attacks featuring a new section categorizing thirteen attack types (e.g., VBIEDs, cyberterrorism, drone attacks, arson, sabotage, vehicle ramming) with updated contemporary examples. • Deeper explanation of organizational and operational tools, referencing updated frameworks with real-life case applications. • New indepth section on suicide terrorism, analyzing individual and vehicle-based suicide attacks, psychological drivers, tactical planning, and organizational support structures

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Introduce the class to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Have the students work in groups. Assign each group a particular group and have them identify which needs are being met by the organization’s actions or membership.

Activity 2: Have the students individually write down five adjectives that describe terrorists. Then in small groups, have the students compare the list to see similarities in others’ views, as well as differences. Have the students work either individually or as a group and answer these questions: What do these words describing terrorists have in common? About whom else have students heard or used stereotypes? What role does prejudice play in stereotyping? Are stereotypes

true? Is racial profiling acceptable? After allowing students to report, briefly discuss one or two of the terrorists who do not fit any stereotype.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Terrorist organizations, both domestic and international, are increasingly using cryptocurrencies, online payment systems, and privacy-focused financial technologies to raise, store, and transfer funds. While traditional banking and wire transfers are monitored through laws such as the Bank Secrecy Act and counterterrorism financing regulations, digital assets like Bitcoin, Monero, and decentralized finance (DeFi) platforms can bypass conventional oversight. Newer services such as Venmo, Wise, and peer-to-peer payment apps can also be exploited for micro-transactions that are harder to track but add up over time. Law enforcement agencies face the challenge of balancing financial privacy rights with the need to prevent illicit use. Given that the First Amendment protects freedom of association and that legitimate nonprofits and advocacy groups also use these technologies, what strategies should governments and financial institutions adopt to curb terrorist financing without infringing on civil liberties? What role, if any, should tech companies and cryptocurrency exchanges play in detecting and reporting suspicious activity? How might emerging tools like blockchain analytics or artificial intelligence impact this balance in the next decade?

A: Answers will vary, but may include such items: Transparency, judicial oversight, and clear legal standards are essential to ensure that enforcement does not violate First Amendment protections or unfairly target legitimate organizations. Tech companies and cryptocurrency exchanges should play a cooperative role by implementing monitoring systems, reporting suspicious activity, and complying with lawful requests, while still protecting user privacy through encryption and data minimization. At the same time, they should not act as unchecked surveillance entities, and their actions should be guided by consistent regulations. Emerging tools like blockchain analytics and artificial intelligence will likely improve the ability to trace illicit financial flows and detect patterns across large datasets.

2. Study the four organizational tools and the six operational tools in Table 6–2. Work alone to complete the following two tasks: First, identify any existing tasks from Table 6–2 that you would move from one category to another, and explain why. Second, assume you’re aware of someone who is starting a terrorist group. Develop a list of tasks you think that group needs to complete and list them in the order you think they would need to accomplish them. Then sort the tasks into whatever categories you think are useful. Form small groups and develop consensus lists. Assign one person to present your work to the rest of the class on a flip chart or whiteboard. After each group has completed this task, compare the various lists. Can a better list be made by combining items from the different lists? If so, what does that suggest about group decision making, especially within initiating terrorist groups?

A: Answers will vary. The four organizational tools are: ideology, leadership, recruiting, and publicity. The six operational tools are: command and control system, weapons, operational space, training, intelligence and counterintelligence, and finance.

3. The Evolution of Terrorist Tools and Tactics: Propaganda and Training Videos on the Internet.

Terrorist tools and tactics appear to be evolving over time. Terrorists may favor attack methods that exploit perceived vulnerabilities, such as adopting active shooter tactics and finding new methods of concealing dangerous nuclear, biological, or chemical materials. Further, radical Islamic terrorists will likely pursue opportunities to inflict mass casualties, particularly considering recent upheaval in the Middle East (like the war in Syria and the advancement of the Islamic State). Recent attacks appear to be focused on causing mass casualties with contemporary weapons (e.g., shooting patrons in a theater or restaurant). Go to https://icct.nl/publication/branding-caliphate-decline-islamic-states-video-output 20152018#:~:text=The%20paper%20demonstrates%20a%20strong,guerrilla%20tactics%20and%20te rror%20attacks., and read the article “Branding a Caliphate in Decline: The Islamic State’s Video Output (2015–2018).” Can you imagine such videos that inform individuals on how to make a “dirty” bomb, or spread poison in a water supply, or use sophisticated software to cause train derailments? Discuss ways to combat these types of videos, and, more importantly, discuss ways to reduce the desire for violence in the Middle East.

A: Answers will vary, but may include some of the following points. Combating terrorist tactic videos online requires a mix of technological, legal, and social approaches. Governments can partner with tech companies to rapidly detect and remove extremist content using AI tools, while also improving information sharing across platforms so the material doesn’t simply reappear elsewhere. Disrupting distribution networks such as shutting down accounts, limiting algorithmic promotion, and restricting monetization can reduce the reach of these videos. Just as important are counter-narratives: credible voices, including former extremists, community leaders, and local influencers, can challenge propaganda by exposing the real consequences of violence and undermining its appeal. Digital literacy programs can also help users, especially younger audiences, critically evaluate and resist manipulative content.

Reducing the desire for violence in the Middle East is far more complex and requires long-term, non-military strategies. Efforts should focus on addressing underlying drivers such as political instability, corruption, lack of economic opportunity, and unresolved conflicts. Supporting education, job creation, and local governance can give individuals alternatives to extremist pathways. Western societies can contribute by promoting diplomacy over intervention, avoiding actions that fuel resentment, and working with local communities rather than imposing external solutions. Encouraging inclusive political systems and protecting human rights can also reduce grievances that extremist groups exploit. Ultimately, reducing violence depends on building trust, legitimacy, and opportunity within affected societies, not just suppressing extremist content or groups.

Chapter 7

Typologies

of Terrorism:

State-Involved and Single or Special Issue Movements

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapters 7 and 8 are another set of “twin chapters,” both dealing with typologies of terrorism. To avoid having one very long chapter, we wrote two shorter chapters. We logically grouped movements in those chapters not by geography but by their ideologies. Typologies logically group things, such as terrorist movements. In contrast, taxonomies create groups based on statistical analysis. We used typologies because there are insufficient data to create full taxonomies of terrorism. The history of each identified terrorist group is covered, and Chapters 7 and 8 are replete with examples and case studies to provide concrete meaning.

Chapter 7 scrutinizes four types of terrorism in which the political state is involved: state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and state-perpetrated/international terrorism. By and large, single/special-issue terrorism is still a concern, but toward the lower end of the threat scale. “Fading” may be a reasonable description of these movements, which include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Earth Liberation Front (ELF), and anti–genetically modified organism (GMO) groups, which oppose “frankenfood.”

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 7.1 Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

• 7.2 Identify the three goals that differentiate religious and secular terrorism; provide an argument that supports the emergence of the Islamic State as religious terrorism.

• 7.3 Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

• 7.4 Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Typologies and taxonomies are both methods of classification. Typologies rationalize grouprelated concepts and other things into categories. In contrast, taxonomies have categories that are formed by empirically studying observable and measurable characteristics.

There are many typologies of terrorism because, unlike data-driven taxonomies, they are based on the reasoning of their originator. Johnson asserts that there are as many typologies of terrorism as there are analysts. This chapter relies on the use of typologies because there is a dearth of well-developed taxonomies of terrorist organizations.

A Political-Orientation-Based Typology: The Four Waves of Terrorism

Rapoport analyzed the sweep of terrorism history beginning in the 1880s and identified four waves of terrorism: the anarchist wave, the anti-colonial wave, the new left wave, and the religious wave.

The Anarchist Wave: “Anarchy” comes from the Greek word “anarchos” and means “without a ruler.” According to Rapoport, the anarchist wave began in the 1880s and continued for some forty years. Practical anarchy recognizes the impossibility of actually achieving an idealized state of pure anarchy characterized by the absence of a central government. Consequently, most anarchists are willing to settle for a weak government that is minimally intrusive in the lives of its citizens. Anarchy is inherently anti-authoritarian and revolutionary it strives to overthrow an existing ruler and/or government.

The Anti-Colonial Wave: Colonialism goes back to the early modern era, roughly 1500 to 1800. During that time European nations used their military power to form colonies in other parts of the world that they could control Colonies were created in Asia, South America, the Caribbean, North America, Africa, and the Middle East. During the anti-colonial wave (1920s–1960s) colonies sought their independence by negotiating; when that failed, they often turned to terrorism.

The New Left Wave: The Vietnam War ultimately produced widespread opposition to it in the United States and abroad. America and its allies were viewed as engaging in a form of colonial imperialism, which the new left saw as the cause of inequality and oppression throughout the world. Although the new left wave (1960s–1990s) concluded that terrorism was a tactic to reform governments, it was notoriously unsuccessful in doing so.

The Religious Wave: There were major acts of secular terrorism prior to the beginning of the religious wave. Weinberg and Eubank argue that the current wave of religious terrorism has killed more people, caused more injuries, and spanned the globe more widely in comparison to other waves.

Defining Religious Violence

There is a distinction between secular violence, which has no genuine religious component, and religious violence. The mere citing of scripture, displaying religious symbols, or including a religion’s name in your movement or group’s name is not sufficient to constitute religious terrorism. The goal of the terrorist act or group must be considered.

Gregg asserts that there are three goals that differentiate between religious and secular terrorism: 1. To violently initiate an apocalyptical event that will save (destroy) the world, thereby ushering in the anticipated new world.

2. To create a theocracy, a religious government based on the Word, Laws, and Commandments of God or a deity as interpreted by ecclesiastical authorities.

3. To create a pure religious state where everyone practices the same religion.

The Islamic State: The Drive to Establish a Worldwide Caliphate

The Islamic State (IS) is most fully understood in the context that American foreign policy, the Coalition’s Invasion of Iraq in 2003 and its consequences, are among the catalysts that ultimately led to its formation. Other forces at work included a declining power and influence of al Qaeda in the Middle East, the continuing spread of radical Islamic theology, and the centuries-old Sunni-Shia conflict. IS is the most capable global terrorist threat. Even if IS were to lose all the territory it occupies in Iraq, Syria, and even Southern Turkey, it would retain a demonstrated transnational jihadist capability to strike in Western countries.

The transformation of ISI from a declining terrorist movement to a new, vibrant, and growing embryonic Islamic State involved the following factors:

1. The emergence of al-Baghdadi as a leader who called for worldwide Islamic support. Baghdadi represented a new type of leadership that enjoined the ideas of other leaders within the radical Islamic revolution.

2. While confined in Camp Bucca al-Baghdadi was exposed to many different ideas, tactics that had worked and failed on the battlefield Camp Bucca became advanced education in the theory and practice of insurgency.

3. The most important of al-Baghdadi’s Bucca experiences was his exposure to military and civilian personnel who had been expelled in the “de-Ba’athafication.” This point cannot be over emphasized.

4. The number of Sunni and foreign recruits slowly increased, and al-Baghdadi began recruiting people he met in Camp Bucca.

5. In 2011, the coalition forces withdrew and the Iraq government became totally responsible for fighting the insurgencies. Al-Baghdadi disregarded the order and quickly began a strong ISI presence in Syria.

6. During 2012–2013, ISIS was credited with fighting their way into prisons in Mosul and Tikrit and freeing Sunni insurgents, which increased its visibility and growing favorable opinion within the Iraqi tribal population.

7. In Syria during 2013, al-Baghdadi rebadged ISIS more broadly, as the Islamic State in the Levant (ISIL).

8. In early 2014, members of al Qaeda diminished within the leadership ranks of ISIL and the distinction between the two groups became almost nonexistent.

9. Simultaneously, al-Baghdadi announced the establishment of a worldwide Islamic caliphate, 10. Al-Baghdadi’s statements precipitated a great Islamic migration from over 100 countries, with an estimated 30,0000 new fighters arriving in Iraq since 2016.

By 2019, IS was mostly driven out of Iraq by local security forces, Kurdish Peshmerga fighters, and a paramilitary force dominated by Iran-backed Shi’a militias. A U.S.-led coalition of 74 nations provided air and military support. Between 2019 and early 2025, the Islamic State ebbed and flowed in terms of power and control of territory. In December 2024, a militant group named Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), formerly affiliated with al-Qaeda, began storming through Syria, capturing major cities. Further destabilizing an already weak Assad regime could help breathe new life into a range of violent non-state actors in Syria, including the Islamic State.

IS Sources of Revenue

IS is the richest and most powerful terrorist organization in history. Its financing strategy is based on controlling the territory it conquers to control and exploit the natural resources therein.

This makes IS financially self-sufficient and economically diverse. The financial difference between IS and other terrorist movements can be reduced to self-sufficiency versus dependency. IS also used the money it raised to spend internally and build up its proto-state.

The loss of territory, aging equipment, lack of technical expertise, inability to get replacement parts, airstrikes, advancement on the ground by a coalition of forces led by the United States, and the flight of millions of people from Iraq and Syria caused IS’s income to drop about $500 million between 2014 and 2015, to around $2.5 billion.

Motivation-Based Typologies

Motivation-based typologies are the most numerous of terrorism typologies. The types of terrorism identified in motivation-based typologies vary from one such typology to another.

State-Involved Terrorism

State-involved terrorism occurs when a national government supports, fosters, or commits acts of terrorism. State-involved terrorism has four components: (1) State terrorism (2) State-enabled terrorism (3) State-sponsored terrorism and (4) State-perpetrated/international terrorism.

State Terrorism

State terrorism is terrorism committed by a national government, inside its national borders and directed at its own people and sometimes visitors. This action contravenes a state’s moral and legal duty to protect its citizens. The purpose of state terrorism is to repress and instill fear in citizens and sometimes visitors to consolidate the ruling regime’s power and to maintain control over the country’s civilian population. Genocide, the systematic killing of all or part of a racial, ethnic, religious, or national group within a specific country or area, is often linked to totalitarian regimes.

Some terrorism experts do not regard state terrorism as terrorism, preferring instead to label it as some form of political violence or as criminal acts such as genocide or murder. Others think that because the state has a legitimate monopoly on the use of force, such violence cannot be terrorism even if it is directed at its own citizens. The three most widely known names in state terrorism are Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin, and Mao Tse-Tung.

State-Enabled Terrorism

State-enabled terrorism occurs when a state doesn’t provide direct support to a terrorist group so long as the group conducts no operations against the state or its citizens. The state (1) passively allows its own non-governmental entities and individual supporters to assist the group; (2) implicitly condones the existence of the terrorist group by not conducting operations against it; and/or (3) fosters a safe haven for a terrorist group because it cannot govern its own territory, as in the case of a failed state. Somalia was the most extreme example of a failed state a collapsed state.

State-Sponsored Terrorism

State-sponsored terrorism is a relatively recent development. Historically, terrorism has occurred between a state and a group of people or an organization; however, in the second half of the twentieth century, state-sponsored terrorism grew as states used terrorist individuals and organizations as their proxies in international affairs. As of 2024, the U.S. Department of State (USDOS) lists only four state sponsors of terrorism: Cuba, Iran, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, and Syria

Factors in State-Sponsored Terrorism

There are different ways of thinking about state-sponsored terrorism, such as (1) the amount of control a sponsor is actually able to exert over a proxy; (2) the amount and kinds of support (e.g., substantial amounts of arms and ammunition); (3) the frequency of such support (e.g., only infrequent sharing of low-level intelligence on anticipated movement of vessels in the region); and (4) the degree of openness with which it assists terrorist organizations.

State sponsors of terrorism generally prefer to act covertly, without other nations being aware of their actions. Doing so offers a number of advantages: (1) the use of terror groups as proxies offers an attractive alternative to open, all-out warfare because the state’s homeland and conventional forces are not placed at risk; (2) compared to conventional warfare, it is a low-cost alternative that may have a high impact, such as destabilizing a rival regime or affecting voting outcomes; (3) if the connection to the sponsoring state is discovered, the terrorist attack(s) may not lead to open war (e.g., the attacked state may not be able to stand toe-to-toe with the conventional military forces of the sponsoring nation; it may seek sanctions supported by the international community; or it may simply wait for a more opportune time to seek its revenge, such as waiting until the terrorist-sponsoring state is waging war with some other state and is therefore weakened); and (4) by acting clandestinely, sponsoring states have plausible deniability.

Has the United States Sponsored Terrorism?

Periodically, the United States has been accused of being a state sponsor of terror. A common, yet relatively isolated, example is American support for the Contras in Nicaragua in the 1970s.

In the mid-1980s, the United States secretly and illegally arranged the sale of military arms to Iran in return for its help in freeing American hostages held in Lebanon by various factions of Iran’s proxy, Hezbollah. The profits from these sales were clandestinely used to support the Contras, in contravention of Congressional legislative actions that forbade such assistance. Ultimately, America’s clandestine practices were discovered, and the resulting “Iran–Contra Affair” brought then-President Reagan’s administration under major scrutiny from Congress.

State-Perpetrated/International Terrorism

State-perpetrated/state international terrorism occurs when governments that lack the economic

or military resources necessary to achieve their policy objectives use their own internal security forces to commit acts of terrorism on foreign soil to further their agenda or a country with resources chooses to do so using its own operatives.

State-perpetrated terrorism has been used to spy on, harass, and assassinate a state’s vocal dissidents and opposition leaders living abroad. State-perpetrated terrorist acts also include planting bombs on airplanes and at popular spots, such as foreign discotheques and hotels, frequented by exiles or civilians from enemy states. One example is the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.

Single-Issue or Special-Issue Threats and Extremism

A homegrown violent extremists (HVE) is a person who encourages, endorses, condones, justifies, or supports the commission of a violent criminal act to achieve political ideology, religious, social, or economic goals by a citizen or long-term resident of a Western country who has rejected Western cultural values, beliefs, and norms and is influenced by a foreign terrorist organization (FTO). HVEs are not to be confused with single-issue/special-issue interest extremists, who may be charged with violations of state or federal laws or as domestic terrorists. A key distinction between HVEs and all domestic terrorists is that the influence of an FTO is absent in the latter

Single-issue/special-issue extremists may (1) be members of groups or movements with extreme views; (2) be loosely affiliated with extreme causes; (3) never have contact with extreme causes but have an affinity for their ideology; or (4) have their own unique ideology, such as “hacktivists” who use the Internet to attack hate sites, damage them, and release personal information about members.

Single-issue/special-issue attacks are the most common form of violent political extremism in the United States and most of the industrialized nations of the world. Examples of extremist singleissue/special-issue groups include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), anti-genetically modified organisms groups, anti-technologists, and antiabortionists.

The Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF)

Although the number of perpetrators in attacks is unknown, ALF and ELF and/or sympathizers committed 2,000 attacks over a 29-year period, causing $110 million in damages.

Anti-Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) Groups

GMO extremist groups appeared in the 1980s in Germany in reaction to large-scale research on genetically altered agricultural plants, such as wheat and potatoes, that were resistant to diseases and provided a higher yield per acre.

Anti-Technologists

Theodore Kaczynski, a Ph.D. mathematician, became notorious as the Unabomber until his identity was established. An anti-technologist, he anonymously sent 16 bombs through the mail

that exploded when opened during 1978–1995. Three people were killed and dozens were injured.

Abortion-Related Violence

In Roe v. Wade (1973), the U.S. Supreme Court held that abortions were legal, which fueled the anti-abortion movement. The anti-abortion movement fully emerged in the early 1980s, peaked around 1984, and substantially disappeared until another spike in 1996. Since then, anti-abortion attacks have trended down but have never disappeared. The Army of God is an underground Christian terrorist organization that produced a manual on how to attack clinics, including the use of bombs. Attacks attributed to the Army of God have virtually disappeared since 1998.

Those in favor of abortion rights can also do the same, even historically, the most violence has been perpetrated by individuals and groups opposed to abortion. However, after the May 2022 leak of the so-called “Dobbs decision,” wherein the U.S. Supreme Court draft opinion overturned the 1973 Roe v. Wade decision, a militant pro-abortion rights group named Jane’s Revenge emerged and committed acts of vandalism and fire-bombings of anti-abortion offices and clinics.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

A better understanding of the philosophical and ideological goals and the meteoric rise of a worldwide caliphate presented by the Islamic State marks an interesting new section in Chapter 7.

• New discussion of the assassination of former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in mid2022. • New discussion of Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP) attacks in Iran and Russia in 2024, as well as foiled plots in Europe. • New material on anti-government and anti-authority violent extremists (AGAAVE). • New material on the role of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) in a post-Assad regime environment in Syria. • New material on the use of transnational repression (TNR) by states. • New examples of ungoverned spaces. • New material on abortion-related violent extremists after the Dobbs decision in mid-2022.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Have students work in groups. Have the students come up with a definition of terrorism in their own words. Have them research the events listed below and categorize them into those they feel are terrorist acts and those that aren’t. As you go through them, ask other groups if they came up with the same categories. The discussions can help students gain a deeper understanding of the main points of terrorist acts.

Columbine High School killings, 1999

Bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, 1997

Bombing at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Montgomery, AL, 1963

The activities of the Unabomber, 1975–1995

Rocket attacks on southern Israel by Hamas, 2008–2009

Activities of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction

The assassination of U.S. President William McKinley, 1901

The Boston Tea Party, 1773

Bombing of abortion clinics, 1980 to present

Attack on the USS Cole, 1993

John Brown’s Raid on the U.S. Armory in Harper’s Ferry, VA, 1859

Attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, 2001

Hijacking of the Achille Lauro luxury liner by a Palestinian armed group, 1985

Killing of Israeli Olympic athletes by the Black September group, 1968 (https://sites.google.com/site/the4actioninitiative)

Critical thinking exercises

1. The Holocaust and Genocide. Visit the homepage of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Learn about the Holocaust under Adolf Hitler and listen to the survivors and victims of this horrific event. Search the latest news and discover that genocide, sadly, continues today in several countries throughout the world. How do you think genocide impacts the development of a country? Can a government ever overcome the history of genocide? Research and discuss as a class some of the more contemporary genocides observed in countries such as Sudan, Rwanda, and Bosnia. Has the World Court been successful in preventing such tragedies through the prosecution of war crimes? Why not? Now, compare these contemporary genocides with the loss of Aboriginal people in Australia and Native Americans in the United States during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Do you think genocide only occurs in developing nations? What can be done to prevent these types of horrific events?

A: Answers will vary.

2. Greenpeace and PETA. Search the web for articles on Greenpeace. Notice how many depict the organization as a group of radical environmentalists who may use violence and dangerous interventions to stop whaling and pollution in the world’s oceans. What motivates some entities to characterize Greenpeace in this manner? How does Greenpeace differ from the groups discussed in the chapter that are commonly referred to as “ecoterrorists,” such as the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF)? Now, visit the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) website. What is PETA’s position on the Animal Liberation Front? Are Greenpeace and PETA alike, or do they differ? How?

A: Answers will vary.

Chapter 8 Typologies of Terrorism: The

Right and Left Wings and Separatist or Nationalist Movements

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

A large portion of this chapter covers right-wing groups, which envision having a homogeneous “racially pure” country. All right-wing groups have in common “enemies” such as the “Zionist Occupied Government” (ZOG); undocumented immigrants; people of color; and lesbians, gay, bisexual, transgender people, and those questioning their sexual identity (LGBTQ+). Having a group to oppose promotes in-group solidarity, which helps to perpetuate the existence of rightwing movements (e.g., Hitler used the Jews for this purpose, and the English Defence League targets Muslims). Right-wing movements in America include the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazis, and the anti-federalist/Christian Patriot groups.

Left-wing groups identified globally in the chapter include Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in Peru; the Red Army Faction (RAF) that operated mainly in Germany, but also in France, Switzerland, and the Netherlands; the Red Brigades in Italy; Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC); the Seung Fein in China; and the Weather Underground in the United States. The left wing historically has been unsuccessful in achieving its goal: replacing existing governments with ones that are based on Marxist–Leninist principles.

Separatist/nationalist movements are typically subnational groups that want a homeland. The groups often share a common culture, language, and history. Examples include the Kurdistan Workers Party, the Tamil Tigers, the Eritrean Liberation Front, and the Second Vermont Republic. Ireland’s drive to become an independent country is discussed, as are the similarities between the Anglo-Irish War and the American Revolution.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 8.1 State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

• 8.2 Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

• 8.3 Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

• 8.4 Define NLO and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

This chapter represents the balance of the typologies of terrorism identified by leading scholars. This includes groups that are broadly associated with left-wing and right-wing political movements as well as separatist or national movements.

The Right Wing in the United States

Right-wing movements and politics are by nature conservative. However, as used here, “right wing” denotes individuals and groups whose views exceed being merely conservative. They are sometimes characterized as the “far right,” “extremist right,” or “radical right.” This right wing potentially poses a serious threat, both here and abroad. Movements within the American right wing have different ideas about the “enemies” and ideas they oppose. The American right wing can collectively be referred to as hate groups.

Recruits have been flocking to right-wing movements roughly since 2000. The strong gun control measures taken by President Clinton’s administration moved some people to join rightwing groups, and the 9/11 attacks did likewise, as conspiracy theories quickly sprang up. Additionally, right-wing groups grew after the election of Barack Obama, a Black man, as president.

The far right was also alarmed by media disclosures about the breadth of data collection by the National Security Agency (NSA) and renewed efforts for gun control. Nonetheless, during 2013–2014, the number of American right-wing groups substantially declined, largely because of enforcement efforts directed at anti-government “Patriot” movements, an improving economy, and the failure of some nightmarish right-wing predictions to materialize; followers fell away

The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) asserted that some of the rhetoric of Trump’s campaign may have energized the far right and contributed to a resurgence in the number of hate groups. These numbers have continued to climb in recent years, according to reporting by USA Today in mid-2024. There were 733 hate and anti-government extremist groups in the United States in 2021, and in 2023, that number had spiked again to 1,430 groups motivated by hate and anti-government extremism.1

The International Right Wing

Europe has a number of right-wing political parties that have aggressive environmental and/or anti-immigration platforms. Examples of these parties include the National Front Party (France), Freedom Party (Austria), and the National Democratic Party (NDP, Germany). As in other European countries, the unwillingness of immigrant Muslims in Italy to be assimilated is causing significant social strain. The fact that the Northern League and other right-wing parties have enjoyed moderate success at the polls reflects sentiments loose among the populations of their respective nations.

Although denying any aspiration to become a political party, the English Defence League (EDL) represents a growing phenomenon in Europe: groups that are not simply right-wing, antiMuslim, or overtly racist, but xenophobic and profoundly hostile toward immigration.

Issues in Defining the Right Wing

The difficulties in defining terrorism also apply to defining the “right wing.” Terminological chaos and the absence of a clear conceptual framework also hinder our understanding of rightwing terrorism. Consider the array of terms used: right wing, the far right, extreme right, radical right, and right-wing populist. Geography and religion also affect what constitutes right-wing extremism. In Europe, there frequently isn’t a religious component to right-wing extremism, but in Israel and the United States there is often one.

Right-Wing Attacks and Ideology in America

Right-wing attacks in America have risen. Annual attacks by far-right individuals and groups averaged 70.1 during the 1990s, but during 2000–2011 that figure rose to 307.5, an increase of more than 400 percent. Right-wing extremists have caused terrible harm to the United States.

Since 2016, there have continued to be a number of high-profile far-right extremist terror attacks on U.S. soil. According to the Global Terrorism Database (GTD), between 1994 and 2019, there were 918 terrorist attacks perpetrated in the United States. Most (400) were motivated by farright ideology

At its core, American right-wing ideology envisions having a homeland population that is homogeneous with respect to ethnicity, language, culture, and beliefs, as well as a systematic rejection of all those who are different. Nativism also rejects those in the homeland who support immigrants, their different ways, and nontraditional ways of looking at the world. Nativism incorporates xenophobia, which involves an irrational fear, hatred, and hostility toward people who are “different,” including not only immigrants but also those with different lifestyles, sexual orientations, gender identities, and “strange” ideas; racism rests on the same dynamics but is rooted in a narrower race-based hatred, driven by the belief that “we” are naturally superior to “them.”

The Three Major Ideological Right-Wing Movements in the United States

Perliger identifies three major ideological right-wing movements in the United States: (1) the Racist/White Supremacy Movement, (2) the Anti-Federalist Movement, and (3) the Christian Identity movement. Their ideological orientations affect the targets they select, the tactics used, and the operations conducted.

The Racist/White Supremacy Movement

Racism essentially birthed the wider white supremacy movement with its volatile mixture of nativism, xenophobia, anti-immigration, homophobic, Christianity, and anti-Semitic components. As a society, the United States does not have “clean hands” when it comes to racism/white supremacy. Although not to the same degree as African Americans, other ethnic groups have also suffered. Irish and Chinese immigrants, as well as Latine and Hispanic people, have been or are targets.

Racist Ideologies During World War II

The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, led the American government to fear an imminent West Coast invasion by Japanese military forces. In 1942, the United States placed 120,000 mainland ethnic Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were native United States citizens, behind barbed wire in ten guarded Japanese American internment camps located in Western states and Arkansas as a “national security measure ” The Army discharged all Japanese American citizens from its Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) program and changed their draft status to 4-C, “enemy alien.” In 1988, Congress recognized this injustice and paid survivors reparations.

The German American Bund (GAB), a pro-Nazi organization, sprang up in this country in the 1930s to proclaim the virtues of Hitler and the Third Reich and to encourage America to remain neutral in the approaching European war

During World War II, racist violence against Chicanos erupted. Zoot suit fashion originated in the Black American jazz movement and became popular in Chicano culture.

Post-9/11 Anti-Islamic Attacks

In the wake of 9/11, anti-Islamic attacks in America skyrocketed from 28 in 2000 to 481 in 2001. In 2015, there were 307 religious-based hate crimes committed against Muslims. Ten years after 9/11, the number of anti-Islamic attacks had fallen to 157, or 12.7 percent of all hate crime that is religion-based; the anti-Jewish figure was 62.5 percent of the total.

Black Americans continue to suffer disproportionately from reported race-based hate crimes, constituting about 71.1 percent of all reported incidents, while Latines represent 56.2 percent of all reported ethnicity/national origin hate crimes. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) persons accounted for 20.8 percent of all reported single-bias incidents.

Following the brutal Hamas-perpetrated terrorist attacks of October 7, 2023, there was a spillover of the conflict globally, with a massive spike in hate crimes against Jews and Muslims.

The Development of the Ku Klux Klan

Originally a Southern phenomenon, the first KKK was substantially eroded and became a marginal movement no later than 1900. In 1915, a second, revitalized KKK appeared that was prominent into the 1930s; its membership extended into regions outside of the South and, at its height, it had 5,000,000 members.

The “second” KKK pursued a national agenda that was virulently anti-immigration, antiCatholicism, anti-Semitic, and anti-African American, while at the same time being pro-family, pro-protestant, pro-prohibition, and pro-American white nation. These themes resonated across class lines, causing the regular KKK membership rolls to bulge.

The resurrection of the “third” Klan was inhibited by many states passing anti-Klan laws and by the passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964. Beginning in the 1970s and continuing into

the 1980s, the Klan toned down its racial rhetoric and reframed its messages in a neoconservatism shift: The idea that Jews were at the heart of a conspiracy to destroy America.

The KKK has been fragmented for some time; there are at least 40 different Klan groups of various sizes with perhaps 100 local Klaverns or chapters between them. Until recently, there was only an estimated total membership of 5,000. As an indication of its impotence, at a 1999 protest in downtown New York, the Klan could muster only 16 members in the face of 8,000 New Yorkers who came out to counter demonstrate.

The Rise of the Neo-Nazism in America

“Neo-Nazi groups share a hatred for Jews and a love for Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany. While they also hate other minorities, gays and lesbians and even sometimes Christians, they perceive ‘the Jew’ as their cardinal enemy, and trace social problems to a Jewish conspiracy that supposedly controls governments, financial institutions and the media.” There is not one neoNazi organization; there are many. Estimates vary, but there may be as many as 200 neo-Nazi groups in the United States, many of which share agendas.

The goal of George Lincoln Rockwell (1918–1967) was to use his American Nazi Party (ANP) to become president of the United States in 1972 and then “exterminate all treasonous Jews, banish all American Negroes to Africa, and amend the Constitution to suit the Nazi party.” ANP was rebadged as the National Socialist White People’s Party (NSWPP) and Dr. William Luther Pierce (1933–2002), a former physics professor at Oregon State University, became one of its principal leaders. Beginning in 1974, Pierce headed the neo-Nazi National Alliance (NA)100 and it was there that he became the leading figure of the racist/white supremacy movement for nearly 30 years.

Writing under the name of Andrew MacDonald, Pierce wrote two influential racist/white supremacy novels, The Turner Diaries (1978) and Hunter (1984). The former depicts an Aryan revolution in America that spreads globally, includes nuclear attacks, and results in the elimination of all “impure races.”

In 1974, two members of the ANP left it and formed the National Socialist American Workers Freedom Movement, which became the previously mentioned National Socialist Movement (NSM) 20 years later.107 Ideologically, the NSM mirrors that of the original American Nazi Party. Starting in 2004, the NSM began to overshadow all other American neo-Nazi groups

The Aryan Nations

Organized in 1977, the Aryan Nations is a white supremacy group that, to some degree, operated as an umbrella organization. Although there are a number of organizations that use “Aryan” in their title, it should be automatically assumed they are connected with the all-but-defunct Aryan Nations or the prison gang, Aryan Brotherhood. The original is badly splintered, lost members to better-organized movements, and is having difficulty reconstituting even a shadow of itself.

The Emergence of the Hammerskin Nation

The Hammerskin Nation (HN), founded in Dallas, Texas, in 1988, is the most violent, best organized neo-Nazi skinhead group in the United States. Although primarily an American movement, HN has chapters in Canada, England, France, Germany, and several other countries.

There are also groups that don’t fit neatly into a violent racist/white supremacy mold. NeoConfederates represent a revival of pro-Confederate sentiments, and they advocate traditional gender roles, display hostility toward democracy, are opposed to homosexuality, favor segregation, and sometimes are openly secessionist from the United States.

The Anti-Federalist Movement

The anti-federalist movement has many variations. Some individuals live the movement’s tenets without formally joining any organization. The anti-federalist movement grew out of the Posse Comitatus and Sovereign Citizen movements that began during the 1970s and 1980s, which were anti-government and anti-tax. Many were also racist and anti-Semitic as well.

Anti-Federalist Ideology

The anti-federalists’ ideology is based on the idea that there is an urgent necessity to undermine the influence, legitimacy, and practical sovereignty of the federal government and its proxies. In this view, America has been hijacked by external forces determined to make it part of a New World Order in which the United States would be embedded in the United Nations or a global government and policed by foreign peacekeeping forces.

The Oklahoma City Bombing

The deadliest terrorist attack in this country until 9/11 was carried out by Timothy McVeigh and his accomplices at the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995. McVeigh was stopped and arrested by an Oklahoma Highway Patrol Trooper on unrelated minor charges; among his possessions was a portion of The Turner Diaries, he was later executed for the crime.

The Christian Identity Movement

British Zionism ideology achieved a degree of prominence in eighteenth century England; ethnic Western Europeans, especially the Anglo-Saxons of Great Britain, believed they were the progeny of the ten lost tribes of Israel who had migrated to the British Isles.

The Christian Identity movement expresses a strong belief that is wrong to mix races and that interracial marriage is a sin. Further, they believe that Jews are the natural enemies of the white Christian and Aryan race, and that racial treason is the greatest of all sins or crime. The movement is also homophobic and openly advocates against gay rights and homosexuality, arguing that it is an “abomination before God” and should be punished by death. The tenets of the Christian Patriot movement have been openly expressed by neo-Nazis, Skin heads, and other far-right groups that have used violence to emphasis their hatred and bigotry.

The Left-Wing Movement

The traditional objective of left-wing terrorism is to overthrow the economic, political, and social structure of a society and replace it with one developed on Marxist-Leninist principles. In the United States, the left wing originally sprang from labor/working class movements seeking to eliminate class distinctions.

• Movie Note: “The Black Power Mixtape” (2011) provides a fascinating glimpse into the Black Panther movement between 1967 and 1975. Show the movie in class to discuss how the accepted mainstream narrative of the Civil Rights movement highlights the Black Panthers’ divergent ideology.

The Left-Wing Movement Today

In the late 1990s, much of the left-wing movement shifted focus to an anti-capitalist and antiglobalist position. Much of their unrest targeted the ultra-rich, multinational corporations, and trade organizations. Many of the causes on the left are centered on the perceived injustice toward individuals in America. The Black Blocs have conducted numerous acts of vandalism and arson, and their flyers continue to reflect extreme violence against the police. The Anarchist Left continues to be very active in the United States.

Will There Be a “New” Left That Emerges from October 7?

Months after the brutal Hamas terrorist attacks in southern Israel on October 7, 2023, the reverberations finally reached the United States. Across the country although most prominent on Ivy League campuses student protests and demonstrations proliferated and were primarily dominated by pro-Palestinian chants and slogans.

Separatist or Nationalist Movements

Ideally, a nation is a group that shares a common ideology, common institutions and customs, and a sense of homogeneity. The people of a nation have a strong group sense of belonging together. In reality, many nations are not so homogeneous; instead, they reflect some diversity in the characteristics of their population. Episodically, some sub-national groups express a desire for their own national identity. They may seek home rule, in which they can have their own customs, law, and institutions, but remain united with the larger nation in which they are located. Alternatively, they may want to establish their own state. A very early step in doing so is the formation of a national liberation organization (NLO), some of which resort to terrorism. Examples of NLOs include (1) the Eritrean Liberation Front (ETA) in Spain; (2) the Tamil Tigers; (3) the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK); and (4) the Liberation Front of Quebec.

Case study: Ireland

Ireland, roughly the size of Maine, looms large in the history of the United States. Although there were earlier Irish immigrations, the Potato Famine of 1845–1851 triggered horrific

consequences. During this period, one million Irish starved to death and another million immigrated to America. Together, these two events reduced the population of Ireland by some 25 percent. The Irish were the first great wave of unskilled immigrants to the United States.

Although the Protestant majority in Northern Ireland was content to remain part of the United Kingdom, the “Southern” Irish had national aspirations.

There has been continued violence in Northern Ireland as Irish Catholics seek reunion with the Republic of Ireland and are countered by British military forces, the Ulster Defense League, and other groups. From Northern Ireland, the new IRA has made attacks on the English mainland. Illustratively, in 1974, it set off a bomb at the British Parliament. Although some Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland wish to reunite with the Republic of Ireland in the South, there is only tepid support for that in the Republic of Ireland. The major objection is that many people in Northern Ireland are on social welfare and there is little sentiment to take on that huge cost.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

New material on the emergence of the Hammerskin Nation; the rise of the neo-Nazi movement in the United States; and a discussion of new incidents involving sovereign citizen groups, and a new right-wing alliance is reflected in Chapter 8.

• Updated statistical data throughout the chapter. • New material on far-right attacks, including those in Pittsburgh, PA, El Paso, TX, and Buffalo, NY. • New material on the Hamas terrorist attacks of October 7, 2023, and the subsequent spike in hate crimes. • New subsection entitled “Will There Be a ‘New’ Left?” that explains left-wing support for Palestinian terrorism, which is different from support for the Palestinian movement for a state.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Select one of the over 300 videos about terrorism from the PBS NewsHour website that coincides with this chapter. Assign students to watch the video and then follow up with a question game. Prepare for the game by creating about thirty multiple-choice questions from the video. Divide the class into two groups. You can also add extra-credit features or add a 50/50 option for fewer points.

Activity 2: In his speech to the nation on the evening of September 11, President Bush implied that the United States would pursue retaliation not just against terrorist groups themselves but also against nations suspected of harboring or helping terrorists. Discuss with the students what they think of this policy. For example, what might happen if the United States were to launch air strikes against another country because it suspects the country is harboring a terrorist who is believed to have masterminded a terrorist attack against the United States? What are some likely consequences?

Critical thinking exercises

1. Hate on the World Wide Web. Visit the website of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) and learn about hate in America. Study some of the available Intelligence Reports online and note the high number of active hate groups in the United States. Should you be a partner sharing the mission of the SPLC in fighting hate and seeking justice? Think of your community; are there any visible signs of hate or intolerance where you live?

A: Answers will vary.

2. Does the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution confer unbridled free speech? It forbids Congress to pass laws that would abridge freedom of speech. Are there limits? If so, what are they, and how are they applied? We not only give licenses for parades and meetings where people representing hatred advance vile arguments, but we also assign our police to protect the very people whose ideas are repugnant to us. Free speech is a cherished freedom. To have it, must we also suffer things we abhor or that endanger us? This exercise requires you to execute two major tasks: (1) Do some basic research so you know about any exceptions to freedom of speech. (2) Also, make sure you understand the difference between the surface web and the deep web, including its small portion called the dark web. Visit the Anti-Defamation League at https://adl.org/news/op-ed/google-must-do-more-to-pull-the-plug-on-online-hate. This is an article by Brittan Heller, “Google Must Do More to Pull the Plug on Online Hate” (2017). The issue for discussion is: To what extent does our constitutional right to freedom of speech also serve as an enabler for terrorists to recruit, solicit donations, control cells, and give commands to carry out terrorist acts? Does our freedom of speech give terrorists free rein to do whatever they like on any portion of the web? How do we curb what imperils us while remaining consistent with freedom of speech?

A: Answers will vary.

Chapter 9 Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 9 focuses on transnational organized crime and terrorism, as well as the linkages between them. The chapter begins with an overview of a litany of enabling factors that will boost transnational organized crime and provide these groups with new opportunities. These include globalization, technology, and other emerging issue areas.

The chapter then pivots to focus on transnational organized criminal groups, such as the Japanese Yakuza, Chinese Triads, and the ’Ndrangheta in Italy. The remainder of the chapter is dedicated to a deep-dive case study of the Islamic State (IS), a terrorist group that engaged in numerous criminal activities. The crime–terror nexus is one area of intense focus in Chapter 9, before a conclusion that looks at other important variables, particularly in a European case, as well as how prisons serve as incubators for radicalization, transforming criminals into terrorists.

CHAPTER

OBJECTIVES

•

• 9.1 Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

• 9.2 Understand how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

• 9.3 Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

• 9.4 Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

• 9.5 Explain what the crime-terror nexus is.

• 9.6 Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime-terror nexus.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Transnational organized crime is focused on profits, while terrorism, at its core, is about ideology and politics. There have been some examples over the years of criminal groups resorting to terrorist tactics. There are also many examples of terrorist groups relying on criminal activities to fund their organizations. Some scholars argue that the nexus is a misnomer and that cooperation between terrorists and criminals is more due to a temporary marriage of convenience or the result of a one-off collaboration.

Transnational Organized Crime

Transnational organized crime groups are associations of individuals who operate wholly or in part by illegal means. Transnational organized crime is estimated to generate as much as $870 billion per year. Transnational organized crime has been accelerated by the advent of globalization. Some see this phenomenon as slowing down in 2025, with the rise of populist leaders and a backlash against immigration. But, globalization, even if it slows down, will still

move forward, facilitated by the emergence of new technologies.

The July 2011 White House Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime launched more systematic efforts to develop proactive policies to neutralize the threat posed by the proliferation of criminal networks and criminal markets. Transnational criminal organizations are agile and smart, adept at managing risk, and highly effective at identifying and exploiting new criminal opportunities. Transnational organized crime exploits a period of rapid and disruptive change resulting from population growth, urbanization, technological developments, and the ineffective and inadequate governance that characterizes regions as diverse as the Middle East and Central America.

Transnational organized crime is analyzed through means, motive, and opportunity, and by how these factors are influenced by global drivers or megatrends.

Globalization

Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries worldwide, driven by the flow of goods, services, capital, people, and information across borders. It’s a complex process that involves economic, social, and cultural integration, leading to a more connected and interdependent global community. National borders have become much more permeable, power and authority more dispersed, and disorder far more pervasive. Globalization has provided for new opportunities and fostered conditions for transnational organized crime.

The Rise of Anti-Globalism

The resurgence of the strong state in at least some parts of the world would have paradoxical consequences for transnational organized crime. On the one hand, it would make smuggling and trafficking more difficult; on the other, because of the increased risks, it would likely also lead to higher prices and perhaps even higher profits. Even if anti-globalism becomes a more powerful impulse, therefore, it is not self-evident that its impact on transnational organized crime will be uniformly negative.

Climate Change

As a driver, climate change is decidedly more negative for the state than it is for transnational organized crime, not least because opportunities exist for criminals to provide alternative forms of governance, supply critical resources, and potentially exploit natural disasters by offering humanitarian assistance and disaster relief to vulnerable and desperate populations as a way of earning a profit and simultaneously discrediting the host-nation government.

Wildlife trafficking, forestry, and other environmental crimes are already big business. “Climate refugees” could provide new opportunities for criminal groups focused on human smuggling operations

Migration and Diasporas

National efforts to provide accommodation and assistance to refugees provide new opportunities for corruption and the diversion of funds. This has been particularly pronounced in Italy. Another result of migration is the emergence of transnational ethnic networks or diaspora communities, defined broadly as collections of migrants who recognize their separateness based on common ethnicity and nationality, and live in various host countries while maintaining a cultural or political attachment to their home country. And although migrant communities are, by and large, eager to start anew in their adopted country, some migrants are members of criminal organizations who bring with them their criminal skills and knowledge, and their criminal affiliations and contacts.

Urbanization

Urbanization is the process where an increasing percentage of a population lives in urban areas, like cities and towns. It involves the growth of cities, both in population and physical size, as people move from rural areas. This shift leads to changes in land use, infrastructure, and the overall character of a region, and it’s a global trend with significant social, economic, and environmental consequences.

Smart cities, in particular, are likely to be orderly and efficient; yet, in certain respects, they are also likely to be dreams come true for cybercriminals, offering an enormous set of lucrative commercial and financial targets for fraud, as well as targets vulnerable to ransomware attacks.

Feral cities provide potential safe havens for extremists but might be too disorderly to be entirely comfortable as operating spaces for transnational organized crime, not least because they create Petri dish environments for local mafias and local organized crime, creating crowded and competitive environments.

Technology

Technology can also provide important multiplier and risk management benefits for criminal organizations. Information and communications technologies have, in effect, made both domestic and transnational crime easier and safer for criminals. They have also given them advanced management capabilities. These technologies also allow criminal networks to communicate globally with high efficiency, low cost, and low risk.

Anonymous remailers, strong encryption systems, and the advent of cheap, disposable cell phones have complicated the tasks of law enforcement. Bitcoin and other virtual currencies pose enormous challenges for states seeking to prevent or constrain money laundering. At the same time that criminals use denial and deception activities against states, they aggressively seek access to legitimate information that can be used for fraud or blackmail. It is likely that the next decade will witness a significant change in the drug industry away from botanical-based drugs and toward synthetics. In the United States, there has already been an increase in the use of synthetics

Conflicts and Their Aftermath

Conflicts create such enormous opportunities for war profiteering that they encourage transnational organized crime involvement. Indeed, arms trafficking, drug trafficking, kidnapping, resource theft and exploitation, and human smuggling and trafficking have all become accompaniments to contemporary conflicts. Criminal groups in conflict zones may also form valuable, if opportunistic, relationships with terrorist or guerrilla groups, thereby increasing their strength and obtaining access to additional resources, including arms, money, technology, and sometimes protection. In addition, there are numerous opportunities for illicit profit by supplying critical resources to either the state or the rebels. Nor do the opportunities disappear when the conflicts end. In all too many cases, war is replaced by a “criminalized peace. ”

The Global Crisis of Governance

Crisis of governance creates spaces of impunity, provides safe havens, and enlarges the transnational operational and cross-border space within which criminal organizations can move freely and easily. In addition, poorly governed spaces are generally highly permissive, allowing organized crime to innovate and diversify.

Where the state controls transnational organized crime, it can be used as an instrument for expanding influence, undermining stability, creating insecurity, and promoting a geopolitical agenda. In return, criminal organizations can expect a sanctuary within the country, continued opportunities for financial gain elsewhere, and access to state support that can help criminal organizations mitigate risks and costs where they are exposed.

Japanese Yakuza

The Yakuza is a transnational organized crime group with long roots in Japan. The Yakuza evolved, morphing into a hierarchical, family-like syndicate where members are expected to follow strict codes of both loyalty and obedience. It is not uncommon for Yakuza organizations to feature an “oyabun-kobun” relationship, which is equivalent to the relationship or dynamic between a boss and their subordinate. There are several major Yakuza groups that comprise the organization’s broader network.

Chinese Triads

The Chinese Triads are an organized crime syndicate with historical roots in China but extending to other countries and territories overseas. These include Macau, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, as well as the global Chinese diaspora. The Triads engage in a range of illegal activities, including money laundering, human trafficking, narcotics smuggling, extortion and protection payments, illegal gambling, and counterfeiting, to name just a few. The Triads are not hierarchically organized, like some mafia groups, and instead function as a collection of loosely interconnected networks. The Triads remain active globally

Camorra

The Camorra is one of the most enduring transnational organized crime groups still in operation and based in Naples, Italy. The group got its start as a prison gang, which is not an uncommon

path for transnational organized crime groups, and expanded from there, engaging in extortion and numerous other illegal activities throughout Italy. The Camorra’s transnational organized crime portfolio is diverse, including human trafficking, illicit sex work, and slave labor.

’Ndrangheta

The ’Ndrangheta has grown into an organization so influential yet still draped in the shadows that it has made it the feature of several recent Hollywood movies. The organization is highly secretive, based in Calabria in southern Italy. The organizational structure of the ’Ndrangheta is a network of family clans, tight-knit and loyal, and not a large, centralized organization. They work closely with Mexican and Colombian traffickers. With a truly global presence, the ’Ndrangheta operates in dozens of countries. The ’Ndrangheta remains one of the wealthiest and most influential criminal groups in the world, and by most metrics, it has surpassed the Sicilian Mafia in terms of its reach.

Sicilian Mafia

The Sicilian Mafia (Cosa Nostra) is one of the most powerful and infamously organized crime groups in the world. Originating in Sicily, Italy, it has expanded its operations internationally. By the twentieth century, the Sicilian Mafia extended its reach into extortion, narcotics smuggling and trafficking, and bribery and corruption.

The crime–terror nexus refers to the overlapping activities and relationships between criminal organizations and terrorist groups. This nexus involves both cooperation and convergence, where terrorist and criminal groups may engage in similar illicit activities, share resources, or even merge into hybrid entities. Understanding this nexus is crucial for effective counterterrorism and crime prevention efforts.

The European Dimensions of the Islamic State’s Crime-Terror Nexus

Over the course of several months in late 2015 and early 2016, Western Europe suffered a series of deadly terrorist attacks perpetrated by members of the so-called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, or IS. The perpetrators were mostly European citizens with criminal histories and an ability to acquire funds illicitly and use their connections to the black market to plan and execute lethal attacks in Paris

Some scholars have argued that IS is more similar to street gangs like the Bloods and Crips than it is to other terrorist groups and uses similar tactics to recruit members and direct them toward violence. The relationship has been mutually beneficial criminal recruits provide IS with valuable skills, while “high-risk, high-intensity Islamist activism seems tailor-made for the needs of criminals and ex-cons,” according to Simon Cottee, who has extensively studied the intersection between jihadists and criminals.

The IS media machine was particularly cognizant of the value of criminal recruits, peppering its propaganda with “gangster jihad.”

The Crime-Terror Nexus: A Look at the Numbers

The debate over the degree of convergence and overlap between terrorism and insurgency on the one hand and transnational organized crime on the other requires additional focus on the local environment petty crime, low-level theft, and small-time drug dealing. What appears to be garden-variety criminality or poor fiscal management could actually be deliberate attempts to finance soft-target attacks in the West

A report published by the International Center for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR) indicates that up to 40 percent of terrorist plots in Europe are at least partfinanced by petty crime Investigators should place greater emphasis on investigating the nexus between terrorism and organized crime. Drugs also play an important role in the European crime–terror nexus.

An Emerging Profile: Jihadi “Cool” and the Crime-Terror Nexus in Europe

According to Rik Coolsaet, “joining ISIS is merely a shift to another form of deviant behavior, next to membership of street gangs, rioting, drug trafficking, and juvenile delinquency.”

Financing Through “Do It Yourself” (DIY) Organized Crime

The Islamic State’s involvement in criminal activities spans the spectrum from tactical to strategic. At the tactical end, as discussed above, IS deliberately recruits European citizens with criminal backgrounds and harnesses their skills to enhance the group’s operations. But beyond the tactical level, IS exemplifies this manifestation of a crime–terror nexus at the strategic end of the spectrum, too, focusing on financing its organization through a range of criminal activities.

At its peak, IS was considered the wealthiest terror group in modern history, having built an initial war chest of approximately $500 million after looting bank vaults throughout northern Iraq. By 2015, the group’s gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at over $6 billion. Additionally, it has several different revenue streams. These include oil, taxation/extortion, and drug trafficking.

And while it remains unclear how many individuals belonging to the group came from Europe, the group publicly stated that it sent “many operatives” to the continent disguised among the hordes of refugees that streamed into the continent during the Syrian civil war. In France and the United Kingdom alone, the government and security services were monitoring a total of 35,000 suspected extremists at one point

An interesting piece of the nexus here is that IS militants are not just in the business of profiting from drugs but appear to be taking them. Many reports have suggested that terrorists are widely using Captagon, nicknamed “jihad pills,” an amphetamine. Over time and up until the collapse of the Assad regime in December 2024, the government in Damascus had turned the country into a

narco-state and was distributing Captagon throughout the region for profit.

The Strategic Nature of the Islamic State’s Crime-terror Nexus in Europe

Violent non-state actors have sought to amass influence and build movements by capitalizing on ineffectively governed spaces. Over its life cycle, IS has pursued two broad goals through a fluctuating mix of crime and terror: (1) to destabilize powerful foreign actors and deter them from countering IS’s expansion and (2) to generate direct support (in the form of money and recruits) and indirect support (in the form of lack of cooperation with local authorities) by fostering Islamophobia and gaining notoriety as a legitimate representative of Muslim populations throughout the world.

While insurgencies tend to require access to, and at least partial control of, physical spaces, while also eliciting heavy-handed responses from states, criminal networks, on the other hand, manage to operate in the shadows and often wield significant influence over their environments, which is why they can be effective in states with robust government institutions.

In the period between 2017 and 2019, the group faced a sharp decline, losing roughly 98 percent of the territories it once controlled. IS’s decline prompted a shift in its strategic objectives. A 2017 RAND report concluded that “the Islamic State has begun to move from an insurgent group that controls territory to a clandestine terrorist group that conducts attacks against government officials and noncombatants [. . .] In the short and perhaps medium terms, this contraction in territorial control may actually lead to more terrorist attacks across the globe.” As of 2025, with the Assad regime in Syria gone, the group has begun to reinvigorate its ranks and will remain a persistent and stubborn threat for the foreseeable future.

The Distinct Goals of IS Terrorism in Europe and in the Middle East

IS’s state ambitions in the Middle East given its primary objective of establishing a caliphate proved a double-edged sword: the rise from organization to government afforded it a higher level of global influence, visibility, and access to resources, but it also made it a clearer target for enemies on all sides, and the duties of governance constrained its militant operations significantly. Its main period of expansion and consolidation was effectively countered by a progression of U.S.-led coalition airstrikes Other practical factors also evidenced the limits on its expansion: it struggled to grow beyond Sunni-dominated regions; its iron-fisted rule and brutality sowed discord among the communities it controlled perhaps its biggest ideological setback and, surrounded by enemies, it became the main target of Western and regional state powers. The rise of nationalist, xenophobic movements in Europe and the United States, which called for less international cooperation and more inward focus, can be viewed as a victory for IS in this sense.

The Strategic Value of Criminal Networks in Europe

IS seemed to have no qualms about criminals within its ranks and, in fact, deliberately recruited these individuals and ideologically reconciled their involvement in crime with the greater cause of the caliphate. IS successfully harnessed state fragility and governance gaps, both in the Middle

East and in the West, making IS a focal point of attraction for jihadists around the world Despite the significant military defeat, this fact alone was an ideological victory, and that key battle is far from won.

Challenges in Analyzing the Nexus and Associated Policy Dilemmas

Low-level criminality and petty drug dealing are no longer strictly the domain of local law enforcement. This issue is now a critical counterterrorism concern. Determining the extent to which there is a nexus between transnational crime and terrorism is often difficult due not only to the inaccessibility of the actors but also because there is frequently a lack of data to support the correlation. States should seek to develop counter-narratives that discredit the ideological appeal of terrorists and insurgents by emphasizing their linkage to common criminality. The use of undercover officers or informants could prove valuable in identifying a returning foreign fighter.

The Future of the Crime-terror Nexus in Europe

The future of IS could take on several different forms, and its strategic decisions will be contingent on how the conflict in Syria and Iraq plays out. The following are three potential scenarios to consider, along with their implications: A first scenario would be IS going underground it will lose control of what is left of its caliphate and, with it, the status as a leading icon of Salafi jihadism and unparalleled appeal to foreign fighters. A second scenario would be IS’s attempt to entrench itself while it regroups and recovers. The third scenario is one in which IS maintains its resolve to reclaim areas of control by any means necessary.

Prisons as Incubators of IS Recruits in Europe

Prisons stand out as an optimal environment and thus deserve special attention. They became the focal point of IS-linked criminal networks at the outset, and as such they will continue being preferred breeding grounds for a potential resurgence. In certain ways, these criminal enterprises could be more threatening in the long run, because crime with a cause beyond financial gain has more persistent dimensions than crime for financial gain. Long-term solutions to this issue may involve enhancing inmate security and family support and strengthening rehabilitation and reintegration programs rather than pursuing punitive approaches that play into the narrative of extremists. Now that IS’ limits have been laid bare and it has failed to fulfill many of its promises to its supporters, there is a unique opportunity to delegitimize extremism by providing better alternatives. Enhancing governance in “black holes,” creating options for social and economic mobility, and providing social support to vulnerable communities can collectively diminish the practical appeal of extremism and gradually drown out the call of groups such as IS.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Two new boxes discussing the impact of the election of President Donald Trump on the intelligence community and the new potential for cyberterrorism presented by the Islamic State highlight Chapter 9.

• This chapter is completely new and discusses transnational organized crime and terrorism, as well as the differences and similarities between them, and the concept of the crime–terror nexus.

• New material investigates enabling factors that will increase opportunities for transnational organized criminal groups. • New material conducts a deep dive on groups such as the Japanese Yakuza, Chinese Triads, ‘Ndrangheta, and others. • New material thoroughly examines the Islamic State and how it shaped the crime–terror nexus in Europe at the peak of its power.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Break the students into groups and have them brainstorm how they would reduce the radicalization and recruitment of those incarcerated. Groups would then share their ideas with the class.

Activity 2: Have students read Box 9–1 on page 340 and write their opinion of the policy objectives and strategies implemented by the Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime. Is it inclusive? What would they change? What value does it add to counterterrorism efforts? Students can then have a classroom discussion on the topic and present their opinions.

Critical thinking exercises

1. If you were working at the National Intelligence Council as an analyst, how would you rank the various factors and variables that will impact the future of transnational organized crime? What factors would you tell your junior analysts to focus on, above others?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). The following factors should be included in the answers, but the order and the reasoning behind the order will vary. The main factors impacting transnational organized crime are globalization, anti-globalism, climate change, migration and diasporas, urbanization, technological developments, conflict and its aftermath, and the global crisis of governance.

2. How could a red-teaming exercise (where analysts adopt the mindset or perspective of a criminal or terrorist) help contribute to a greater understanding of how terrorists and criminals operate?

A: Answers will vary, but may include aspects of the following sample answer. A red-teaming exercise can significantly enhance understanding of how terrorists and transnational organized crime groups operate by forcing analysts to think from the adversary’s perspective. By adopting the mindset of criminals or terrorists, analysts can better identify vulnerabilities in systems, borders, financial networks, and law enforcement practices that these groups might exploit. This approach helps uncover non-obvious tactics, such as the use of emerging technologies, decentralized networks, or low-level criminal activities to fund larger operations. It also allows analysts to simulate decision-making processes, including how groups assess risk, adapt to pressure, and exploit opportunities created by globalization or weak governance. Additionally, red-teaming can reveal how recruitment strategies, such as leveraging “jihadi cool” or targeting marginalized populations, are developed and refined. This method improves anticipation of future threats by highlighting likely adaptations and innovations by criminal and terrorist organizations. Ultimately, red-teaming strengthens strategic planning and policy development by providing a more realistic and proactive understanding of adversary behavior.

3. Create a spectrum of the crime–terror nexus with criminality on one side of the spectrum and terrorism on the other. Plot criminal and terrorist groups along this spectrum. Which groups would fall closest to the middle, blending criminality and terrorism?

A: Answers will vary, but should include many of the transnational organized groups discussed in the chapter. Additionally, the students might use the information link on the Crime–Terror Nexus. For more information, please see the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GITOC), which has a wealth of resources on this topic: https://globalinitiative.net/initiatives/nexus-oc-ct/ on page 352 of the textbook.

4. The civil war in Syria began in 2011 and precipitated a massive foreign fighter flow to the

country. What geopolitical events have occurred recently, or may be on the horizon, that could prompt a similar outflow of terrorists?

A: Answers will vary due to Syria’s instability. The following information is based on the current state of Syria at the time of publication. The country is currently officially governed by the Syrian Arab Republic, led by President Bashar al-Assad. This government holds Syria’s seat at the United Nations and is recognized as the official state authority by many countries. However, the situation is complex. While Assad’s government is internationally recognized, it does not exercise full control over all Syrian territory. Various regions have, at different times, been controlled by opposition groups, Kurdish-led forces, or remnants of extremist organizations. Additionally, some countries recognize the Syrian government diplomatically, while others have limited or no formal relations due to political disagreements and human rights concerns.

Large-scale conflicts, political instability, and ideological movements tend to be the main drivers behind foreign fighter flows. The Syrian civil war attracted thousands of fighters because it combined a power vacuum, active conflict, and strong ideological messaging from groups like IS. In general terms, similar outflows of terrorists could be prompted by events such as prolonged civil wars, state collapse, or major regional conflicts where governance is weak and extremist groups can operate freely. For example, instability in regions with ongoing conflict, political unrest, or weak state control could create conditions where terrorist organizations are able to recruit and mobilize fighters internationally. Additionally, emerging conflicts that involve sectarian, ideological, or geopolitical tensions may serve as catalysts for foreign fighter mobilization.

Chapter 10 Intelligence, Terrorism, and Homeland Security

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

In Chapter 10, we address head-on the issues surrounding the use of intelligence and intelligence gathering as tools to prevent terrorism, which seem to dominate our newspapers on a nearweekly basis. We closely examine the USA PATRIOT Act and discuss specific incidents that question and, in some cases, answer how far our government should go to protect our citizens. Specifically, we discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act, the Freedom Act, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), and the First, Fourth, and Fifth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution as related to the practice of extraordinary rendition; “enhanced” interrogation techniques and the torture of suspected terrorist prisoners; the use of the military to supplement civilian police, in conflict with the Posse Comitatus Act, police agencies that infiltrate political and religious groups that clearly blurs the line between policing and intelligence gathering; and the use of drones as both an offensive weapon in the Middle East and a spying tool domestically. These issues and others are discussed in light of current events and the highlighted cases involving Bradley/Chelsea Manning, WikiLeaks, and Edward Snowden.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 10.1 Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

• 10.2 Describe how Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) can inform counterterror investigations.

• 10.3 Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

• 10.4 Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

• 10.5 Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

• 10.6 List and describe the other agencies within the intelligence community.

• 10.7 Describe the intelligence cycle.

• 10.8 Expand on the ways that AI and other emerging technologies will affect counterterrorism.

• 10.9 Describe how threat assessments guide counterterrorism activities.

• 10.10 Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act, its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

• 10.11 Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

• 10.12 Explain the concept of posse comitatus and how our military might be called to supplement civilian policing functions.

• 10.13 Describe how drones are used both domestically and abroad for intelligence purposes and state the constitutional issues that arise with each type of use.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, had a major impact on national homeland security policies and law enforcement strategies at the federal, state, and local levels. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) alone has contributed more than $500 million toward the development of new local and state agencies centered on the goal of improving the coordination of policing through intelligence sharing.

The Gilmore Commission was named after Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore, chair of the congressionally sponsored commission to assess the domestic response of federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to terrorism between 1999 and 2003. Five key issues were identified as problems: (1) failure to emphasize traditional human intelligence gathering and analysis in favor of an overreliance on technological tools such as satellites and computer programs; (2) failure to provide timely, accurate, and specific intelligence information to law enforcement agencies; (3) an overly bureaucratic and decentralized structure, particularly within the FBI, that hindered counterterrorism efforts; (4) outdated and obsolete computer systems that prevented the timely sharing of critical information with and between law enforcement agencies; and (5) overly restrictive guidelines and laws that hindered the effective use of informants and intelligence gathering on terrorists.

This chapter explores some complicated questions, such as what terrorism responsibilities should different levels of government have, and which of their agencies should have what responsibilities? The answers to these questions are not simple. This chapter defines the role and

scope of intelligence in combating terrorism and describes the various agencies that make up the U.S. intelligence community. Additionally, the USA PATRIOT Act changed the intelligence powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies.

Defining Intelligence and Counterintelligence

The term “intelligence” often refers to information that is significant or relevant to an impending event and that will be a contribution to the positive outcome of the incident.

Information is nothing more than data that has yet to be screened and interpreted through professional analysis. Once information has been analyzed, it may become legitimate intelligence. Complete analysis of gathered information requires critical thinking that results in conclusions and recommendations stemming from the analyzed information

Intelligence, then, is a product derived from systematic and thoughtful examination, placed in context, and provided to governmental executives and military leaders with facts and alternatives that can inform critical decisions. Counterintelligence (CI) is a constellation of activities, analyses, and decisions intended to prevent adversaries from acquiring accurate information about an organization’s capabilities, intentions, personnel, and plans. Counterintelligence is used by the U.S. intelligence services to disrupt the activities and operations of terrorist groups

OSINT

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is the practice of collecting information from published or otherwise publicly available sources. This includes unlocked social media accounts, news sites, court documents, property and tax records, liens, Securities and Exchange Commission filings, and essentially anything that can be found without using a secure login. It can also include publicly available geospatial intelligence, thanks to widely available commercial satellite images.19 Intelligence analysts today rely heavily on OSINT. While there is no substitute for good human intelligence (HUMINT), it’s often possible to find solid and actionable intelligence via OSINT.

OSINT requires a great deal of specialized training. Additionally, there are a number of legal, operational, and ethical issues involved in ensuring that searches don’t infringe on civil liberties or privacy laws. Federal, state, and local agencies that leverage OSINT for investigations, threat assessments, and general intelligence purposes typically have established frameworks, policies, and procedures in place.

Overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community

In order to address the problems identified by the Gilmore Commission, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA) established the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). The creation of the ODNI centralized all intelligence information from the myriads of agencies that had a mission to gather specific intelligence relating to their function. There are currently eighteen different agencies that report directly to the ODNI, including the Central Intelligence Agency and the FBI National Security Branch. These agencies are referred

to as the intelligence community (IC). The ODNI administers the National Intelligence Program (NIP), which funds the intelligence activities of the entire federal government. The primary purpose of this new structure is to better coordinate, integrate, and manage the collection, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence information.

The National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC)

The integration and analysis of terrorist threat information from various sources and the dissemination of that information to other members of the intelligence community, as well as other important state and local law enforcement partners, are accomplished through the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC). The Center serves as the nation’s “hub” for intelligence activity both domestically and internationally, coordinating intelligence information derived by individual members of the intelligence community. The NCTC is part of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence and maintains the national repository of known and suspected terrorists and administers the Joint Counterterrorism Assessment Team (JCAT).

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

The National Security Act of 1947, which established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), envisioned the enemies of the United States as nation-states such as Russia, North Korea, Iran, and China. The result was organizations and authority based on strict distinctions between domestic versus foreign threats, law enforcement versus national security concerns, and peacetime versus wartime operations.

The Central Intelligence Agency is the principal foreign intelligence-gathering agency for the United States. The mission of the CIA is threefold: (1) Stop activities by terrorist organizations and nation-states that threaten the U.S. homeland or U.S. interests abroad by collecting intelligence information vital to U.S. decision makers; (2) conduct effective covert actions against enemies of the United States as directed by the president; and (3) safeguard national secrets that maintain the security of the United States.

The National Clandestine Service, formerly known as the Directorate of Operations, is a major part of the structure of the CIA. It is the operational wing that carries out covert paramilitary operations against terrorist groups and cells outside the United States.

Recently, however, the CIA has shifted its focus from traditional counterterrorism activities to cyber intelligence and more offensive cyber operations. The National Security Agency (NSA) globally monitors communications and collects, analyzes, and disseminates them as needed.

• Movie Note: Discuss Showtime’s hit espionage thriller “Homeland.” Does the Emmywinning TV show, featuring the adventures of CIA agent Carrie Mathison, serve as a tool for U.S. propaganda? Or does it send a message of openness to taking political risks?

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Headquartered in Washington, D.C., at the J. Edgar Hoover Building, the FBI is the largest

investigative agency in the U.S. Department of Justice. It represents the nation’s premier law enforcement agency. It has two distinct missions relating to terrorism: (1) the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the primary criminal investigative body on any terrorist attack against the United States both domestically and internationally, and (2) the FBI collects, analyzes, and disseminates all domestic intelligence information relating to terrorist threats. The FBI is an intel-driven organization; that is, it combines investigation and intelligence operations to be more predictive and preventative in nature.

The primary vehicle for the collection of intelligence information relating to potential terrorist attacks and specific intelligence on individual terrorist groups is derived from the Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) located throughout the United States. The FBI is the lead agency in managing and directing these task forces.

Blurred Lines and Conflicting Roles

The FBI and state and local police agencies within this country have a different role from the CIA, one that focuses on crime most often committed by citizens within the United States. With the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act in 2001, the hard-and-fast distinctions between the FBI and the CIA, and hence the role of the police in combating terrorism, have become somewhat blurred.

The USA PATRIOT Act now allows the FBI and state or local police to engage in covert intelligence operations, greatly expanding the use of police surveillance through roving wiretaps, “sneak and peek” warrants, “trap and trace” pen registers on telephones, and the like. The police can now surreptitiously monitor your use of the Internet and receive a list of all sites visited by your IP address without a warrant or other judicial oversight mechanism.

In 2025, President Donald Trump prioritized reorganization of the FBI under former federal prosecutor Kash Patel’s leadership. Patel pledged to depoliticize the agency and streamline its operations, decentralizing its command and dividing the bureau into three regions. Many senior FBI oﬃcials were offered retirement or dismissed in the early days of the Trump administration’s second term.

The National Security Agency (NSA)

The National Security Agency (NSA) bills itself as the nation’s preeminent “cryptologic organization.” In more familiar language, the NSA is primarily responsible for designing and maintaining computerized coding systems designed to protect the integrity of U.S. information systems. It has also become the leading agency responsible for monitoring and protecting all of the federal government’s computer networks from acts of cyberterrorism.

The NSA has also assumed an active role in providing information security training to both government and private entities through the National INFOSEC Education and Training Program. This program provides training for security specialists, including risk assessment, security design, and information security evaluation.

Intelligence and Cyberterrorism

Teams from the FBI, the CIA, and the NSA work together in a secure location known as the Remote Operation Center, the “ROC” (“rock”). With overlapping missions and legal authorities combined with the best high-technology equipment available, these teams have a dual mission:

• Cyber Defense: Protect current U.S. military and intelligence systems, as well as other critical infrastructure and information systems within the United States from foreign or terrorist attack.

• Cyber Offense: Covertly exploit and infiltrate, via virtual methodologies, foreign systems and create a presence inside these targeted systems for advancing the interests of the United States.

These two missions provide a strong basis on which to combat cyberterrorism or digital terrorism.

Other Agencies within the Intelligence Community

There are sixteen separate agencies reporting to the Oﬃce of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). Although the CIA, FBI, and NSA remain the largest and most well-known of these agencies, there are still a number of smaller, lesser-known agencies that collect, analyze, and disseminate intelligence related to potential terrorist activities, including the following:

The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)

The Defense Intelligence Agency provides intelligence in support of U.S. military planning and operations. It is the primary intelligence agency for the U.S. Department of Defense and focuses on preventing strategic surprise from a nation-state (similar to Pearl Harbor in December 1941) or an attack on U.S. military forces overseas (similar to the terrorist attack on the U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1983).

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)

The NGA provides a foundation for the intelligence discipline. The use of high-level geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing techniques provides NGA analysts with critical information relating to terrain, elevation, and gravity. Such information provides immediate intelligence relating to any physical or geographical point in the world

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO)

The NRO is the government agency responsible for designing, building, launching, maintaining, and monitoring America’s intelligence satellite system.

State Bureau of Intelligence and Research

The mission of INR is to provide intelligence information in support of U.S. diplomacy and is often the focal point for actions involving counterintelligence and law enforcement activities outside the United States.

Intelligence at the State and Local Level

In addition to federal efforts, state and local police departments are implementing their own brand of intelligence gathering and analysis through the planned networking of large databases that seek to contribute to the national process of intelligence gathering and sharing. The strategic integration of intelligence, with an emphasis on predictive-analysis–derived real data, defines a new style of policing called intelligence-led policing (ILP).

The Intelligence Process and Cycle

The National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan (NCISP) contained twenty-eight specific recommendations for major changes in local policing. The goal was to develop a universal process that would integrate both law enforcement and national security intelligence agendas, while at the same time providing mechanisms for securing individual freedoms, yet allowing law enforcement agencies to be proactive in preventing and deterring crime and terrorism. The end result was the development of the “intelligence cycle,” presented in an effort to bring varied pieces of information together to draw logical conclusions from a thorough and systematic process.

The six steps of the intelligence cycle are:

1. Requirements what we must know to safeguard the nation.

2. Planning and Direction management of the entire effort, from identifying the need for information to delivering an intelligence product to a consumer.

3. Collection gathering of raw information based on requirements.

4. Processing and Exploitation converting the vast amount of information collected into a form usable by analysts.

5. Analysis and Production conversion of raw information into intelligence.

6. Dissemination distribution of raw or finished intelligence to the consumers whose needs initiated the intelligence requirements.

AI and Intelligence

AI has also made it possible for intelligence agencies to combat terrorism in new, innovative, and lightning-fast ways. AI’s ability to process, identify, and prioritize almost infinitely large amounts of data is a boon to intelligence analysts and to the ways they receive, visualize, and exploit that information. AI is used in homeland security for predictive analysis of terrorist activities; for identifying red flags for radicalization; for detecting disinformation; for data analysis; for investigative uses; and to thwart cyber and critical infrastructure attacks.

Threat assessments identifies and evaluates threats based on various factors, including vulnerability; the criticality of the target; potential actors (including capabilities and intentions); potential impact and lethality; and mitigation, including resource allocation. The threat assessment process should include local, state, and federal law enforcement; fusion centers or other intelligence centers; transportation infrastructure representatives; community stakeholders;

event officials (if applicable); local, state, or foreign governments, as applicable; and technology infrastructure/advisors, where appropriate.

Homeland security and intelligence professionals also produce behavioral threat assessments (BTAM), which focuses on preventing pathways to violence at the individual level. BTAMs are developed using a standardized, evidence-based process to identify patterns of behavior that would reasonably arouse suspicion and determine whether, or to what extent, an individual might be moving toward an act of violence.

The USA PATRIOT Act 2001

In an effort to improve the collection of intelligence information by federal agencies after 9/11 and to provide sweeping new powers to both domestic law enforcement and traditional intelligence agencies, President George W. Bush signed into law the USA PATRIOT Act on October 26, 2001. The most substantial part of the act is that it expanded traditional tools of surveillance used by law enforcement and intelligence agencies with significantly reduced checks and balances. Tools that were expanded, while reducing checks and balances, include record searches, wiretaps, search warrants, pen/trap and trace orders, and court orders and subpoenas.

The reauthorized PATRIOT Act 2006

In 2005, provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act were to sunset, and Congress acted to review, reauthorize, and pass this bill. President George W. Bush passed the revisions into law in March 2006. The roving wiretap provisions were maintained, though greater oversight was added to ensure that these powers would not be abused. The definition of terrorism was expanded with several provisions: (1) to include receiving military-type training from a foreign terrorist organization; (2) engaging in narco-terrorism; and (3) criminalizing the act of planning a terror attack specifically against a mass transit entity or system (e.g., bus stations, airliners, GPS, and other navigation or communication systems).

The reauthorized PATRIOT Act 2011

Provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act were once again set to sunset in 2011, and Congress acted to review, amend, and reauthorize it. First, roving wiretaps in relation to foreign intelligence collection were reauthorized, allowing electronic surveillance of a person without specifying the phone or computer if that person demonstrated an intent to evade surveillance Second, the reauthorization extended access to business records and other tangible evidence. Third, the “lone wolf” provision was extended, which permitted surveillance against a non-U.S. person engaged in international terrorism for which the government did not have evidence of ties to a specific terrorist group.

The Freedom Act, 2015

On June 2, 2015, President Barack Obama signed the USA Freedom Act into law to address

three expiring provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act: Section 215 (which has been amended regarding bulk phone and Internet metadata), roving wiretaps, and lone wolf surveillance authority.

The law limited the government’s ability to collect data on American citizens to “the greatest extent reasonably practical,” which prohibits mass collection based on variables such as geographic area or area code. Other notable additions via the Freedom Act include: • New reporting requirements for the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA) courts and authorities. FISA focuses on issues surrounding the Fourth Amendment, as discussed later in this chapter. • Expansion of the ability of private companies to disclose the number of FISA requests they receive. • Declassification of FISA Court opinions of significant legal importance or, in cases where full declassification isn’t viable, it requires a summary. • A requirement that the FISA Court appoint “amicus curiae,” or advocates, to represent the public’s interest in cases that involve significant legal issues. • An increase in the maximum penalty for material support for terrorism from fifteen years to twenty years. • Authorization for the government to collect up to “two hops” of call records related to suspects, given reasonable suspicion that the person is linked to a terrorist organization.

Recent Legislation

Despite the fact that the PATRIOT Act expired in March 2020 without being reauthorized, federal law enforcement agencies have largely retained the authorities granted by the act. President Donald Trump’s administration has shown some willingness to scrutinize and perhaps legislate some of the arguments against the PATRIOT Act’s broad surveillance infrastructure.

Constitutional Rights and the USA PATRIOT Act

The expanded scope and breadth of the act has raised concerns from a variety of sources. Most agree that intelligence gathering and analysis had to improve (especially since 2001) in order to prevent future domestic and international terrorist attacks. However, some argue that the USA PATRIOT Act may have gone too far. One group that has done so is the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a national organization composed primarily of attorneys who defends and preserves the individual rights and liberties secured by the U.S. Constitution.

The First Amendment

Civil libertarians argue that the USA PATRIOT Act has a “chilling effect on free speech,” and, in fact, some of its provisions have stirred controversy in this area. The most high-profile of these First Amendment challenges can be observed in a 2010 Supreme Court decision, Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project (HLP) In this case, the government asserted that members of a charity group, the Humanitarian Law Project, were in violation of the “material support” clause of the USA PATRIOT Act, and formal charges were brought to bear.

Interestingly, the freedom of religion clause within the First Amendment has also been tested under the USA PATRIOT Act. The American Civil Liberties Union asserts that the government’s use of religious profiling to target Muslims for investigation infringes on their

constitutional right to practice religion.

The Fourth Amendment

Upon cursory examination, this amendment to the U.S. Constitution is particularly relevant to the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations. For example, under the PATRIOT Act, the government does not have to show probable cause, or even reasonable suspicion, to obtain third-party records or conduct searches or wiretaps, as long as the government asserts that a request for such records is related to an ongoing terrorism or foreign intelligence operation or has a significant foreign intelligence purpose.

The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978

Essentially, the USA PATRIOT Act amends another important law the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA), which is widely used in foreign espionage and spying cases. FISA was initially developed and passed by Congress in 1978 to address a difficult history of abuse by federal agencies using wiretaps and other forms of electronic eavesdropping during the 1960s and 1970s. FISA authorized the FBI to conduct surveillance on identified foreign intelligence agents operating in the United States because these actions are inherently different from a criminal investigation conducted by a law enforcement agency.

The USA PATRIOT Act expands the ability of the government to search places and homes without providing notice at the time of the search. In other words, a governmental intelligence agency (like the FBI) can enter a person’s home, search through their belongings and gather evidence, and not inform the individual that a governmental agency was there for a “reasonable period thereafter.”

The Fifth and Sixth Amendments

One of the most controversial challenges to the Bill of Rights by the USA PATRIOT Act is the power to arrest and hold any alien (or foreign national) “certified” by the Attorney General as a “suspected terrorist” without any initial charge for up to seven days. The Attorney General must either place the alien in removal proceedings from the United States or charge the alien with a criminal offense. At first glance, this power appears to be a blatant violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, and the speedy and fair trial concepts of the Sixth Amendment.

The practice known as extraordinary rendition was started after 9/11 by the Central Intelligence Agency. It involves the detention and interrogation of foreign suspects without bringing them to the United States. The program allows the CIA to essentially apprehend and interrogate individuals from one country and place them into a jail or prison in another country without ever charging them with a crime in the United States.

The Military and Policing Functions: Posse Comitatus

Similar to law enforcement, U.S. military forces have increasingly found themselves participating in domestic intelligence and security operations a role that has been historically illegal.

Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878 as a reaction to events that took place during the post–Civil War Reconstruction era. (Please note that the Posse Comitatus Act is not to be confused with the early right-wing terrorist group “Posse Comitatus.”) The term posse comitatus has evolved in the United States to refer to the use of the federal military to enforce state or civilian laws.

The USA PATRIOT Act expanded the ability of the military to assist with domestic intelligence and security after 9/11, thereby challenging the validity of the Posse Comitatus Act in modern history. Further, the USA PATRIOT Act created the new U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the new U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM). NORTHCOM is a military command responsible for the entire North American continent, plus the Caribbean basin. It is also responsible for protecting all U.S. borders and U.S. coastal waters up to 500 nautical miles from land. NORTHCOM’s purpose is to support local and state authorities in the case of a domestic terror attack or natural catastrophe; it is also tasked with prevention, deterrence, and response to external threats to the security of the United States.

So far, the use of the military in post-9/11 domestic operations has indeed been rather ad hoc and limited to a supplemental and supportive status.

The Use of Domestic Drones

Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles that are widely used for the purposes of both commercial and governmental endeavors, including the monitoring and/or surveying of commercial property, the scientific and academic research of geography and space, the surveillance of private and public transportation systems, and a host of intelligence-gathering operations from crowd monitoring to border enforcement to routine law enforcement and security monitoring.

Recommended Safeguards for Drone Use

Drones are becoming more and more popular among domestic law enforcement agencies. Police use drones to assist in locating bombs, finding lost children, monitoring weather, traffic, and wildlife patterns, and rescuing people during natural disasters. Most agencies also use drones to assist in deploying personnel during emergencies as well as monitoring existing problems or critical incidents. For the most part, drones are not practical for large-scale surveillance operations.

A recent survey showed that one-third of Americans fear the potential of domestic drones to spy on their daily activities. The ACLU recommended safeguards for usage limits, data retention, policy, abuse prevention and accountability, and weapons.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Numerous additions have been made throughout the book to reflect significant changes in the Middle East and other geographic areas where terrorism has been a continual issue.

• Completely updated this chapter with a renewed focus on intelligence, terrorism, and homeland security. • Added new material on Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT). • Added new and updated material on President Trump’s changes to homeland security and intelligence policies within the United States. • Added major new section on “Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Intelligence.” • Added new and updated material on the USA PATRIOT Act and the USA Freedom Act. • Added new section on “Constitutional Rights and the USA PATRIOT Act.” • Added new section on “The Military and Policing Functions: Posse Comitatus.” • Added new material on the “Use of Domestic Drones.”

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: During President Trump’s second term, many changes have been made to federal agencies. Assign small groups of students to a specific federal IC agency to do an Internet search for recent changes. Groups will then present their findings.

Activity 2: Break the students into two groups and set up a debate on the USA PATRIOT Act. One group should support the continued use of the USA PATRIOT Act, and the other group should argue against the continuation of the USA PATRIOT Act.

Review questions

1. Discuss the Gilmore Commission. What were the Commission’s major findings?

A: The Gilmore Commission is a congressionally sponsored inquiry after 9/11 to assess the domestic response of federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to terrorism. Five key issues were identified as problems: (1) failure to emphasize traditional human intelligence gathering and analysis in favor of an overreliance on technological tools such as satellites and computer programs; (2) failure to provide timely, accurate, and specific intelligence information to law enforcement agencies; (3) an overly bureaucratic and decentralized structure, particularly within the FBI, that hindered counterterrorism efforts; (4) outdated and obsolete computer systems that prevented the timely sharing of critical information with and between law enforcement agencies; and (5) overly restrictive guidelines and laws that hindered the effective use of informants and intelligence gathering on terrorists.

2. Define the terms “intelligence” and “counterintelligence”.

A: Intelligence is an information process and product derived from systematic and thoughtful examination (analysis). Counterintelligence (CI) involves activities intended to prevent adversaries from acquiring accurate information about another organization’s capabilities.

3. Discuss the structure of the U.S. intelligence community (IC) and identify several of its key component agencies.

A: The creation of the ODNI centralized all intelligence information from the myriads of agencies that had a mission to gather specific intelligence related to their function. There are currently eighteen agencies that report directly to the ODNI, including the Central Intelligence Agency and the FBI National Security Branch. These eighteen agencies represent the primary groups of the federal government responsible for national security, including each branch of the military (i.e., Air Force, Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Space Force, and Marine Corps), the primary national intelligence agencies (e.g., National Security Agency and Central Intelligence Agency), and federal law enforcement (e.g., Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement Administration, and Department of Homeland Security). It also includes the Department of Energy, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, and the National Reconnaissance Office.

4. What is the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), and what is its primary role and mission?

A: The Center serves as the nation’s “hub” for intelligence activity both domestically and internationally, coordinating intelligence information derived from individual members of the intelligence community. It also serves as a single point for the strategic and operational planning of counterterrorism activity.

5. Discuss the differences between the CIA and the FBI. Discuss the role of each agency and the ways they may accomplish their respective missions.

A: The Central Intelligence Agency is the principal foreign intelligence-gathering agency for the United States. For the most part, the focus of the CIA historically has not been on thwarting potentially violent groups in foreign lands (such as al-Qaeda) but rather on individual nationstates that had the potential to conduct military attacks against the United States. The mission of the CIA is threefold: (1) Stop activities by terrorist organizations and nation-states that threaten the U.S. homeland or U.S. interests abroad by collecting intelligence information vital to U.S. decision makers; (2) conduct effective covert actions against enemies of the United States as directed by the president; and (3) safeguard national secrets that maintain the security of the United States. The FBI is the largest investigative agency in the U.S. Department of Justice. It represents the nation’s premier law enforcement agency. It has two distinct missions relating to terrorism: (1) The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the primary criminal investigative body for any terrorist attack against the United States, both domestically and internationally, and (2) the FBI collects, analyzes, and disseminates all domestic intelligence information relating to terrorist threats.

6. What is a JTTF? What are the primary missions of these entities?

A: The primary vehicle for the collection of intelligence information relating to potential terrorist attacks and specific intelligence on individual terrorist groups is derived from the Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) located throughout the United States. The FBI is the lead agency in managing and directing these task forces. JTTFs represent a coalition of highly trained federal, state, and local law enforcement officers and agents committed to gathering intelligence, investigating specific activities, making arrests, and responding to threats at a moment’s notice.

7. Discuss the differences between investigation and intelligence.

A: Investigation: reactive; occurs after the event, incident, or crime; reports are generally open; sources are generally known; and open arrests are made based on probable cause, evidence, and facts. Intelligence: proactive; information gathered before the event or incident; reports are almost always closed; sources are confidential; and closed arrests are rarely made.

8. Discuss the primary role of the NSA.

A: The National Security Agency (NSA) bills itself as the nation’s preeminent “cryptologic organization.” In more familiar language, the NSA is primarily responsible for designing and maintaining computerized coding systems designed to protect the integrity of U.S. information systems.

9. Discuss the concepts of “cyber-terrorism” or “digital terrorism.” How vulnerable is the United States to such attacks?

A: Cyberterrorism or digital terrorism are terms often used interchangeably and can be defined as a premeditated, politically or ideologically motivated attack against information networks, computer systems, computer programs, and/or data that can result in violence against civilian targets. According to Barry Collin of the Institute for Security and Intelligence, cyber-terrorism

is “hacking with a body count.” An early assessment by RAND’s National Research Defense Institute concluded that cyber-terrorism might also include attacks motivated by political or ideological objectives that can cause serious harm, such as a prolonged loss of infrastructure for example, electricity or water.

10. Discuss the purpose of the intelligence cycle. Why is it important?

A: The “intelligence cycle” was presented in an effort to bring varied pieces of information together to draw logical conclusions through a thorough and systematic process. The intelligence cycle also provides the crucial means to communicate and share intelligence information between individuals and agencies through the dissemination process.

11. What is the role of the Defense Intelligence Agency?

A: The Defense Intelligence Agency provides intelligence in support of U.S. military planning and operations. It is the primary intelligence agency for the U.S. Department of Defense and focuses on preventing strategic surprise from a nation-state or an attack on U.S. military forces overseas.

12. Discuss the PATRIOT Act. What reasons might the U.S. government have had to pass it so quickly after the events of 9/11?

A: The USA PATRIOT Act is an act of Congress that was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001. The title stands for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act. Some civil libertarians have raised alarms that new and sweeping intelligence powers and swift changes to the culture of American law enforcement and intelligence agencies particularly as detailed in the USA PATRIOT Act were pushed through opportunistically, at a time when the public was reeling from the horror of the attacks and unlikely to fight anything that potentially could prevent future occurrences of terror on American soil.

13. How does the U.S. government determine what the balance should be between civil liberties and the protections against terrorist acts that the PATRIOT Act offers?

A: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a national organization composed primarily of attorneys, defends and preserves the individual rights and liberties that are secured by the U.S. Constitution.

14. Which traditional tools of surveillance did the PATRIOT Act expand upon and why?

A: The most substantial part of the act is that it expanded traditional tools of surveillance used by law enforcement and intelligence agencies while significantly reducing checks and balances.

• Records searches: Records of an individual’s activity being held by third parties including doctors, libraries, and Internet Service Providers (ISPs).

• Wiretaps: Surreptitious eavesdropping on a third-party conversation by wire, oral, or electronic communication. Usually conducted with a microphone receiver (“bug”) on a telephone; requires

both a search warrant and a court order.

• Search warrants: A search warrant is a legal document signed by a judge directing police officers to search a specific area for a specific person or item of evidence/contraband. The document must be based on probable cause, but the PATRIOT Act allowed search warrants to occur without the “knock and announce” requirement outlined in the Fourth Amendment.

• Pen/trap and trace orders: Telephone call set-up information only is intercepted without individual communications. A “pen register” provides the law enforcement agency with access to the numbers dialed from a subject’s phone, whereas a trap and trace provide the incoming numbers to the subject’s phone (similar to caller ID).

• Court orders and subpoenas: A court order is a document signed by a judge that instructs the police to perform a specific task. A subpoena is a court order that commands a person to appear in court at a specified date and time to testify.

Law enforcement and intelligence agencies can now more easily and surreptitiously monitor Web surfing and communication of individuals using the Internet, conduct nationwide roving wiretaps on cell and landline telephones, and build profiles of the reading habits of people visiting public libraries. Under the Act, police or government officials can force Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to “voluntarily” hand over information on customer profiles and Web-surfing habits without a warrant or court order.

15. Has the PATRIOT Act had a chilling effect on First Amendment rights among certain populations? Why?

A: Civil libertarians argue that the USA PATRIOT Act has a “chilling effect on free speech,” and, in fact, some of its provisions have stirred controversy in this area. The most high-profile of these First Amendment challenges can be observed in a 2010 Supreme Court decision, Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project (HLP). In this case, the government asserted that members of a charity group, The Humanitarian Law Project, were in violation of the “material support” clause of the USA PATRIOT Act, and formal charges were brought to bear. The clause prohibits supporting any designated terrorist group via “any property, tangible or intangible, or service, including currency or monetary instruments … expert advice or assistance … weapons, lethal substances, explosives, personnel … except medicine or religious materials.”

16. Describe the ways in which the PATRIOT Act defies the due process clause.

A: At first glance, this power appears to be a blatant violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, and the speedy and fair trial concepts of the Sixth Amendment. The government only has to show “reasonable grounds” to believe that a foreign national has committed any of a wide range of violations related specifically to terrorism, or is engaged in any other activity that endangers the national security of the United States.

17. Give examples of searches under the PATRIOT Act that might otherwise be considered unreasonable.

A: On cursory examination, this passage of the U.S. Constitution is particularly relevant to the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations. There certainly appears to be

contradictions For example, under the PATRIOT Act, the government does not have to show probable cause, or even reasonable suspicion, to obtain third-party records or conduct searches or wiretaps, as long as the government asserts a request for such records is related to an ongoing terrorism or foreign intelligence operation or has a significant foreign intelligence purpose.

18. What should be the military’s role in a domestic terror incident?

A: The term posse comitatus translates from Latin as “power of the county” and hails from common law. It refers to a practice dating to England in the 1400s, when a posse composed of ordinary citizens could be assembled by a local sheriff in order to enforce certain laws or quell certain disturbances. Because the military was once composed of average citizens, as opposed to professional soldiers, the term has evolved in the United States to refer to the use of the federal military to enforce state or civilian laws. The USA PATRIOT Act expanded the ability of the military to assist with domestic intelligence and security after 9/11, and thereby challenged the validity of the Posse Comitatus Act in modern history.

19. Why are civil liberties advocates concerned about drone use, both domestically and on foreign soil?

A: The proposed opening of U.S. airspace in 2015 to wider drone activity has created a general uneasiness among the American public and civil liberties advocates who fear the potential for wide-scale surveillance and invasions of privacy. Truly, the potential for “big brother” to spy from the sky has now become a reality. A recent survey showed that one-third of Americans fear the potential of domestic drones to spy on their daily activities. In response, the ACLU has recommended that drone use be subject to the following safeguards. There has also been much controversy about the use of drones to carry out “military-type strikes” against combatants on foreign soil. Drones have been a key weapon in the fight against al-Qaeda in Pakistan, Yemen, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Somalia. These drones differ greatly from the ones previously discussed in relation to domestic law enforcement use. These are militarized or “weaponized” drones, capable of firing missiles at targets or crashing into targets with bombs.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Research Intelligence on Terrorist Organizations and Groups Globally. Visit and preview the Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium (TRAC), created by the Beacham Group, LLC on the Internet. Watch the preview and explore the site. TRAC is one of the most comprehensive terrorism research sites on the Internet and provides an efficient series of filters with which to study various types of terrorist targets, tactics, and groups. Play with the filters, watch some of the posted videos, read some of the articles on ideology, and read the intelligence reports on the latest information on active groups in any area of your choosing. Consider subscribing or having your university or college subscribe to the site. TRAC was specifically designed to fulfill the research and intelligence needs of faculty, scholars, students, and government and defense professionals studying terrorism.

A: A variety of activities can be organized through these sources.

2. The National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC). The Office of the Director of National Intelligence houses the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC). The two core missions of the NCTC are to serve as the primary organization in the United States for the analysis and integration of terrorism intelligence, and to conduct strategic operational planning for counterterrorism activities. Visit the NCTC website at www.nctc.gov. Name the key partners associated with the NCTC and view the Counterterrorism Calendar. Now explore career possibilities within the intelligence field. What types of career opportunities exist within the intelligence community at the federal level? As important, what are the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to fulfill these types of positions, and are you qualified? Develop an action plan for yourself to accomplish education and training goals that would qualify you for an intelligence analyst position within the National Counterterrorism Center.

A: Answers will vary. Below is information from the website www.nctc.gov

Overview

The National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) was established by Presidential Executive Order 13354 in August 2004 and codified by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA). NCTC implements a key recommendation of the 9/11 Commission: “Breaking the older mold of national government organizations, this NCTC should be a center for joint operational planning and joint intelligence, staffed by personnel from the various agencies.”

The Director of the NCTC has a unique, dual line of reporting: (1) to the President regarding Executive branch-wide counterterrorism planning, and (2) to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) regarding intelligence matters. NCTC follows the policy direction of the President and the National and Homeland Security Councils. NCTC is staffed by personnel from multiple departments and agencies across the Intelligence Community. NCTC is organizationally part of the ODNI.

Who they are

NCTC serves as the primary organization in the U.S. government for integrating and analyzing all intelligence pertaining to terrorism possessed or acquired by the U.S. government (except for purely domestic terrorism); serves as the central and shared knowledge bank on terrorism information; provides all-source intelligence support to government-wide counterterrorism activities; establishes the information technology (IT) systems and architectures within the NCTC and between the NCTC and other agencies that enable access to, as well as integration, dissemination, and use of terrorism information.

NCTC serves as the principal advisor to the DNI on intelligence operations and analysis relating to counterterrorism, advising the DNI on how well U.S. intelligence activities, programs, and budget proposals for counterterrorism conform to priorities established by the President.

Unique among U.S. agencies, NCTC also serves as the primary organization for strategic operational planning for counterterrorism. Operating under the policy direction of the President of the United States and the National Security Council, NCTC provides a full-time interagency

forum and process to plan, integrate, assign lead operational roles and responsibilities, and measure the effectiveness of strategic operational counterterrorism activities of the U.S. government, applying all instruments of national power to the counterterrorism mission.

What they do

NCTC’s core missions are derived primarily from IRTPA, as supplemented by other laws, Executive Orders, and Intelligence Community Directives. NCTC’s mission statement succinctly summarizes its key responsibilities and value-added contributions.

• Operates as a partnership of organizations to include: Central Intelligence Agency; Department of Justice/Federal Bureau of Investigation; Departments of State, Defense, and Homeland Security; and other entities that provide unique expertise, such as the Departments of Energy, Treasury, Agriculture, Transportation, and Health and Human Services; the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; and the U.S. Capitol Hill Police.

• Chairs interagency meetings and video teleconferences on terrorist groups, capabilities, plans and intentions, and emerging threats to U.S. interests at home and abroad.

• Chairs and/or supports interagency groups orchestrating and facilitating an efficient and effective allocation of U.S. government terrorism analysis assets, including appropriate, planned redundancy.

• Produces integrated and interagency-coordinated analytic assessments on terrorism issues and publishes warnings, alerts, and advisories as appropriate.

• Maintains the national repository of known and suspected terrorists.

• Manages a Joint Operations Center to provide unique insight and situational awareness of developing terrorism-related worldwide issues and events.

• Operates a secure website, NCTC Online CURRENT, which serves as the primary dissemination mechanism for terrorism information produced by the NCTC and other counterterrorism mission partners, including international partners. NCTC Online CURRENT is directly available to a broad audience, including U.S. government partners with an operational focus, such as the FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Forces and DoD’s combatant commands.

• Supports a process led by the Executive Office of the President to improve terrorism information sharing within the Intelligence Community and with the rest of the federal government and beyond.

• Provides an interagency forum and supporting process to link national-level counterterrorism policy to strategic operational objectives and tasks for counterterrorism.

• Develops, integrates, implements, and measures the effectiveness and progress of strategic operational plans for U.S. counterterrorism activity.

• Assigns roles and responsibilities to lead departments or agencies for counterterrorism activities according to strategic operational plans and consistent with applicable laws.

Careers

We have multiple career opportunities in the following occupational areas:

• Production and Analysis

• Watch Listing

• Program Resources

• Information and Technology

To apply for vacancies, you must be a current federal employee.

3 Is the U.S. Constitution Out of Date? The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are more commonly known as the “Bill of Rights” and were ratified by Congress in 1791. The Bill of Rights and the U.S. Constitution have survived for nearly 225 years of history. However, the founding fathers never imagined a technological world marked by amazing global communication through computers and the Internet at the current scale, nor a lifestyle that often hinges on personal telephone usage, texting, gaming, and access to online and social media sites. Should the Constitution be updated and rewritten to address such changes in our society? Why or why not?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

Chapter 11 The Agencies of Homeland Security

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Eleven days after the 9/11 attacks, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge was appointed as the first director of the Office of Homeland Security by President George W. Bush. His job was to develop, oversee, and coordinate a new, comprehensive national strategy to safeguard the country against terrorism and respond to any future attacks. Over a year later, on November 25, 2002, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created as a stand-alone agency, composed of 22 different preexisting federal agencies. It was the largest reorganization of the federal bureaucracy since the National Security Act of 1947. Chapter 11 provides an overview of the key agencies assigned to DHS, such as the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Transportation Security Administration (TSA), U.S. Secret Service, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The chapter explores each agency’s role in fulfilling the core homeland security mission of preventing terrorism and enhancing the security of the United States.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 11.1 Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

• 11.2 State the vision statement of DHS.

• 11.3 Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

• 11.4 Identify the five DHS core missions.

• 11.5 Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

• 11.6 State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

• 11.7 Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

It is critical before moving forward in this chapter to understand that in the early days of the second Trump administration, there are many unknowns about the structure, leadership, and, to some extent, the missions of the Department of Homeland Security. In February 2025, hundreds of probationary employees in the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency and the Federal Emergency Management Agency were terminated as part of the organization’s push to cut nearly 10 percent of the federal workforce in cost-cutting and reorganization measures. The president also authorized the termination of most employees of the DHS Office for Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, the Office of the Immigration Detention Ombudsman, and the Office of the Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman, as he sought to remove “bureaucratic hurdles” to law enforcement efforts related to immigration. Those offices remain in the organizational chart of DHS as of this writing, but it is possible that they will be eliminated or reorganized. Newly appointed Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem also stated in a March

25, 2025, cabinet meeting that she planned to “eliminate” the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Additionally, as discussed in previous chapters, the Trump administration focused its homeland security efforts to combat illegal entry into the United States, deport undocumented immigrants, combat fentanyl trafficking, and focus on Latin American gangs and transnational criminal organizations.

This chapter focuses on the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and its responsibilities, as well as key agencies within it. DHS protects our national borders while welcoming lawful immigrants, visitors, and trade. Understanding the organization and function of DHS is a civic responsibility. Those who protect us must be scrutinized so that in their zeal to accomplish their mission they do not also infringe upon our rights as citizens.

The United States neither detected the oncoming 9/11 attacks nor was it prepared to deal effectively with their aftermath. Nearly 3,000 people died. Many people experienced posttraumatic stress disorder America was fighting a non-state enemy on two fronts, Iraq and Afghanistan, and the development of what rights are extended to “enemy combatants” and of extraordinary rendition.

• Movie Note: The following movies tell the story of the 9/11 attacks, and can be a platform for a discussion about the significance of this event and its role in the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security:

o “United 93” (2006)

o “8:46” (2012)

o “9/11” (2017)

The Department of Homeland Security: The Early Years 300

Eleven days after the 9/11 attacks, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge was appointed as the first director of the Office of Homeland Security in the White House. His job was to develop, oversee, and coordinate a comprehensive national strategy to safeguard the country against terrorism and respond to any future attacks. Over a year later, on November 25, 2002, Public Law 107-296 created the new U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) as a stand-alone agency, headed by a secretary who was to be a member of the president’s cabinet

On March 1, 2003, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) became operational with parts or all of twenty-two different preexisting federal agencies. It was the largest reorganization of the federal bureaucracy since the National Security Act of 1947.

The creation of DHS led to bureaucratic wrangling from individuals and agencies seeking to be prominently placed in it, as well as some congressional political discontent because of lost influence.

The Turbulent Beginning of the DHS

Grossman noted that Americans have proven supremely adept at war fighting, but not at creating long-term security bureaucracies.20 This observation was accurate with respect

to the early years at DHS, which were often politically, financially, and administratively bumpy and mostly uphill.

The Present Organization of DHS

Today, DHS is a maturing organization that has overcome the initial hurdles facing it. The DHS vision statement is: A homeland that is safe, secure, and resilient against terrorism and other hazards, where American interests, aspirations, and way of life can thrive. As of 2025, that vision statement does not appear on the DHS website or in its literature. The DHS states its mission as: The Department will embody the relentless resilience of the American people to ensure a safe, secure, and prosperous Homeland.

Typically, organizational charts are relatively stable as agencies are “captured” by the roles assigned to them. However, during the Trump administration’s reorganization of federal bureaucracies in 2025, it is possible there will be more significant changes to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

The Quadrennial Homeland Security Review (QHSR)

Beginning in 2010, the Department of Homeland Security produced a QHSR every four years. The most recent of these is the QHSR 2019–2023. It reflects a deep analysis of the evolving strategic environment and outlines the specific changes necessary to keep our nation secure. This QHSR was compiled during the Biden administration, but is not guiding the current priorities of the Trump administration. For example, President Trump has largely suspended these asylum processes, especially through the southern border. Regardless of which administration is in charge at the time of its renewal, the QHSR is a valuable tool that validates the mission DHS was already doing and creates the imperative to improve those things and modify or create new missions.

The QHSR assessed the threats and challenges DHS faces and is crucial to intelligence gathering, strategic planning, research, programs, performance goals, budgeting, recruitment, training, and operations.

Strategic Priorities for Homeland Security

DHS updated the cross-functional priorities in 2023: Organizational Advancement:

1. Support and champion our workforce and advance a culture of excellence.

2. Hire and retain a world-class, diverse workforce to create an inclusive, representative, and trusted department.

3. Advance cohesion across the department to improve mission execution and drive greater efficiency.

4. Responsibly harness artificial intelligence to advance mission execution, as well as transform our delivery of services to improve the customer experience.

5. Enhance openness and transparency to build greater trust with the American people and ensure the protection of the privacy, civil rights, civil liberties, and human rights of

the communities we serve.

6. Transform the department’s infrastructure to ensure it is a more productive and flexible workplace responsive to our workforce’s and the public’s needs.

Mission-Specific Advancement:

7. Combat all forms of terrorism and targeted violence.

8. Increase cybersecurity of our nation’s networks and critical infrastructure, including election infrastructure.

9. Secure and modernize our borders and ports of entry.

10. Build a fair, orderly, and humane immigration system. 11. Ready the nation to respond to and recover from disasters. 12. Combat crimes of exploitation and protect victims.

Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem has articulated that DHS’ priorities include “securing our borders, arresting and removing criminal aliens, safeguarding the U.S. cyber infrastructure, protecting America’s leaders, deterring terrorism, and keeping America safe,” though a formal document establishing priorities has yet to be released.

The Core Missions of DHS

DHS has six core missions, which are further articulated by their associated goals. These missions are:

Mission 1: Counter Terrorism and Homeland Security Threats

Mission 2: Secure U.S. Borders

Mission 3: Secure Cyberspace and Critical Infrastructure

Mission 4: Preserve and Uphold the Nation’s Prosperity and Economic Security

Mission 5: Strengthen Preparedness and Resilience

Mission 6: Champion the DHS Workforce and Strengthen the Department

DHS: Missions and Performance Management

The effectiveness of an agency rests on performance management, which involves continuous monitoring and steering of a unit’s performance toward achieving its missions and goals.

DHS Performance Management

The DHS Performance Management Framework is summarized as an integrated system that links the department’s missions through a series of steps that begins with missions and goals, concluding with the determination of what level of performance results were achieved. This is summarized in Figure 11-4.

DHS Performance Evaluation

Senator Tom Coburn, who served on the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, issued his individual assessment of DHS in 2015. Among his criticisms were:

1. DHS’s primary counterterrorism programs are yielding little value for the nation’s counterterrorism efforts.

2. The nation’s borders remain insecure

3. DHS is not effectively administering or enforcing the nation’s immigration laws and some immigration programs have significant vulnerabilities.

4. DHS struggles to execute its cybersecurity responsibilities

5. DHS is federalizing the response to manmade and natural disasters by subsidizing state, local, and private-sector activity.

A recent GAO audit from 2024 found that the agency had failed to modernize its financial management systems, business processes, and internal controls; the report acknowledged that DHS was in the midst of a multiyear plan to address that issue.

DHS Funding

In Fiscal Year 2025 (FY’25, October 1, 2024–September 30, 2025), DHS’s budget was $107.9 billion, including $62.2 billion in discretionary funding, plus $22.7 billion in disaster relief funds and $4.7 billion for a “Southwest Border Contingency Fund,” which provides additional resources to DHS when migration at the Southwest border reaches certain thresholds. Additional budget items include over 252,000 employees deployed to every state and 75 foreign countries A budget also reveals the priorities of an organization. In 2024, just five agencies CBP, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) accounted for approximately 82 percent of the requested budget.

Under the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), the department will retain a large portion of its budget to continue to address Trump administration priorities, including immigration, transnational criminal organizations, fentanyl and other drug disruption, cybersecurity, and threats from foreign terrorist organizations and nation-states, now including sophisticated, international or transnational drug or crime cartels.

Major DHS Agencies

Customs and Border Protection (CBP)

Broadly, the purpose of CBP is to prevent harmful individuals and substances from entering the United States This includes terrorists, criminals, illegal immigrants, drugs, weapons, and other contraband, as well as harmful pests and diseases. A major CBP responsibility is regulating international trade, collecting import duties, enforcing trade laws, and protecting U.S. businesses from counterfeit goods and the theft of intellectual property.

Customs and Border Protection: Legacy Agencies

Agencies that existed prior to the formation of DHS and “came over” to it, in part or whole, are called “legacy agencies.” The two largest legacy agencies for CBP were U.S. Customs and the Border Patrol.

Customs and Border Protection Activities

CBP has responsibility for approximately 6,000 miles of Mexican and Canadian international land borders, and 2,000 miles of coastal waters around Florida and the island of Puerto Rico. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers are law enforcement personnel who work at POEs (e.g., international airports, seaports, and land crossings), performing physical checks of travelers, luggage, cargo, containers, ships, and commercial and passenger vehicles.

Tunnel Rats and Technology Use

Watching for illegal land crossings is not sufficient Tunnel rats are members of the Border Patrol’s Border Tunnel Entry Team. Between 1990 and March 2016, authorities discovered 224 tunnels that originated in Mexico. Tunnels start and end in homes or warehouses in industrial areas. People coming and going from warehouses in trucks is a common sight and helps cloak the operation. False walls and floors may be built to conceal a tunnel opening in a warehouse. Being a tunnel rat is a dangerous job.

Technology has aided the securing of the border. Radar was linked to cameras, night vision goggles were procured, unattended ground sensors (UGS) were deployed, and color video surveillance cameras with long-distance/thermal imaging were placed to cover miles of remote areas covered by fences and, where they were impractical to construct, radiation detection devices were distributed throughout the area. Piloted aircraft and drones provide actionable intelligence.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

The first piece of federal disaster legislation was in 1803, when Congress voted for relief funds for a town in New Hampshire ravaged by a fire. Over the next century, such federal ad hoc legislation was passed more than 100 times. In 1979, by Executive Order 12127, President Jimmy Carter created the Federal Emergency Management Agency, which centralized several preexisting programs. To some degree, FEMA faced changes similar to DHS in terms of trying to build an effective organization quickly. FEMA has been periodically criticized for being too large, too bureaucratic, too ponderous, and too slow to react to large-scale disasters.

FEMA’s Role in DHS

FEMA was absorbed by DHS on March 1, 2003. FEMA has a headquarters in Washington, D.C., ten regional offices, three area offices, and as many temporary disaster-related sites as are needed to accomplish its mission, as well as 20,000 employees. FEMA’s mission can be summarized as supporting our citizens and emergency first responders to ensure that the country can work together to build, sustain, and improve the capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards, including terrorist attacks. The three goals are: 1) Instill equity as a foundation of emergency management; 2) Lead whole of community in climate resilience; and 3) Promote and sustain a ready FEMA and prepared nation. Its replacement, the National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS), is issued as a bulletin and distributed widely through the news media, DHS websites, Facebook, Twitter, and email via free

subscription. NTAS has two levels of warning: (1) Imminent Threat Alert, meaning that a credible, specific, and impending terrorist threat has been made against the United States, and (2) Elevated Threat Alert, which denotes that a credible terrorist threat has been made against the United States. Requests for disaster declarations come from the governors of the respective states to the president. Requests can be turned down; however, that number is relatively small, averaging eleven annually. Importantly, in 2025, President Donald Trump has made statements that FEMA should be disbanded at the federal level and its duties given to individual states. Such a plan for reorganization of FEMA has been discussed; however, no concrete plans have been developed at the time of this writing.

FEMA’s National Preparedness Goal

FEMA intends to achieve its National Preparedness Goal by the following activities:

1. Preventing, avoiding, or stopping a threatened or an actual act of terrorism.

2. Protecting our citizens, residents, visitors, and assets against the greatest threats and hazards in a manner that allows our interests, aspirations, and way of life to thrive.

3. Mitigating the loss of life and property by lessening the impact of future disasters.

4. Responding quickly to save lives, protect property and the environment, and meet basic human needs in the aftermath of a catastrophic incident.

5. Recovering through a focus on the timely restoration, strengthening, and revitalization of infrastructure, housing, and a sustainable economy, as well as the health, social, cultural, historic, and environmental fabric of communities affected by a catastrophic incident.

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

The United States Coast Guard is the descendant of the Department of the Treasury’s Revenue Cutter Service, established in 1790 with ten ships to collect tariffs and enforce import laws. This role was important to a new nation strapped for cash. In its long and distinguished history, the USCG also fought pirates, smugglers, and the British during the War of 1812. Today’s USCG was created in 1915. At the same time, the U.S. Lifesaving Service was “folded” into it. Subsequent additions to the Coast Guard were the U.S. Lighthouse Service (1939) and the Bureau of Marine Inspections and Navigation (1942).

In DHS, the Coast Guard’s overarching mission is to protect the public, the environment, and U.S. economic interests in the nation’s ports and waterways, along the coast, on international waters, or in any maritime region as required to support national security. More specifically, the USCG retained traditional missions and assumed additional homeland security missions.

Coast Guard Activities

In Fiscal Year (FY) 2025, the USCG had a budget request of $13.8 billion.111 The USCG had around 40,000 active-duty personnel, 6,100 reserve duty, about 9,000 civilians, and 3,000 volunteers. The USCG will respond to around 15,000 search and rescue missions. In 2025, the U.S. Coast Guard, along with other U.S. military units, played an important role in thwarting drug and weapons smuggling from Venezuela to the United States. At least 35 vessels, directly

linked to Venezuelan “narco-terrorist organizations,” were destroyed by missile/drone attacks as they sped across the Caribbean Sea toward the U.S. homeland.

Transportation Security Administration (TSA)

President Kennedy ordered the creation of armed “sky marshals” to thwart hijackings. Initially, there were 18 of them, all U.S. Border Patrol agents. By 9/11, there were only 33 sky marshals, and none of them were on hijacked planes that day because they were not being assigned to domestic flights.

The mission of the TSA is to maximize transportation security in response to evolving threats while protecting passengers’ privacy and facilitating the flow of legal commerce. The Airport Transportation Security Act (ATSA) of 1974 required U.S. airport operators to establish weapons-detecting screening of all passengers and carry-on luggage. Many airports elected to contract with private security firms for these tasks. Following the 9/11 attacks, federal legislation in 2001 established the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and transferred responsibility for civil aviation security from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to the TSA. In 2002, the Homeland Security Act (HSA) moved the TSA into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

TSA Responsibilities

In FY 2025, the TSA had approximately 65,000 employees and a budget request of approximately $11.8 billion.

The TSA has four specific responsibilities:

1. Ensuring effective and efficient screening of 100 percent of air passengers, baggage, and cargo on passenger planes.

2. Deploying federal air marshals internationally and domestically to detect, deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting air carriers, airports, passengers, and crews.

3. Managing security risks of the transportation systems.

4. Developing and implementing more efficient, reliable, integrated, and cost-effective screening programs.

Despite some problems, the TSA has done an excellent job of executing its homeland security mission. The TSA uses 92 different factors in its Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques (SPOT) program.

U.S. Secret Service (USSS)

The U.S. Secret Service has a unique dual mission of protection and investigation. The primary mission of the Secret Service is to protect the President of the United States, the Vice President, other visiting heads of state and government, and any National Special Security Events (NSSEs).

The investigative responsibilities of the Secret Service are broad and include thefts and frauds involving ATMs, debit cards, identity theft, credit cards, computers, passwords, and financial

deposits. In addition, the investigative responsibility of the Secret Service is broad and includes investigating Internet crimes against children (also known as ICAC), managing the National Threat Assessment Center In fulfilling its primary protection mission, the Secret Service uses a variety of specialized security operations to eliminate, deter, minimize, and decisively respond to threats. The Secret Service has an annual budget of $3.2 billion, 8,300 employees, and operates 116 domestic and 20 foreign investigative offices.

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)

ICE is the principal investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security and the secondlargest enforcement agency in the federal government. With a budget of $9.9 billion, ICE deploys more than 20,000 employees in more than 400 offices around the United States and the world. ICE promotes homeland security and public safety through broad criminal and civil enforcement of approximately 400 federal laws governing border control, customs, trade, and immigration.

Homeland Security Investigations (HSI)

HSI has 8,000 employees who carry out transnational criminal investigations to protect the United States against terrorist and other criminal organizations that threaten public safety and national security and to bring to justice those seeking to exploit our customs and immigration laws worldwide. HSI describes itself as the largest investigative unit in DHS. It enforces 400 federal laws and regulations and has a presence in 237 cities and 56 countries. In 2024, HSI conducted 32,608 criminal arrests, seized more than 1.6 million pounds of narcotics, identified and/or assisted 1,783 victims of child exploitation, and assisted 818 victims of human trafficking.

In 2012, the federal Jaime Zapata Border Enforcement Security Task Force (BEST) Act became law. It fields BEST teams to work jointly with federal, state, local, and foreign law enforcement agencies along America’s northern and southern borders and at major seaports to identify, disrupt, and dismantle criminal organizations that pose significant threats to border security. Two important organizational units within the Homeland Security Investigations Division of ICE are the Forensic Laboratory (FL), which has great expertise in several forensic sciences.

Enforcement and Removal Operations

ICE’s Enforcement and Removal Operations division, or ERO, is charged with protecting the homeland by arresting and removing noncitizens who undermine the safety of U.S. communities and the integrity of U.S. immigration laws. The ERO has a complex and wide-ranging mission, and its primary areas of focus are interior enforcement operations, management of the agency’s detained and non-detained populations, and removal efforts. At the end of fiscal year 2024 (FY 2024), ERO had 7,696 personnel, including 6,050 law enforcement personnel across 25 domestic field offices and 182 sub-locations nationwide, 33 permanent overseas positions, and multiple temporary duty travel assignments.

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS)

The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has an annual budget of $6.7 billion and 13,151 employees distributed across 240 domestic and foreign offices. In light of the fact that some of the 9/11 attackers entered the United States several times and received flight training here, the work of this agency has become a critical part of preventing future terrorist attacks.

In a single year, USCIS (1) processed 36,000 political asylum applications; (2) received 21 million E-Verify inquiries; (3) naturalized 763,690 new citizens, some 9,000 of whom qualified by military service while a non-citizen immigrant; and (4) interviewed more than 76,750 refugees in 60 countries.

DHS and Other Homeland Security Units

In support of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), there are many homeland security units in state, local, tribal, and territorial governments (SLTT). Forty-nine states, the District of Columbia, and five territories/possessions have their own homeland security organizations. State-level homeland security units are often co-located with fusion centers within the same organizational structure, which may also have an emergency function.

DHS provides training, guidance, and other resources, including further grants to enhance existing capabilities or add new ones to state, local, tribal, and territorial governments. SLTT and fusion centers excel in gathering human intelligence (HUMINT) because their law enforcement agencies are out in the community and across the state 24/7, giving them many opportunities to see and learn things. Similarly, local fire departments responding to a fire may stumble across bomb-making activity. SLTT programs are also effective at engaging the public and recruiting private-sector partners, for example, local aviation. DHS has put $37 billion into creating, staffing, and equipping state, local, tribal, and territorial homeland security units.

Fusion Centers

The transformation of state and local police agencies into intelligence-led organizations involves several key objectives: (1) the creation of a task and coordination process, (2) the development of core intelligence products to lead the operation, (3) the establishment of standardized training practices, and (4) the development of protocols to facilitate intelligence capabilities. This approach is intended to improve the capability of local law enforcement to respond to terrorist threats and the imperative to “fight crime.” Intelligence-led policing blends community partnerships with crime fighting and police accountability in an effort to maximize police efficiency and effectiveness toward terrorism prevention and crime reduction.

Originally launched in New York City under the direction of Raymond Kelly in 2002, the concept of a fusion center blended the power of information technology with terrorism prevention and crime fighting. Fusion centers are composed of talented and trained individuals using sophisticated application software in crime analysis and mapping to manage and manipulate information and intelligence into a usable product. Almost every state and several large metropolitan cities have undertaken the development of fusion centers with significant

funding assistance from the Department of Homeland Security, Office of Intelligence and Analysis.

The goals of a fusion center are fourfold:

1) Support the broad range of activities undertaken by police departments.

2) Provide support for operations that protect critical infrastructure and key resources.

3) Maintain public “tip lines” and promote public involvement/awareness of terrorist threats.

4) Assist police executives in making better-informed decisions, especially during emergencies or critical incidents.

As of 2025, there were 78 primary and recognized state and major urban fusion centers within the United States.166 A “primary fusion” center typically provides information collection, collation, analysis, and sharing for an entire state, while a “recognized” fusion center typically provides services for a major urban area.

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has played an integral role in the development and implementation of fusion centers as part of the intelligence-led policing paradigm. The primary goal of DHS in this area has been to promote a strong relationship between state/local and federal law enforcement agencies through financial grants.

The National Fusion Center Association (NFCA) is a formal group that represents the interests of state and major urban area fusion centers nationally. It promotes the development and sustainment of fusion centers to enhance public safety and the ethical and lawful collection of intelligence gathering, analysis, and dissemination.

The Homeland Security Data Network (HSDN) allows the federal government to move information and intelligence to the states at the “secret” level and is deployed at most fusion centers. Through HSDN, fusion center staff can access the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) via a secure and classified portal to the most current terrorism-related information.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Numerous additions have been made throughout the book to reflect significant changes in the Middle East and other geographic areas where terrorism has been a continual issue and problem.

• Updated statistical data and presented the new organization of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) under President Trump. • Revised material to include the new mission statement of DHS and the updated Quadrennial Homeland Security Review (QHSR). • Added a new section on “Strategic Priorities for Homeland Security” under President Trump. • Added an important box on “New Trends in Undocumented and Illegal Immigration.” • Updated material on DHS Performance Management, DHS Performance Evaluation, and DHS Funding under President Trump. • New material on Customs and Border Protection, FEMA, TSA, and ICE. • Added new material on fusion centers. • Updated statistical data on all agencies in DHS.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Watch the video “Are We Safer” from the PBS Frontline website. The video is about 14 minutes long. Follow with a discussion about investigations and prevention steps that are being taken by Homeland Security. Ask students for their opinions about suspicious activities. Find out how they feel about law enforcement detaining people on suspicion alone. Find out what students feel would be suspicious.

Activity 2: Discuss a possible action plan at your school or in the classroom in case of an attack with the potential for mass casualties. This exercise will help students understand the importance and difficulties involved in preparations and training for incidents that may never happen. Assign certain responsibilities to all students so that everyone will buy into the action plan.

Review questions

1. If the success of the 9/11 attacks was in part an intelligence failure, why weren’t any major intelligence agencies transferred to DHS?

A: Clark concluded that the real agenda was not to solve a problem. Instead, politicians wanted the appearance of having taken swift and decisive action in light of the 9/11 catastrophes.

2. In DHS and other organizations, what is the difference between staff and line positions?

A: Staff units, like finance, support line units, relieving them of many administrative duties. In turn, line units do the work for which the agency was created and are illustrated by the bottom tier on the organizational chart with units such as Customs and Border Protection (CBP), the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), which is commonly seen when people travel through airports.

3. What are four questions about confronting decentralized terrorism?

A: Answer not provided in textbook.

4. How does DHS plan to improve its strategic priority of strengthening cybersecurity?

A: DHS is the federal lead agency for cybersecurity across the U.S. government. Goal 3-1: Secure Federal Civilian Networks (security of information technology systems and computer networks); Goal 3-2: Strengthen the Security and Resilience of Critical Infrastructure; Goal 3-3: Assess and Counter Evolving Cybersecurity Risks; Goal 3-4: Combat Cybercrime

5. What are three new trends in illegal immigration?

A: New Trends in Undocumented and Illegal Immigration: 1. The number of undocumented immigrants in the United States is approximately 11.7 million. The number of undocumented immigrants from Mexico was 4.0 million in 2022, down from a peak of 7.8 million in 2007. Mexico is the most common source of unauthorized immigrants in the United States. As of 2023, the Social Science Research Institute at Pennsylvania State University estimates the number of undocumented immigrants from Mexico at 5.5 million people. 2. Between 2019 and 2022, the unauthorized immigrant population from nearly every region of the world grew, with increases from the Caribbean, South America, Asia, Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. The Migration Policy Institute estimates that 13.7 million unauthorized immigrants were in the United States as of mid-2023, up from 12.8 million the previous year. 3. Six states saw increases in undocumented immigrant populations from 2019 through 2022: Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas. California was the only state that saw a decrease. 4. As of mid-2023, unauthorized immigrants represented approximately 3.9 percent of the total U.S. population and 23 percent of the foreign-born population. These shares were lower than the peak values in 2007 but slightly higher than in 2019. 5. As of January 2025, the foreignborn population in the United States reached a record high of 53.3 million, representing 15.8 percent of the total U.S. population. These numbers represent a growth of 5.1 million in the last two years alone, according to the Center for Immigration Studies.

6. What is the purpose of the GPRA Modernization Act of 2010?

A: The DHS was created to do the things people cannot do for themselves. This means its behavior must be purposeful and result in certain end states. To assess whether federal agencies are fulfilling their mandates, Congress passed the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA). Subsequently, it was modified by the GPRA Modernization Act of 2010. Among its most important features are: 1. Strategic plans must be for at least four years and aligned with

presidential terms; 2. Annual performance goals must be linked to the strategic plan, which can be amended if changed circumstances warrant it; 3. Agencies must provide, at least annually or more frequently as needed, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) with agency performance updates, formerly called program performance reports. OMB is part of the Executive Office of the President; and 4. If an agency does not achieve its desired outcomes for a specific performance plan for three consecutive years, OMB can recommend defunding the activities involved. In years one, two, and three, OMB is authorized, in coordination with the agency, to take action that will foster improvement and avoid defunding.

7. With respect to the U.S. Coast Guard, what are their homeland security missions?

A: The six Homeland Security missions of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) are: Safeguard and Secure Cyberspace; Prevent Terrorism and Enhance Security; Secure and Manage Borders; Enforce and Administer Immigration Laws; Strengthen National Preparedness and Resilience; and Other Law Enforcement

8. What are fusion centers? Discuss their four primary goals.

A: A fusion center blends the power of information technology with terrorism prevention and crime fighting. Fusion centers support the broad range of activities undertaken by a police department relating to the detection, examination, and investigation of a potential terrorist attack and/or criminal activity Fusion centers provide support for operations that protect critical infrastructure and key resources (CI/KRs) in a given region, support major incident operations, support specialized units charged with interdiction and investigative operations, and assist in emergency operations and planning. Fusion centers often maintain public “tip lines” or the capability to promote more public involvement and awareness of terrorist threats. The goal is to identify and recognize warning signs and potential threats in a timely manner in order to preempt potential terrorist attacks. Fusion centers assist police executives in making better-informed decisions, especially during emergencies or critical incidents. Fusion centers serve as an ongoing deployment operations center with the real-time ability to monitor critical resources.

Critical thinking exercises

1. As mentioned in the chapter, Scotland has a very low incidence of acts of terrorism. Why? Address this alone, and then in a group of approximately five to form a consolidated list of possible explanations. How much initial duplication between group members was there as each person read their lists?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Some possible answers include: the stability of their democratic system, resolution of their historical conflicts, strong law enforcement and intelligence coordination, strong social cohesion, a lack of targets and a smaller population, and a strong security infrastructure.

2. As a class, learn more about the crime of human trafficking. Human trafficking is a major crime investigated by ICE. It is hard to know the exact scope of the problem, as human trafficking is often clouded in an underground activity that thrives on secrecy, seclusion, and fear, and often begins outside the United States. The victims are usually illegally transported to large cities and/or vacation and tourist areas, for the purposes of sex work and child sex slavery.

As a class, discuss the following questions:

a. What is bonded and forced labor?

A: Forced Labor, 18 U.S.C. § 1589. Section 1589 of Title 18, which was passed as part of the TVPA, makes it unlawful to provide or obtain the labor or services of a person through one of three prohibited means. Congress enacted § 1589 in response to the Supreme Court’s decision in United States v. Kozminski, 487 U.S. 931 (1988), which interpreted § 1584 to require the use or threatened use of physical or legal coercion. Section 1589 broadens the definition of the kinds of coercion that might result in forced labor.

Trafficking with Respect to Peonage, Slavery, Involuntary Servitude, or Forced Labor, 18 U.S.C. § 1590. Section 1590 makes it unlawful to recruit, harbor, transport, or broker persons for labor or services under conditions which violate any of the offenses contained in Chapter 77 of Title 18.

(http://fightslaverynow.org/why-fight-there-are-27-million-reasons/the-law-andtrafficking/trafficking-victims-protection-act/trafficking-victims-protection-act/)

b. Why is human trafficking considered slavery?

A: Human trafficking has many faces, most notably the sex trafficking industry and the slave labor market. But the common threads of all trafficking outweigh apparent differences in circumstance. All human traffickers, pimps, “coyotes,” and “snakeheads” (colloquial terms for traffickers in Latine and Asian communities, respectively) profit from human misery characterized by abuse and exploitation. In most cases, victims are manipulated to feel powerless, ashamed, and afraid. Whether it’s in factories or fields, in restaurants, homes, or brothels, the face of modern-day slavery is sorrow and shame. Trafficking in person amounts to modern-day slavery.

(http://fightslaverynow.org/why-fight-there-are-27-million-reasons/human-trafficking-ismodern-day-slavery/)

c. What do you think of the solution proposed by the International Justice Mission?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

d. What new strategies can prevent human trafficking, especially in the United States?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

Chapter 12 America’s Vulnerability to Terrorism

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapters 12 and 13 represent our final set of “twin” chapters. They are slightly different from the other sets, as they are not extensions of the same subject matter but rather complement each other. In Chapter 12, we discuss openly America’s vulnerability to terrorism. We define “critical infrastructure” and focus our work on the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP), which provides a framework in which to discuss potential target sites and to provide a reasonable risk assessment for each of the 16 sectors identified in the NIPP. The discussion in Chapter 12 is all about “prevention” now, before an event, and providing an “all-hazard” plan that protects critical resources and human life from any kind of catastrophe, disease, or disaster regardless of causation, natural (e.g., flood, fire, hurricane, tornado, or earthquake) or human-made (e.g., terrorist strike; large cyberattack; mass shooting at a school, mall, or sporting event; or surprise attack from a foreign government).

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 12.1 Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

• 12.2 Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

• 12.3 Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

• 12.4 Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

• 12.5 Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Critical infrastructure is defined as those systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on national security, national economic security, national public health or safety, or any combination of these matters. Each of the above daily activities requires a properly functioning critical infrastructure at the federal as well as the local levels.

The loss or disruption of all or part of one of these critical infrastructure sectors would have a devastating impact on this country. Failure in one sector could lead to a cascading failure in others, creating an even bigger problem.

The Impact of 9/11 and the USA PATRIOT Act

The 9/11 attacks set in motion the development of new roles for federal agencies as well as a

national commitment to the prevention of terrorism.

The National Strategy for Counterterrorism, reaffirmed in 2011, is a document focused on dismantling the al-Qaeda network; the far-reaching plan clearly articulates the United States’ broad, sustained, and integrated plan to safeguard the homeland. In 2018, the National Strategy for Counterterrorism emphasized the protection of critical infrastructure. Combined with the USA PATRIOT Act, these two documents not only defined the concept of critical infrastructure and the development of specific critical infrastructure plans, but also set forth specific roles and duties for federal agencies before and during a potential disaster, particularly those that may be caused by man-made or terrorist activities.

The All-Hazards Model

The “all-hazards model” recognizes that there are aspects of planning and response that are common in many kinds of catastrophes and disasters, regardless of causation.

The Role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Crisis management is handled by law enforcement, principally the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). This includes developing, coordinating, and managing a response to major terrorist events that threaten to harm the national security of the United States.

The FBI manages the nation’s domestic effort to detect, investigate, and prevent terrorist strikes through a variety of major programs:

• National Counterterrorism Center and the Public Internet Tip Line.

• Strategic Information and Operations Center (SIOC).

• The Counterterrorism Fly Team

• The Most Wanted Terrorist List.

• The Terrorist Screening Center (TSC)

The Role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Consequence management is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and includes search and rescue operations, sheltering and caring for affected persons, debris removal, and mitigating damages after an event.

Today, it is the responsibility of FEMA to protect “essential resources and facilities” through a systematic plan of identification, vulnerability assessment, and security preparedness.

The Role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA)

Established in 2018 as a result of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act, which reorganized and rebranded the Department of Homeland Security’s National Protection and Programs Directorate (NPPD), CISA was created in recognition of growing threats to critical infrastructure and the digital realm. Today, CISA serves as the operational lead for federal cybersecurity and the national coordinator for critical infrastructure security and resilience. The agency collaborates with federal, state, and local governments; stakeholders in the public and

private sectors; and international partners to promote a unified and proactive approach to safeguarding critical systems by identifying vulnerabilities, implementing appropriate protective measures, and sharing information.

The National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)

In 2003, then-President Bush signed Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7, defining a framework for a coordinated approach to identifying and protecting critical infrastructure in the United States. This framework is known as the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP).

In February 2013, President Barack Obama further extended the NIPP by signing Presidential Policy Directive 21 The Critical Infrastructure and Resilience Directive. This directive consolidated the key resources category into sectors of its own and produced a total of sixteen current critical infrastructure sectors.

The National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) requires the EPA to develop a coordinated plan that identifies potential vulnerabilities within the sector and develops responses to various threat scenarios, coordinating public and private entities at all levels of government.

Communications Sector

Telecommunications was the first infrastructure to be identified as critical. Today, the Communications Sector consists of complex systems that incorporate multiple technologies and services, including wireline, wireless, satellite, cable, and broadcasting capabilities, and includes the distribution networks for the Internet and other critical information systems.

Emergency Services Sector

The Emergency Services Sector is the first line of defense in the prevention and mitigation of risk from terrorist attacks, man-made incidents, and natural disasters. This sector includes state and local first responders, composed of law enforcement, fire and emergency services, emergency management agencies, emergency medical services, public works and utility companies.

Energy sector

The Energy Sector is divided into three subsectors: Electricity, Petroleum, and Natural Gas. Any threat to the Energy Sector not only impacts the physical security of the United States but also impacts the price of oil on the worldwide market. Threats to this sector can also occur outside the United States in OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Venezuela, and Nigeria. Regardless of the motivation and method of attack, the number of reported human-caused attacks on power grid infrastructure has reached record levels even in the face of newly implemented security measures.

Dams Sector

The Department of Homeland Security Office of Infrastructure Protection is the Sector-Specific Agency responsible for the Dams Sector. Other DHS agencies involved in the Dams Sector include the Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Environmental Protection Agency. Like most critical infrastructure, the majority of dams are privately owned. Although the Dams Sector is most vulnerable to natural disasters (hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes), there are an increasing number of terrorist threats made against such structures as well.

Nuclear Sector

Nuclear power provides approximately 20 percent of the electricity in the United States. The Nuclear Sector incorporates a variety of related assets aside from the power plants, including non-power nuclear reactors used for research, testing, and training; manufacturers of nuclear reactors or components; radioactive materials used primarily in medical, industrial, and academic settings; nuclear fuel cycle facilities; decommissioned nuclear power reactors; and the transportation, storage, and disposal of nuclear and radioactive waste.

Water Sector

Drinking water and wastewater utilities are included in the Water Sector. Approximately 84 percent of the U.S. population is supplied by 160,000 public drinking water systems, and there are more than 16,000 public wastewater treatment systems. Bioterrorism or chemical attacks using relatively small quantities of toxic chemicals or biological agents could cause massive contamination, threatening the public health of millions of people in the United States.

Chemical Sector

The Chemical Sector is a major portion of the economy of the United States. It involves environmental regulation and concern; hence, the primary agency for this sector is the Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA maintains a well-trained and well-equipped Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) team dedicated to first response for major incidents involving the Chemical Sector.

Commercial Facilities Sector

The Commercial Facilities Sector includes large retail centers, hotels, casinos, theme parks, motion picture production studios, office and apartment buildings, convention centers, and sports stadiums. It also includes other sites where large numbers of people congregate to pursue business activities, conduct personal commercial transactions, or enjoy recreational pastimes. There are eight subsectors in this sector.

Healthcare and Public Health Sector

Seventeen percent of the U.S. economy is produced by the Healthcare and Public Health Sector. The sector, like many of the other sectors discussed, most of it is privately owned and operated. It consists of hospitals, clinics, and medical research centers located throughout the United States. Aside from the sheer size and economic importance of the sector, it also has a significant

role in response, mitigation, and recovery during natural disasters or terrorist events.

Emerging threats to this sector include pandemics and health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic; the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in late 2014; natural disasters, extreme weather, and climate change; malicious human acts, such as those described above and extending to mass shootings and critical infrastructure attacks; supply chain disruption and corruption, like tainted blood products or contaminated food; and cyberattacks on health systems.

Food and Agriculture Sector

The Food and Agriculture Sector includes the farming, breeding, production, processing, and delivery systems associated with agricultural and livestock food in the United States. The sector includes various industry and trade associations, including the American Farm Bureau Federation, National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, National Milk Producers Federation, and the National Restaurant Association, among others. The sector accounts for roughly one-fifth of the economic engine of the United States, with about one-fifth of this production exported to other countries. Crop production in the United States alone accounts for nearly $200 billion in gross domestic product (GDP).

Critical Manufacturing Sector

The Critical Manufacturing Sector is another major part of the economic engine of the United States. This sector provides 13 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States and employs an estimated 11.7 million people. Primary metal manufacturing, machinery manufacturing, electrical equipment manufacturing (which provides the components that “turn the lights on”), transportation equipment manufacturing, and railroad rolling stock manufacturing are considered major subsectors of the Critical Manufacturing Sector. A terrorist attack in any of these subsectors within the Critical Manufacturing Sector could have a cascading effect that would limit the ability to move goods, restore electricity, and keep America working.

Transportation Sector

There are six subsectors of the Transportation Sector: Aviation, Highway, Maritime, Mass Transit, Pipeline Transmission, and Rail. The transportation of people and goods is an essential service to maintain the economic efficiency of the country. Most of the raw materials and manufactured products in the United States are transported over the 4 million miles of freeways and highways that interconnect almost every community in the country. The events of 9/11 greatly impacted world air travel. From pre-flight records checks to submission of individuals to physical screening and pat-downs, to the target hardening of flight cockpits, air passengers are ever reminded of the potential for terrorism.

Government Facilities Sector

A wide variety of buildings and structures are owned by federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments. For instance, there are nearly 40,000 post offices alone, with a myriad of federal and state buildings and monuments. Securing these facilities is a huge challenge. Federal

facilities alone cover more than 3 billion square feet, and there are another 90,000 municipal governments that maintain their own facilities. Individual government facilities are attractive and strategically important targets for terrorists due to their symbolic value.

Financial Services Sector

The U.S. Department of the Treasury is the Sector-Specific Agency for the Banking and Finance Sector. The Banking and Finance Sector is regulated (and categorized) by the various products provided by the sector and accounts for all monetary and fiscal assets of both the government and private enterprise within the country. It is, by far, the most “valuable” of all sectors within the United States.

Defense Industrial Base Sector

The Department of Defense is the Sector-Specific Agency for the Defense Industrial Base Sector. The sector consists of the various public- and private-sector industrial complexes that support military operations directly, conduct research and development, including the design, production, delivery, and maintenance of military weapons systems, subsystems, and components or parts for the United States military.

Information Technology (IT) Sector

All other critical infrastructure and key resources (CI/KRs) are reliant upon the IT Sector to provide data, coordination, and communication during a natural disaster or terrorist event.

Information warfare (IW) is the concept of using information technology to gain tactical or strategic advantage over an opponent during a conflict. This can be intelligence in the sense of knowing the enemy’s capabilities, intentions, and dispositions (deployment), or undermining their capabilities and will to fight. Propaganda, disinformation, counterintelligence, deception, and the disruption of critical infrastructure are all aspects of information warfare.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: A fun activity to help students learn and understand a grouping such as the sectors is a ranking game. Have students rank the sectors in order of most important to least important. Then attempt to do an overall class ranking by majority vote. Let students debate each one prior to taking a final vote on where to place it on the list. The debate will be the most beneficial for retention, so allow adequate time for students to try to persuade others.

Activity 2: For a fun object lesson, boil an egg and bring it to class along with an uncooked egg. Break the egg at the point of talking about the collapse of our national system from the 9/11 attack. Then take the other egg, and as you teach about the new organization with the various sectors, teach an infrastructure lesson. Write the name of the sector on the egg. At the end, demonstrate the difference in the strength of the egg after the infrastructure was strengthened. You can add other variations to the lesson and other themes as well.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 12 provides new discussion on the reorganization of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the core mission of DHS, and the impact of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review under President Donald J. Trump.

• Updated and reviewed material on America’s vulnerability to terrorism • Added new box item on the 2024 CrowdStrike Outage • Added new material on the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)

Box questions

12-1 In an age of increasing interconnectedness, will such cascading failures just be a new fact of life? How can we prevent such cascading failures from happening in the future?

A: Answers will vary, but may include aspects of the following: strengthening cybersecurity defenses, building backup systems, improving interagency coordination and information sharing, conducting simulations, and investing in response and recovery capabilities.

12-2 How reliant is the American economy on foreign oil? As of 2023, the United States has become a net exporter of petroleum products meaning that it exports more petroleum than it imports. Nevertheless, the U.S. still relies on foreign countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Iraq, for over 8 million barrels of petroleum per day. Does such reliance change the vulnerability of the Energy Sector to terrorism, both domestically and internationally?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question) Some answers may include exposure to international supply disruptions, global market interdependence, infrastructure targeting risks, supply chain and transportation risks, geopolitical entanglements. However, being an exporter reduces dependence and increases resilience overall.

12-4 How would you secure the Chemical Sector in the United States? How would you go about securing private corporations that conduct open commerce of explosives and other dangerous chemicals as part of their business venture?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Some answers may include the following topics. Securing the U.S. chemical sector requires a layered approach that combines regulation, technology, and industry cooperation. Agencies like the Department of Homeland Security can expand and enforce risk-based programs, such as the Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards, to ensure facilities handling hazardous materials meet strict security requirements. Private companies should implement robust access controls, employee background checks, and continuous monitoring of facilities and inventories to prevent insider and external threats. Cybersecurity is equally critical, with protections for industrial control systems to prevent sabotage or unauthorized manipulation of chemical processes. Regular training, audits, and emergency preparedness exercises further strengthen resilience and ensure that both public and private stakeholders can respond effectively to potential incidents.

12-5 How vulnerable are we to such attacks? How can the safety and security of players (runners) be improved while still maintaining access for spectators and media? What would you do to improve the security at such events?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Sample answers could include a layered, intelligencedriven security, use of advanced screening technologies, controlled access, and surveillance; coordination among teams, venue security, and law enforcement; and regular training and emergency drills.

12-6 Given the scale and persistence of Salt Typhoon’s cyber-espionage campaign against U.S. telecommunications and even the National Guard, how should the United States balance its response between defensive measures (e.g., strengthening infrastructure, regulations, and interagency coordination) and offensive cyber operations (e.g., retaliatory strikes, sanctions, or covert disruptions)? What ethical, legal, and geopolitical risks arise if the United States adopts a more aggressive posture in cyberspace against state-sponsored actors like China?

A: Answers will vary, but may include aspects of the sample answer. A balanced response to state-sponsored cyber campaigns like the Salt Typhoon activity should prioritize strong defensive measures while using offensive capabilities carefully and in a controlled, lawful manner strengthening infrastructure resilience, enforcing cybersecurity standards, and improving interagency coordination. A more aggressive posture carries significant ethical, legal, and geopolitical risks. Ethically, offensive cyber actions may impact civilian infrastructure or privacy, raising concerns about proportionality and unintended harm. Legally, actions must comply with domestic law and international norms governing state behavior in cyberspace, which are still evolving and sometimes ambiguous. Geopolitically, escalating cyber retaliation could trigger a cycle of attacks between major powers, potentially spilling over into broader economic or even kinetic conflict. For these reasons, most strategies emphasize a careful balance.

Review questions

1. What is critical infrastructure, and how does it impact people living in the United States?

A: Critical infrastructure refers to those systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on national security.

2. What is the role of the FBI and FEMA during a terrorist event in the United States?

A: Crisis management is handled by law enforcement, principally the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). This includes developing, coordinating, and managing a response to major terrorist events that threaten to harm the national security of the United States. The FBI is also the primary federal agency responsible for investigating crimes conducted by terrorist

organizations, and includes investigating the crime (terrorism), evidence collection, scene security, and other law enforcement activities. Consequence management is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and includes search and rescue operations, sheltering and caring for affected persons, debris removal, and mitigating damages after an event. Mitigation is an effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of a terrorist attack or natural disaster.

3. Discuss some of the major programs managed by the FBI to detect, investigate, and prevent terrorist strikes on the homeland.

A: • National Counterterrorism Center and the Public Internet Tip Line. The FBI is a major partner in the nation’s effort to thwart terrorism through the analysis and sharing of intelligence information.

• Strategic Information and Operations Center (SIOC). The SIOC is a state-of-the-art national fusion center located at the FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C. It acts as a national-level clearinghouse to collect, process, and disseminate intelligence information about terrorist threats and incidents

• The Counterterrorism Fly Team. The FBI maintains a small, highly trained cadre of terrorism first responders including field agents, SWAT personnel, intelligence analysts, Middle East experts, bomb technicians, and HAZMAT personnel readily available to respond to any terrorist incident worldwide.

• The Most Wanted Terrorist List. Historically derived from the FBI’s 10 Most Wanted Fugitives, the Most Wanted Terrorist List highlights the ten most wanted terrorists.

4. Define the all-hazards model.

A: The concept that there are similar aspects to planning for and responding to a catastrophe or emergency event caused by either natural or man-made origins.

5. What is the primary role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) in protecting U.S. critical infrastructure?

A: CISA serves as the operational lead for federal cybersecurity and the national coordinator for critical infrastructure security and resilience. The agency collaborates with federal, state, and local governments; stakeholders in public and private sectors; and international partners to promote a unified and proactive approach to safeguarding critical systems by identifying vulnerabilities, implementing appropriate protective measures, and sharing information.

6. What is the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)? Name some of the identified critical infrastructure sectors identified in the plan.

A: A formal directive that defines critical infrastructure within the United States and identifies 16 critical infrastructure sectors for protection against man-made (e.g., bombing, terrorist strike, information warfare) as well as natural (e.g., hurricane, flood, tornado, earthquake) disasters. These sectors are:

• Communications Sector

• Emergency Services Sectors

• Energy Sector

• Dams Sector

• Nuclear Sector

• Water Sector

• Chemical Sector

• Commercial Facilities Sector

• Healthcare and Public Health Sector

• Food and Agriculture Sector

• Critical Manufacturing Sector

• Transportation Sector

• Government Facilities Sector

• Banking and Finance Sector

• Defense Industrial Base Sector

• Information Technology Sector

7. How did Hurricane Katrina impact critical infrastructure in the United States?

A: Hurricane Katrina made landfall on the Gulf Coast and caused tremendous damage to all Critical Infrastructure Sectors, as well as homes, docks, and other areas. According to Paul McHale, then-Assistant Secretary of Defense, “the magnitude of the storm was such that the local communications system wasn’t simply degraded; it was, at least for a period of time, destroyed.” In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, an estimated 100 commercial radio stations were unable to broadcast, at least 2,000 cell phone towers were out of service, first responder communications were severely degraded, and 911 dispatch centers were damaged. Those 911 dispatch centers (Emergency Services Sector) that were able to remain online were quickly overwhelmed by the sheer volume of calls for assistance. Wireless communications were wiped out, as was the wired telephone system. Even the communications nodes with backup power supplies quickly failed without the ability to resupply fuel for generators in a timely manner, proving once again the impact on multiple sectors during an emergency event.

8. What are anthrax and ricin?

A: Anthrax is a spore-forming bacterium that is often “weaponized” or genetically altered to be more deadly. Ricin is an easily produced and highly toxic poison refined from castor beans.

9. Define the term “skyjacking.”

A: The diversion of a commercial airline flight away from its scheduled flight plan, usually by violence or threat of violence against passengers and/or crew.

10. Relate the activities of hacking and information warfare to threats against the IT Sector.

A: Hacking is an illegal intrusion into a secure data or computer system. Information warfare is the concept of using information technology to gain tactical or strategic advantage over an

opponent. Propaganda, disinformation, counterintelligence, deception, and the disruption of critical infrastructure are all aspects of information warfare. The IT Sector includes physical assets, as well as virtual systems and networks, across the public and private arenas within the United States. Federal agencies involved in the IT Sector include the U.S. Departments of Homeland Security, Commerce, Energy, and Defense; the National Institute of Standards and Technology; and the General Services Administration. Private partners include easily recognizable IT companies, defense contractors, and fiscal entities, such as Apple, Boeing, JPMorgan Chase, Google, eBay, Raytheon, Cisco, Citibank, Intel, Microsoft, Bank of America, and Lockheed Martin. State and local governments, as well as international partners, are also involved in securing the IT Sector.

11. What is APT1?

A: APT1 is a single organization of individual operators working within China that has conducted one of the most aggressive and sophisticated cyber espionage campaigns ever uncovered.

Critical thinking exercises

1. CISA Resource Hub. Visit the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) website at https://www.cisa.gov. Explore the Topics and Current Activities sections to learn more about the latest threats to U.S. critical infrastructure, including ransomware, phishing, and nation-state cyber operations. Then, review CISA’s Alerts & Advisories to see real-world examples of attacks and mitigation strategies. What new cyber threats are emerging that could disrupt vital systems? Discuss as a class how cybersecurity and information warfare continue to evolve as major threats to the nation. Can you suggest innovative measures technical, organizational, or policy-based that could make the United States less vulnerable to these kinds of attacks?

A: Answers will vary.

2. Preparing for Security at the Next Super Bowl. Explore the Internet and find articles focused on preparing for Super Bowl LIX, held in February 2025 at the Caesars Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. Read the U.S. Department of Homeland Security press release titled “DHS Agencies Support Super Bowl LIX Security” at: https://www.dhs.gov/news/2025/02/03/dhs-agencies-support-super-bowl-lix-security

Now, think about the challenges in planning security for this event. What unique risks does the New Orleans setting present? What new technologies or security initiatives should be enacted, such as drone defense, AI-assisted surveillance, or cyber intrusion monitoring? How will parking, riverfront access, and pedestrian entry points be restricted? Which federal, state, and local agencies will take the lead, and what role will each play? Consider other parts of the city, like Bourbon Street and the French Quarter, that will also be “on alert” due to crowds and

celebrations. Finally, research how much security costs for recent Super Bowls. Who should bear the responsibility for these costs, the host city the NFL, broadcasters, ticket holders, or taxpayers?

If you were the lead security planner, what single measure would you prioritize above all others to ensure safety at Super Bowl LIX, and why?

A: There will be variable answers to each of these questions.

3. Protecting Critical Infrastructure from Cyber-Physical Threats. In recent years, cyberattacks have moved beyond stealing data to targeting physical systems, such as the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack in 2021, which disrupted fuel supplies across the East Coast, or the 2024–2025 Salt Typhoon espionage campaign that infiltrated major U.S. telecommunications providers. Research one of these events (or another recent cyber-physical incident) and analyze its implications for U.S. critical infrastructure security. What vulnerabilities did the attackers exploit, and what cascading effects did the attack cause (e.g., supply chain, economy, public trust)? • Which agencies (CISA, FBI, DHS, private companies) responded, and how effective were their mitigation efforts? What lessons learned can be applied to future preparedness? If you were a policy advisor, would you recommend stricter regulations on private companies that manage critical infrastructure, or would you emphasize voluntary partnerships? Why? How can the United States better balance security, privacy, and economic competitiveness when responding to state-sponsored cyber threats against critical infrastructure?

A: Answers will vary.

Chapter 13 Emergency Management

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 13 provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution, principles, and practices of emergency management in the United States. It begins by tracing the historical roots of disaster response, from early colonial self-reliance and mutual aid societies to the formation of FEMA and the professionalization of emergency management as a field. The chapter explores key milestones, including the creation of federal programs, shifts in disaster philosophy, and the transformation of emergency services in response to changing national priorities. Foundational concepts such as the severity continuum and the distinctions between emergencies, disasters, catastrophes, and extinction-level events are introduced to help students classify and evaluate different levels of threat.

The chapter examines three broad categories of hazards natural, technological, and humancaused including updated case studies such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2024 Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse, and the 2025 Los Angeles wildfires. It explains the structure and function of critical emergency management systems like the National Incident Management System (NIMS), the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC), and the role of FEMA. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of pre-disaster planning, interagency coordination, mutual aid agreements, and the five mission areas (prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery) outlined in the National Preparedness Goal.

New content on CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive) threats, weapons of mass destruction, and bioterrorism preparedness is included, along with discussions regarding the evolving roles of the CDC, U.S. military, and the Center for Domestic Preparedness. The chapter also explores recovery through a cyclical and resilience-focused lens, introducing the THIRA (Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment) model and the Recovery Continuum. By weaving together historical lessons, policy developments, and current threats, Chapter 13 equips students with a comprehensive understanding of emergency management in both theory and practice.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 13.1 Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

• 13.2 Summarize the severity continuum.

• 13.3 State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/hazards.

• 13.4 Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

• 13.5 Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies responsible for dealing with these threats.

• 13.6 Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

• 13.7 Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Historically, disaster relief has suffered from several major issues. This chapter explores how these and other related issues have changed over time and describes the new emergency management practices that are now at the forefront of hazard and disaster mitigation.

Categories of Threats/Hazards

Emergency management (EM) is the managerial function that creates the framework within which communities reduce their vulnerability to hazards and cope with incidents and disasters. The goals of emergency management are to (1) save lives, (2) prevent injuries, and (3) protect property and the environment. All communities face a variety of threats/hazards, which endanger people, property, and other assets.

There are three categories of threats/hazards:

1. Natural, which include weather conditions as well as animal and human diseases.

2. Technological and accidental, created by technological failures and accidents.

3. Terrorist and human, which arise from intentional acts intended to disrupt systems, destroy property, and/or kill people.

The Severity Continuum

There are many ways to gauge the severity of an incident. Examples of these measures include the number of (1) deaths and injuries, (2) people displaced and evacuated, (3) homes and business that have major damage or are destroyed, and (4) financial indicators such as dollar loss and assistance expenditures. The severity continuum is a quick “front end” tool that allows officials to quickly gauge the preliminary answer to the question “How hard did we get hit?”

The points on the severity continuum are:

1. An “emergency” is a condition of actual danger to the lives of persons and/or the safety of property that requires a response.

2. A “disaster” is more severe than an emergency because it causes a serious disruption of the functioning of an entity, such as a community, and produces widespread human, material, economic, and/or environmental losses that exceed the ability of a community to cope using just its own resources.

3. A catastrophe is an incident that directly or indirectly affects large portions or all of a country and requires national and sometimes international responses.

4. An extinction event could result in the loss of all human life on the planet.

Pre-Planning and Core Capabilities

Every community must understand the plausible risks it faces. Risks are the possibilities of negative events occurring. The smart way to deal with risks is to understand their consequences and pre-plan to prevent them from happening and mitigating those that do occur.

FEMA’s THIRA process (Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment) helps communities identify capability targets and resource requirements necessary to address anticipated and unanticipated risks. The three steps in the THIRA Model are:

Step 1: Identify the Threats and Hazards of Concern.

Step 2: Give the Threats and Hazards Context.

Step 3: Establish Capability Targets.

Utilizing information gained through the use of the THIRA Model and other sources of data about their jurisdiction, communities plan for five missions: 1) prevention 2) protection 3) mitigation 4) response 5) recovery.

The Disaster Recovery Lifecycle and the Recovery Continuum

In our drive to anticipate, plan, and develop other formal elements, we often lose sight of a major asset we neither plan for nor develop, which is an important part of things from search and rescue all the way to recovery: chaos theory.

Chaos theory does not just explain how things spin out of control. Its real value is how order is restored when we are seemingly teetering at the top of a slippery slope. Part of how restoration occurs comes from the first three words in the preamble to our Constitution: We the People. Chaos theory explains not only how We the People self-organize; it also teaches us about how we reorganize our lives and move forward.

The Disaster Recovery Lifecycle outlines the phases through which communities progress after a disaster, from short-term stabilization of basic needs to intermediate restoration of critical services and, ultimately, to long-term rebuilding and achieving resilience. It emphasizes that recovery is not a single event but an ongoing process that requires sustained coordination and resources.

The shift from response to recovery is marked by several indicators, such as the stabilization of immediate threats to life and property and the restoration of essential community lifelines, which are services that are essential to human health and safety or economic security and enable the continuous operation of critical government and business functions The Recovery Continuum demonstrates how recovery efforts begin alongside response activities and gradually scale up during response operations, highlighting the relationship across these phases.

The Evolution of Emergency Management

In colonial America there was an ingrained belief that people should be self-reliant and responsible for their own lot in life. Catastrophic events saw people help each other.

Founded in 1881, the American Red Cross has provided domestic and international relief, although there was often not much to distribute. Despite various piecemeal efforts, the federal government’s central position for many decades was that disaster relief was the purview of state and local governments, which should not surprise us.

World War I to the 1930s

From a national perspective, emergency management ultimately grew out of World War I’s modest efforts in civil defense. As civil defense evolved, it ultimately took on a few emergency management–type tasks.

Two events shaped the 1930s: (1) the crash of the stock market in 1929, which produced a significant loss of Gross Domestic Product and ushered in the Great Depression, and (2) a drought so severe that it drove many farmers off their land in the heartland of the United States.

Within one hundred days of taking office, President Roosevelt and Congress collaborated to produce fifteen “New Deal Programs,” many of which focused on employment. Most importantly, the New Deal Programs reflected a policy shift away from the federal government’s long-standing attachment to a self-reliant philosophy. It was finally recognized that some problems were just too big for communities and states to address, although emergency management still took a long time to emerge.

The Impact of World War II

The successful Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 propelled the United States into World War II (1941–1945). It also raised significant fear of attacks on the mainland. In 1941, the newly created Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) coordinated federal, state, and local defense programs for the protection of civilians during air raids and other emergencies, as well as facilitating civilian participation in war programs.

The 1950s and 1960s

Throughout the many organizational changes, natural disasters continued to command attention despite the federal government’s focus on preparation for war and national security during peacetime. The Korean War (1950–1953) heightened public anxiety about nuclear war; some of that anxiety turned into outright fear. In late 1950, Congress passed a bill creating the Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA). In 1961, President Kennedy changed the federal approach to disasters, dividing the Office of Civil Defense and Mobilization (OCDM) into two entities: the Office of Emergency Preparedness (OEP) was created in the Executive Office of the President to respond to natural disasters, and civil defense responsibilities were housed in the Department of Defense.

The 1970s and the Emergence of FEMA

By 1975, nearly 100 federal agencies had some aspect of disaster assistance. Frustrated with this fragmentation, the National Governors Association (NGA) pushed for a single agency to have jurisdiction over natural and environmental disasters. In 1978, President Jimmy Carter responded by issuing Executive Order 12127, creating the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Finally, after many historical, legislative, and bureaucratic twists and turns, the apex of

modern emergency management arrived.

The 1980s and FEMA’s Shortcomings

Only three hurricanes hit the United States between 1980 and 1984, but the new agency (FEMA) had to deal with a variety of other incidents in its early years. In 1980, the eruption of Mount St. Helens in the State of Washington, near Portland, Oregon, marked the first major natural disaster that introduced FEMA as the primary emergency management agency in the United States.

FEMA’s response to major disasters in the late 1980s and early 1990s exposed severe shortcomings. Shortcomings for Hurricane Hugo, the Loma Prieta earthquake, and Hurricane Andrew resulted in widespread public outcry and scrutiny, eventually culminating in the first major congressional interest in disbanding FEMA. Fortunately, the Clinton administration decided that the organization needed serious reform and, in 1993, appointed James Lee Witt as the new FEMA director

The 1990s “Witt Revolution,” and Emergence of Terrorism

James Lee Witt, who was the only director in FEMA’s history at the time to have previous disaster management experience, spearheaded significant reforms as FEMA director Witt’s leadership, known as the “Witt Revolution,” saw both significant success for FEMA and the restoration of public confidence in the agency

Alongside FEMA’s improvements in preparedness and response, the bombing of Oklahoma City’s Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in 1995 by Timothy McVeigh and his co-conspirators elevated America’s awareness about terrorism. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 required the Department of Justice (DOJ) and FEMA to train metropolitan firefighters in responding to events caused by weapons of mass destruction. Three years later, the Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act required the training of state and local first responders in handling threats and actual weapons of mass destruction incidents. In 2003, FEMA was officially moved to the Department of Homeland Security, where it remains today.

The 2000s to Present

In 2005, after severe criticism of FEMA’s performance during Hurricane Katrina, the fourthmost powerful Gulf of Mexico hurricane ever recorded, Congress passed the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. Among the most important changes developed by the act were (1) FEMA remained a stand-alone agency within the Department of Homeland Security; (2) FEMA was given control over more emergency resources and designated as the primary agency responsible for disaster relief and mitigation; and (3) FEMA’s top official became the president’s principal advisor on emergencies and disasters regardless of causation.

Congress passed the Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (DRRA). The DRRA acknowledged the shared responsibility for disaster response and recovery, established goals to reduce the complexity of FEMA, and highlighted the federal government’s commitment to building more resilient infrastructure and communities. FEMA provided billions of dollars in emergency

funding to state, local, tribal, and territorial partners and assisted in vaccination efforts during the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic.

FEMA must work to ensure that it is able to build and deliver resources and capabilities in light of the increasingly severe and cascading impacts of climate change. Additionally, debates over defunding or cutting FEMA have resurfaced, with most of these debates arguing that disaster response should be more decentralized and left to the states. Nevertheless, FEMA remains the apex of emergency management in the United States.

• Movie Note: The online movie “The Storm” (2015) tells the gripping story of the Katrina response, its tragic consequences, and its political ramifications. Show the movie in class to discuss what went wrong in the government’s response to Katrina.

Weapons of Mass Destruction and CBRNE Attacks

Following the 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, President Clinton issued Presidential Decision Directive 39 (PDD-39), “U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism.” It required: (1) all federal government units to take actions to reduce vulnerabilities to terrorism at home and abroad, and (2) that terrorists and their sponsors would be dealt with vigorously and their actions would not alter American policies. Among other provisions, FEMA became responsible for the development of federal and state response plans associated with a terrorist strike directed at large U.S. populations, especially those utilizing weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

In May 2011, the White House initiated the National Strategy for CBRNE to address attacks that were WMD in nature. The acronym CBRNE became the standard to describe these types of attacks: Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear Explosive

The U.S. Military and CBRNE Attacks

In addition to the responsibilities assumed by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, several other agencies have a primary or supportive role in the case of a CBRNE attack. The U.S. Department of Defense maintains a highly trained CBRNE rapid response team using various specialists from all branches of the military.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) located in Atlanta, Georgia, has a unique and specific role in securing the country from, and during, a potential CBRNE attack. The CDC not only responds directly to such attacks but also prepares first responders and community leaders for these potential hazards.

Although we had the Flu Pandemic in 1918, SARS in 2003, and H1N1 in 2009, the CDC was at the forefront of dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted both the strengths and weaknesses of the CDC’s preparedness and response strategies. While the agency successfully facilitated vaccine distribution and public health messaging, it also faced criticisms for inconsistent communication and delays in responding to new variants

Modern Threats from WMD and CBRNE Attacks

The threat of CBRNE attacks has evolved, with global instability, technological advancements, and geopolitical tensions increasing the likelihood of both state-sponsored and non-state actors using such weapons. The Russian-Ukrainian war has raised concerns about the potential use of tactical nuclear weapons and chemical agents. Domestically, the FBI and DHS have warned about the growing threat of bioterrorism. The 2001 anthrax attacks and COVID-19 highlighted vulnerabilities.

CBRNE preparedness also extends to technological and accidental threats. The East Palestine train derailment showcased the devastating impact HAZMAT incidents can have. In 2023, a Norfolk Southern Railway train, carrying flammable and combustible hazardous materials, such as vinyl chloride monomer, derailed in East Palestine, Ohio. FEMA, DHS, and the CDC continue to expand training and response capabilities for CBRNE scenarios.

With increasing concerns over the rapid development of AI and cyber-enabled WMD threats, such as the disabling or manipulating of security sensors, traditional and novel CBRNE threats will need to be addressed simultaneously and within evolving contexts.

The National Incident Management System

In 2003, President George W. Bush issued Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5 (HSPD5). The purpose of HSPD-5 was to increase the ability of the United States to respond to domestic emergencies through a system that would prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from terrorist attacks, major disasters, and other emergencies. HSPD-5 required DHS to coordinate with other federal departments and agencies and state, local, and tribal governments to establish a single, comprehensive National Incident Management System (NIMS).

The all-hazards template approach reveals two major strengths of NIMS: standardization and flexibility. NIMS is valuable because it provides a set of nationally standardized organizational structures and procedures that emergency responders understand. It can be applied to any incident (large or small), allowing different jurisdictions that also use it to quickly work together in a predictable, coordinated manner.

The NIMS Template

The NIMS template consists of five components that work together to create a systematic, allhazards approach to any event or incident:

1. Resource management-preparedness and during an incident, with mutual aid.

2. Command and Coordination, which has four areas of responsibility: tactical activities, incident support, policy guidelines, and outreach and communication. These responsibilities are based on four key organizational elements: Incident Command System, Emergency Operations Centers, Multiagency Coordination Groups, and Joint Information Systems.

3. Communications and Information Management

The Secretary of Homeland Security is responsible for establishing a mechanism to ensure the ongoing management and maintenance of NIMS. That mechanism is the National Integration Center (NIC). NIC has regular consultations with federal agencies; state, tribal, and local governments; and NGOs, as well as the portions of the private sector that are implementing NIMS.

The Incident Command System (ICS)

The Incident Command System (ICS) is a vital part of NIMS and represents a standardized, onscene, all-hazards incident management approach that allows for the integration of facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure. ICS also enables a coordinated response among various jurisdictions, both public and private, as well as establishes a common process for planning and managing diverse resources from multiple venues.

The first arriving emergency responder to an incident automatically becomes the incident commander and remains in that role until (1) a more senior person arrives and takes command; (2) they need rest or are injured and the EOC director appoints a replacement; or (3) they are replaced for cause or other reason and the EOC director designates a new incident commander. One of the most important elements of the Incident Command System is the development of a unified command. Under the unified command, decisions are made by consensus of those leaders who are on the scene so that an integrated and efficient response can occur.

The Emergency Operation Center (EOC)

An Emergency Operations Center (EOC) is a concept used by many jurisdictions and is mandated by NIMS. When activated, its primary purpose is to provide support to the incident commander. An EOC has levels of activation, such as:

1) A standby/warning alert to the EOC staff that activation may occur.

2) Partial activation.

3) Full activation.

The EOC’s broader role is to provide support such as incident coordination, resource allocation, and information collection, analysis, and dissemination. Most states have an EOC, as do many local jurisdictions, and some states require cities of a certain size to have one or to join a multijurisdictional Emergency Operations Center.

The

National Preparedness System: How It All Fits Together

The National Preparedness System outlines an organized process for everyone in the whole community to move forward with their preparedness activities and achieve the National Preparedness Goal. The National Preparedness System has six parts:

1. Identifying and Assessing Risk.

2. Estimating Capability Requirements.

3. Building and Sustaining Capabilities.

4. Planning to Deliver Capabilities.

5. Validating Capabilities.

6. Reviewing and Updating.

The National Preparedness Goal

The National Preparedness Goal defines what it means to be prepared for all types of disasters and emergencies. When a community knows the threats/hazards it realistically faces, it will establish goals to deal with each threat/hazard. To achieve each goal, the community must develop different competencies or proficiencies called core capabilities.

The National Preparedness Report

The last step of the National Preparedness model presented by President Obama in Presidential Policy Directive #8 is the National Preparedness Report (NPR). The NPR is an annual assessment of national progress toward delivering the core capabilities outlined in the National Preparedness Goal (NPG). The report focuses on the progress made by the whole community partners including all levels of government, private and nonprofit sectors, faith-based organizations, communities, and individuals in the previous year.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 13 was updated with new disaster case studies, expanded coverage of technological and climate-related threats, and revised emergency management frameworks, including updated FEMA core capabilities and THIRA methodology.

• Added a new pandemic case study on COVID-19, emphasizing global unpreparedness, U.S. health system strain, PPE shortages, and long-term consequences. • Incorporated a 2024 case study on the Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse, exploring infrastructure failure, emergency response, and long-term economic impact. • Included the 2024 Roswell flooding and the 2025 Los Angeles wildfires, highlighting climate-related disasters and community vulnerability. • Expanded the technological hazards section with current examples (e.g., ransomware, power grid failures, and cyberattacks). • Enhanced the terrorist threat analysis, including newer vehicleramming incidents and ideological ties (e.g., sovereign citizens and IS pledges). • Refreshed statistics and figures across emergency types (natural, technological, and human-made) to reflect recent data and case examples. • Strengthened the discussion on mutual aid, EMAC, and predisaster coordination with updated federal and state-level initiatives. • Revised the sections on recovery to include chaos theory, resilience-building, and the cyclical recovery continuum in

disaster planning. • Modernized the FEMA and THIRA frameworks, with updated alignment of five mission areas and 32 core capabilities per the latest DHS/FEMA guidance.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Have the students earn a certificate of advanced training in the National Incident Management System. This can be done in class if computers are available. The free online training is accessed at https://training.fema.gov/is/nims.aspx. There are numerous certificates available, so students can earn a certificate related to their chosen field or earn several certificates on their own away from class. The training can take anywhere from 30 minutes to 2 hours, depending on the student. The certificate is usually available online within 24 hours.

Activity 2: A fun game to help teach the concept of sharing resources is a team game that takes very little preparation. Divide the class into groups of any size. Try to position the groups equidistant from the center of the room. You will call out an item, and the first team to bring the item to the center gets a point. Examples of items might be a white shoe, a dollar coin, a safety pin, a blue comb, a hat, or a bandage. Have a short discussion afterward about the advantages of sharing and utilizing resources from other agencies.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Consider the differences in population density between states like California and Alaska and between their largest cities, and discuss how these variations might influence the consequences of natural disasters and the level of preparedness required. Additionally, how might the denial of global warming exacerbate these challenges within a homeland security framework, particularly regarding resource allocation, infrastructure resilience, and emergency management strategies?

A: Answers will vary, but may include parts of the sample answer. Population growth and distribution, especially increased population density and urbanization, increases vulnerability to disasters. Most of the U.S. population resides in urban areas, resulting in increasing population concentration in coastal communities and flood-prone areas. Congestion, limited escape routes, dense infrastructure, and poverty add to the vulnerability. Denial of climate change can lead to underinvestment in preparedness, misallocation of resources, and delayed adaptation measures, weakening homeland security planning overall. In a densely populated state like California, this can exacerbate risks from wildfires, heat waves, and sea-level rise, putting large populations and critical infrastructure at greater risk if resilience measures are not prioritized. In contrast, sparsely populated Alaska faces challenges such as thawing permafrost and limited infrastructure, and denial may hinder targeted investments needed to protect remote communities. Overall, ignoring climate risks reduces the effectiveness of emergency management strategies and increases long-term vulnerability in both regions, albeit in different ways.

2. Visit and explore the website of the CDC at www.cdc.gov/. Under the tab labeled “Emergency Preparedness,” explore the recent “outbreaks and incidents” that have recently occurred around the world. What has been the role of the CDC during these incidents? Discuss the importance of this agency in responding to a terrorist strike using CBRNE agents.

A: Answers will vary.

3. Examine the disaster risk profile of your community by identifying the most likely type of disaster, natural, technological, or human-made, and estimating the probability of its occurrence

over the next 2, 5, and 10 years. How severe do you expect such an event to be, which local, state, or federal agencies would likely respond, and what emergency management plans are currently in place to address it? Additionally, interview a local emergency management official to gain insights into your community's preparedness and response strategies.

A: Answers will vary.

Chapter 14

Counterterrorism Strategies and Organizations

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Chapter 14 presents a comprehensive, prevention-centered approach to counterterrorism that goes beyond traditional force-based responses. It begins by examining the evolution of U.S. counterterrorism policy and strategy, distinguishing between reactive military tactics and holistic frameworks that address the root causes of extremism. Using the U.S. National Security Strategy (2022) as a foundation, the chapter emphasizes the importance of intelligence integration, international partnerships, human rights, and social resilience in dismantling the appeal of violent extremism.

The chapter analyzes the roles of key agencies including the FBI, DHS, DOJ, and the U.S. military and explores how interagency collaboration, intelligence sharing, and real-time coordination drive operational success. Specialized capabilities such as the FBI’s SWAT, Hostage Rescue Team (HRT), Legal Attaché program, and Joint Terrorism Task Forces are detailed alongside military support roles in special operations and domestic contingencies. A three-phase operational model investigation, tactical response, and prosecution illustrates how counterterrorism is conducted in practice, with case studies highlighting the evolving threat landscape and strategic law enforcement responses.

Finally, the chapter addresses emerging threats such as cyberterrorism, digital propaganda, and homegrown extremism. It explores community engagement, CVE (Countering Violent Extremism) programs, deradicalization efforts, and digital forensics as tools for long-term prevention. Legal frameworks, including the USA PATRIOT Act and international conventions, are critically assessed for their balance between security and civil liberties. By integrating theory, operations, and policy, Chapter 14 equips students with the knowledge to understand and contribute to adaptive and ethical counterterrorism efforts in a complex global environment.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

•

• 14.1 Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

• 14.2 Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

• 14.3 Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

• 14.4 Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

• 14.5 Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

• 14.6 Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

• 14.7 Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

For decades, counterterrorism strategies have primarily relied on military operations, targeted strikes, and force-based approaches to eliminate threats. Although these measures have at times disrupted terrorist networks, they have also led to significant unintended consequences, including fueling radicalization, alienating local communities, and perpetuating a cycle of violence that undermines long-term prevention. This shortfall underscores the need to prioritize prevention as a central pillar of counterterrorism. Contemporary terrorist threats arise in environments plagued by injustice, inequality, and political discontent/grievances, requiring a framework that prioritizes prevention, justice, and human rights A truly preventive counterterrorism approach requires practitioners who are not only analytically rigorous, with a deep understanding of the terrorist organizations they are targeting, but also possess extensive field experience, a strong grasp of local contexts, and access to real-time intelligence. The goal is not merely to eliminate individual terrorists but to systematically dismantle the conditions that enable extremist ideologies to emerge and spread. This includes preventing attacks before they are even planned and, where possible, disrupting the recruitment cycle through proactive intervention and strategic prevention measures.

This chapter explores the essential elements of a holistic counterterrorism model, focusing on intelligence collection, community-based prevention, legal frameworks, inter-agency cooperation, and strategic global collaboration, demonstrating that a sustainable and effective counterterrorism approach must be as dynamic, adaptable, and multifaceted as the threats it seeks to prevent.

National Security Policy and Strategy

“Policy” and “strategy” cannot be used synonymously. Our national security policy represents the goals the United States intends to accomplish, while our national security strategy is the actions we will take to ensure that our national security policies are achieved.

National Security Policy

Presidents of the United States are responsible for protecting this country. They determine national security policy and approve national security strategy. In both cases, presidents provide direction and guidance through such means as Presidential Policy Directives (PPDs) and executive orders. The National Security Council (NSC) is the president’s primary organizational forum for discussing, formulating, establishing, and executing foreign policy and national security measures.

National Security Strategy Formulation

Strategy formulation is part art and somewhat scientific in that it follows certain pat terns that require an understanding of terminology, adherence to certain principles, and thought processes that must simultaneously be creative and disciplined.

A Strategy Formulation Framework

Elements of strategy model include: our national purpose, our enduring national interests, our

strategic vision, national policy, the strategy formulation process (strategic concepts and national power), feasibility and acceptability, and risk assessment.

A Military Subordinate to Civil Authority

In the United States, counterterrorism within national borders is primarily a law enforcement function rather than a military responsibility. Law enforcement agencies such as the FBI, DHS, and local police departments take the lead in combating terrorism domestically. The National Guard serves as a key exception. When activated by a state governor, National Guard units can perform law enforcement functions within their home states, as they remain under state, not federal, command. The governor serves as the commander-in-chief of the National Guard unless the units are federalized, at which point authority shifts to the President of the United States.

Posse Comitatus Act does not bar the use of the military within the United States, but the Supreme Court has articulated the conditions under which presidents can invoke the Insurrection Act and allow military to be legally deployed within the United States for law enforcement actions. January 20, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed an executive order declaring a “national emergency” at the southern border and instructing the U.S. Department of Defense to deploy troops to enforce immigration law at the U.S. Mexican border. In a similar manner, President Trump signed another executive order on February 1, 2025, designating international criminal cartels as “Foreign Terrorist Organizations” or “Specially Designated Global Terrorists” under existing federal law. The order triggers the International Emergency Economic Powers Act and the Alien Enemies Act, which may allow the military to combat cartels and their members in the international arena. Most certainly, these executive orders will be challenged in court, and only time will reflect their constitutionality.

A Holistic and Preventative Framework for Counterterrorism

The evolution of terrorism in the twenty-first century necessitates a broader, more adaptive counterterrorism strategy, one that prioritizes prevention and resilience over reactive military responses. A truly holistic framework must integrate proactive measures that disrupt radicalization before violence manifests, combining security capabilities with strategies that foster stability, trust, and long-term deterrence.

Successful counterterrorism efforts rely on real-time intelligence, enabling authorities to intervene before attacks occur. Civil society also plays a critical role in prevention, fostering community trust, deradicalization initiatives, and early intervention strategies that help identify individuals at risk of radicalization. Ensuring effective collaboration between law enforcement, intelligence agencies, and community organizations enhances preventive measures, strengthens societal resilience, and reduces the reliance on reactive force-based solutions.

Legal Frameworks, Legislation, and Norm-Setting

Precisely defined laws targeting terrorist financing, recruitment, propaganda, and incitement to violence form the backbone of any counterterrorism policy. These legal frameworks allow authorities to prosecute not only active terrorists but also individuals and entities that enable or

facilitate their activities. However, for these laws to be effective, they must be consistently enforced, adaptable to evolving threats, and coordinated across national and international jurisdictions.

In the United States, the USA PATRIOT Act (2001) significantly expanded law enforcement capabilities The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) establishes international standards to prevent the misuse of financial systems for terrorism, while asset-freezing measures, crossborder intelligence-sharing agreements, and financial transaction monitoring help authorities disrupt terrorist funding channels. However, terrorist groups have increasingly exploited cryptocurrencies, informal money transfer systems (hawala), and shell companies to bypass traditional financial regulations, necessitating constant adaptation in enforcement strategies.

Balancing proactive security measures with the protection of civil liberties is essential to maintaining public trust. While counterterrorism legislation must be firm in addressing threats, it must also ensure transparency, accountability, and compliance with international human rights standards.

U.S. Attorney’s Office Role in Counterterrorism

U.S. Attorney’s Offices operate within 93 federal judicial districts across the United States and its territories, each led by a U.S. Attorney who serves as the chief federal law enforcement officer for that district. These offices have broad authority to prosecute violations of federal law, including terrorism-related offenses, within their respective jurisdictions. Although cases may originate from investigations conducted by federal agencies such as the FBI or DHS, the U.S. Attorney’s Offices guide the legal strategy, determine charges, and manage the prosecutorial process. U.S. Attorneys collaborate with entities such as Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs), Fusion Centers, and the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) to facilitate real-time intelligence-sharing and robust investigative support across all districts.

Human Rights, Rule of Law, and the Prohibition of Torture in Counterterrorism

Counterterrorism operations must be conducted within the framework of human rights and the rule of law to maintain legitimacy, protect democratic values, and avoid exacerbating the very threats they aim to neutralize. To prevent such consequences, international human rights treaties, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966), and the United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT, 1984), explicitly prohibit arbitrary detention and inhumane treatment, even in counterterrorism contexts.

The Strategic Risks of Human Rights Violations in Counterterrorism

When governments engage in excessive force, racial profiling, unlawful detentions, or torture, they risk driving individuals toward violent extremist groups that capitalize on narratives of persecution and oppression. When communities distrust law enforcement due to racial profiling or heavy-handed policing, they become less likely to report suspicious activity, undermining counterterrorism efforts.

A Human Rights-Based Approach to Counterterrorism

Key principles include: due process and fair trials, an absolute ban on torture, proportionality and necessity, oversight and accountability, community engagement and rehabilitation, and the elimination of double standards in counterterrorism.

Security and Human Rights are Not Mutually Exclusive

Countries that uphold legal standards and engage communities are better equipped to prevent terrorism without exacerbating grievances. A lawful and just counterterrorism approach not only disrupts threats but also prevents the cycle of radicalization from continuing.

Interagency and International Cooperation

Terrorism, by its very nature, transcends political boundaries and can quickly spread from one region to another, affecting multiple nations with little warning. Consequently, no single country can single-handedly address this global threat, regardless of its resources or capabilities. Effective counterterrorism depends on seamless collaboration across domestic agencies and, equally importantly, international partners. Such cooperation enables real-time intelligencesharing, coordinated law enforcement actions, and collectively addressing underlying factors that fuel extremism. U.S. agencies include the FBI, the CIA, and the NCTC. Globally, INTERPOL and the Global Counterterrorism Forum work in cooperation against terrorism. In addition to cooperation, diplomatic initiatives, peacekeeping missions, and program development are needed.

The Criticality of Intelligence and Early Intervention

Terrorism is inherently clandestine; terrorist organizations carefully plan attacks in secrecy, choosing their own timing, targets, and methods to maximize impact. This asymmetric advantage makes real-time intelligence gathering an indispensable tool in counterterrorism operations. The U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) is comprised of several agencies at the federal, state, and local levels, as well as intelligence fusion centers and Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs). To be effective, intelligence must seamlessly transition from collection to actionable insights, ensuring timely intervention against evolving threats. Tactical intelligence, gathered through human sources (HUMINT), electronic surveillance (SIGINT), and advanced analytics, provides security forces with real-time assessments, allowing for rapid responses to terrorist activities. The U.S. government has prioritized interagency intelligence-sharing to ensure that no critical warning signs go unnoticed.

Intelligence Drives Action

By proactively coordinating investigations and ensuring real-time information sharing across agencies, governments can reduce the tactical advantage terrorists seek to exploit and significantly lower the risk of successful attacks.

Cyber Counterterrorism and Digital Resilience

Terrorism increasingly exploits online platforms for recruitment, planning, and propaganda, making proactive cyber counterterrorism tactics indispensable. While digital surveillance and data analytics are essential for preemptively countering terrorist activities, U.S. agencies must simultaneously uphold First Amendment protections and respect human rights.

Carrying Out Counterterrorism Operations

While prevention remains the preferred strategy, effective counterterrorism requires swift action when intelligence indicates an imminent threat. A well-structured counterterrorism operation follows a three-phase approach: investigation, tactical enforcement, and judicial prosecution. This cycle ensures that operations are legally sound, intelligence-led, and sustainable in preventing future threats.

The Continuous Cycle of Counterterrorism Operations

By integrating investigative diligence, tactical precision, and legal enforcement, counterterrorism operations minimize terrorist capabilities while upholding the rule of law. The balance between security, intelligence, and justice remains a cornerstone of modern counterterrorism strategies, ensuring long-term resilience against evolving threats.

Target Hardening and Protective Measures Against Terrorism

Target hardening and protective measures are essential in minimizing vulnerabilities and mitigating the consequences of attacks.

Strengthening Critical Infrastructure and Public Spaces

One of the most crucial aspects of target hardening is securing critical infrastructure, including airports, energy grids, government buildings, financial centers, and mass transit systems. Similarly, public spaces and soft targets, such as concert venues, shopping malls, sports stadiums, and places of worship, have been reinforced following recent terrorist attacks.

Protection Against Vehicle and Drone Attacks

Vehicle-borne attacks, where terrorists use cars or trucks to ram into crowds, have become an increasing threat. Drones have also emerged as a new security challenge. Terrorist groups and rogue actors have used drones to conduct surveillance, deliver explosives, and disrupt airspace security. Governments worldwide are now developing counter-drone technologies to detect and neutralize aerial threats before they reach their targets.

Enhancing Cybersecurity and Digital Infrastructure Protection

U.S. agencies have strengthened firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and real-time cyber intelligence sharing. Public-private partnerships, such as those coordinated by the Cybersecurity

and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), have become essential in hardening digital defenses against cyberterrorism and ransomware attacks.

Securing High-Risk Individuals

As political violence and extremist threats grow, comprehensive security protocols remain critical to ensuring the safety of public figures worldwide.

Emergency Preparedness and Public Awareness

Effective emergency response planning can significantly reduce casualties and chaos in the event of an attack. The United States has implemented public awareness campaigns that encourage civilians to report suspicious activity and practice active shooter response drills.

The Challenges and Limitations of Target Hardening

While target hardening significantly reduces vulnerabilities, it does not entirely eliminate the threat of terrorism. Several challenges remain: Balancing Security and Civil Liberties, Resource Allocation, Adapting to Evolving Tactics, and Psychological and Economic Impact.

The Role of Digital Forensics and Traditional Forensics in Counterterrorism

Counterterrorism is a multifaceted effort that extends beyond intelligence gathering and tactical operations; it also relies heavily on forensic science to investigate, disrupt, and prevent terrorist activities. Both digital forensics and traditional forensic investigations play a crucial role in identifying perpetrators, reconstructing attack methods, tracking terrorist networks, and securing convictions in court.

Digital Forensics: Unmasking Terrorists Networks in the Cyber Age

Terrorist organizations increasingly rely on digital platforms for communication, recruitment, propaganda, fundraising, and operational planning. Digital forensics, the process of recovering, analyzing, and interpreting electronic evidence from computers, mobile devices, cloud storage, and online platforms, has become a core component of counterterrorism investigations.

Traditional Forensics and Crime Scene Investigation in Counterterrorism

Traditional forensic methods remain indispensable in understanding terrorist attacks and prosecuting those responsible. One of the most critical applications of traditional forensics is explosive device analysis and post-blast investigation. Fingerprint and DNA identification techniques also play a crucial role in counterterrorism forensics. Another essential forensic tool is ballistics and firearms examination. Forensic document examination plays a key role in identifying fraudulent travel documents by analyzing paper composition, ink traces, and printing anomalies.

Challenges and Future Trends in Counterterrorism Forensics

Despite advancements in forensic science, several challenges remain: encryption and data anonymity, cross-border investigations, and forensic backlogs.

Prevention of Recruitment to Terrorism

Recruitment prevention disrupts the radicalization process before individuals engage in violent extremism. By targeting the early stages of recruitment, this approach reduces the need for costly counterterrorism operations, prosecutions, and long-term incarceration. A holistic recruitment prevention strategy incorporates community outreach, education, digital counter-messaging, and intervention programs. Engaging families, educators, and religious leaders fosters resilience against extremist narratives, while law enforcement agencies and civil society groups play a crucial role in identifying at-risk individuals.

Community Engagement and Building Trust: A Foundation of Counterterrorism

Community engagement and trust-building are critical tools in counterterrorism efforts, as strong relationships between law enforcement, government agencies, and local populations can significantly enhance efforts to detect, prevent, and counteract extremist threats.

Addressing Root Causes and Promoting Justice

Extremist organizations thrive by manipulating socioeconomic disparities, political injustices, and cultural grievances to fuel recruitment. Marginalized groups, particularly those facing economic hardship, social discrimination, or political repression, are more susceptible to radicalization. Addressing these grievances through fair policies, inclusive governance, and social programs is essential in countering the extremist narratives that exploit these vulnerabilities.

Building Partnerships Between Law Enforcement and Communities

When residents feel safe reporting suspicious activities, law enforcement can intervene before radicalization translates into violence. However, in many instances, heavy-handed policing or discriminatory profiling can erode trust, causing communities to withdraw cooperation. To counter this, law enforcement agencies worldwide have implemented community policing models, where officers engage regularly with local populations, build relationships, and address security concerns through dialogue rather than force.

The Role of Civil Society and Interfaith Initiatives

Religious figures, educators, and local activists can serve as credible voices against radicalization, offering alternative narratives that delegitimize extremist propaganda.

Deradicalization Initiatives

Deradicalization programs play an equally vital role in rehabilitating individuals who have already adopted extremist ideologies. These initiatives focus on disengaging individuals from violent extremism through counseling, education, psychological support, and structured

reintegration into society. Deradicalization efforts seek to correct ideological misconceptions, address personal grievances that led to radicalization, and equip individuals with alternative narratives that counter extremist propaganda. Successful programs emphasize a tailored approach, recognizing that radicalization pathways are diverse and require individualized interventions.

Countering Extremism Through Prevention: The Role of CVE and PVE

Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) and Preventing Violent Extremism (PVE) initiatives aim to intervene before individuals turn to violence. CVE and PVE prioritize community-led interventions, education, and counter-narratives that challenge extremist ideologies. These programs work by fostering partnerships between governments, educators, social workers, and religious leaders to identify at-risk individuals and provide them with support networks that steer them away from radical influences.

Mechanisms of CVE and PVE Initiatives

Focus on: community engagement, education and awareness, counter-narratives, and support services.

Criticism and Challenges

CVE and PVE programs face criticism over effectiveness, implementation, and unintended consequences. A key issue is the lack of standardized definitions and evaluation metrics, making it difficult to measure success. Extremist groups adapt to countermeasures, shifting recruitment to decentralized online platforms where traditional CVE efforts struggle. Poorly designed programs may also reinforce extremist narratives, alienating communities and inadvertently pushing individuals toward radicalization instead of deterring them.

A Sustainable and Adaptive Counterterrorism Strategy

An effective counterterrorism strategy must be comprehensive, preventive, and adaptable. While intelligence and enforcement are crucial, long-term success hinges on community engagement, legal integrity, and international cooperation. Governments must commit to evidence-based policies that uphold human rights while countering evolving threats.

Department of Justice (DOJ)

The Department of Justice (DOJ) serves as a central pillar in the United States’ counterterrorism framework, coordinating both investigative and judicial responses to terrorist threats. Under the leadership of the Attorney General, the DOJ enforces counterterrorism statutes and oversees federal law enforcement efforts, most notably through the FBI.

The DOJ plays a crucial role in shaping judicial strategies that address evolving terrorist threats. The National Security Division (NSD), for instance, integrates intelligence-sharing, legal oversight, and prosecutorial coordination, enabling a balanced approach to domestic and

transnational terrorism cases.

National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC)

The National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) was established under the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to unify U.S. counterterrorism efforts and enhance information sharing across government agencies. Operated under the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), the NCTC functions as the primary organization for analyzing and integrating terrorism-related intelligence, coordinating strategic operational planning, and providing situational awareness to senior policymakers. The NCTC maintains a publicly accessible Counterterrorism Guide.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

The FBI is the United States’ principal federal agency responsible for countering both domestic and international terrorist threats on U.S. soil. Its mission includes detecting, investigating, and disrupting terrorist activities before they materialize into attacks. As a dual-mandate agency under the Department of Justice (DOJ), the FBI combines law enforcement authority with intelligence operations, allowing it to prosecute terrorist suspects while also taking proactive measures to prevent attacks. Under laws such as the USA PATRIOT Act, the FBI is the only agency with both intelligence collection and law enforcement powers, allowing it to investigate U.S. persons suspected of terrorism-related activities.

Lead Counterterrorism Agency and Jurisdiction

The USA PATRIOT Act enhanced the FBI’s ability to detect and neutralize threats. These authorities are subject to judicial and congressional oversight to maintain civil liberties protections. These powers include: Electronic Surveillance – The FBI, with approval from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC), can monitor the communications of suspected terrorists, including wiretaps, email tracking, and metadata analysis. Financial Tracking –Through Section 314 of the USA PATRIOT Act, the FBI collaborates with financial institutions to monitor and disrupt money transfers suspected of financing terrorism. Informant Recruitment & Undercover Operations – The FBI actively cultivates confidential informants within extremist groups and deploys undercover agents to identify and disrupt terrorist plots from within.

Organizational Structure and Intelligence Capabilities

The FBI operates within the National Security Branch (NSB), which integrates law enforcement and intelligence operations. The NSB consists of key divisions: Counterterrorism Division –Investigates and neutralizes terrorist threats through intelligence gathering and proactive operations. Counterintelligence Division – Identifies and counters espionage threats that may intersect with terrorist activities. Directorate of Intelligence – Merges intelligence analysts and special agents to synthesize threat information and provide real-time threat assessments

Specialized Units and Tactical Capabilities

The FBI maintains specialized tactical units: Hostage Rescue Team (HRT), Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT), Crisis Negotiation Unit (CNU), Evidence Response Teams (ERTs). Behavior Analysis Units (BAU), Tactical Helicopters, and Bomb Technicians.

Interagency Collaboration and Counterterrorism Partnerships

The FBI partners with: Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs), Terrorist Screening Center (TSC), Legal Attaché (Legat) Offices, National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) Integration, and the FBI’s Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force (FTTTF).

Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

Established in 2002 in response to the September 11 attacks, DHS consolidated 22 federal agencies under one umbrella to create a cohesive, coordinated approach to national security threats, including terrorism. The department is tasked with detecting, preventing, and responding to terrorist activities, whether they originate domestically or internationally.

Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)

Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) is a division of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). HSI conducts criminal investigations related to transnational threats, including terrorism, human trafficking, financial crimes, and smuggling networks that could aid terrorist organizations. HSI’s primary counterterrorism responsibilities include: investigating terrorismrelated immigration violations, disrupting terrorist financing by monitoring illicit money flows, identifying and dismantling transnational criminal organizations (TCOs), partnering with international agencies.

Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and Border Security Against Terrorist Threats

CBP enforces strict screening protocols at ports of entry, land borders, and maritime environments, ensuring that individuals and goods entering the country do not pose a security risk. CBP’s counterterrorism efforts include: pre-screening and vetting travelers, detecting and interdicting illicit cargo shipments, using biometrics and facial recognition technology, and operating the National Targeting Center (NTC)

The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and Aviation Security

TSA was created after the September 11 attacks to enhance passenger screening procedures and prevent terrorist hijackings or aviation-based attacks. TSA’s counterterrorism strategies include: passenger and baggage screening at more than 440 U.S. airports, the TSA PreCheck and Secure Flight Program, Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS), and canine explosive detection units

Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) and Countering Cyberterrorism

The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), a division of DHS, is responsible for protecting the United States from cyber threats linked to terrorism and foreign adversaries.

CISA works to prevent cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, including power grids, financial systems, and emergency response networks, ensuring that terrorist organizations and hostile actors cannot exploit vulnerabilities. The agency also monitors and disrupts cyber threats from terrorist groups and state-sponsored cyber actors attempting to infiltrate U.S. networks, steal sensitive intelligence, or sabotage critical systems.

National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS): Communicating Threats to Enhance Public Security

The National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS), established in 2011 as a replacement for the color-coded Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS), serves as the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) primary tool for communicating terrorist threats to the public. NTAS provides timely and detailed alerts, ensuring that both law enforcement agencies and the general public remain informed about potential threats to national security.

DHS as the Primary Intelligence-Sharing Hub for Federal, State, and Local Law Enforcement

The Office of Intelligence and Analysis (I&A) serves as the intelligence hub within DHS, ensuring that threat information is disseminated across all levels of government. Key intelligence-sharing initiatives include fusion centers, homeland security information network, counterterrorism task forces, and the “If you see something, say something” campaign.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA was originally tasked with gathering, analyzing, and disseminating foreign intelligence.90 While the Act did not explicitly authorize covert operations, its broad language enabled the agency to conduct paramilitary and clandestine activities. Over time, these covert operations expanded, with the CIA playing a pivotal role in counterterrorism efforts worldwide.

The Special Activities Division (SAD) and Covert Operations

One of the CIA’s most critical counterterrorism units is the Special Activities Division (SAD), now known as the Special Activities Center (SAC). This elite unit is composed of highly trained paramilitary officers recruited from special operations forces such as the U.S. Navy SEALs, Delta Force, and Army Green Berets. The SAC conducts high-risk missions, including direct action, counterterrorism raids, and capture-or-kill operations against terrorist leaders.

Failures in Intelligence Sharing and the 9/11 Attacks

A critical failure of the CIA before the September 11, 2001, attacks was its reluctance to share intelligence with other federal agencies, particularly the FBI. The 9/11 Commission Report later concluded that the failure to share intelligence hindered the FBI and other agencies from seeing the “big picture,” leading to missed opportunities to prevent the attacks. As a result, post-9/11 reforms forced the CIA to work more closely with the FBI and other intelligence agencies,

ensuring greater collaboration in counterterrorism efforts.

The CIA’s Role in Global Counterterrorism Efforts

The CIA remains one of the most powerful intelligence agencies involved in counterterrorism operations worldwide. It conducts surveillance, infiltrates terrorist networks, gathers human intelligence (HUMINT), and leads covert operations in conflict zones. The agency works closely with the U.S. military’s Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) to neutralize terrorist leaders and disrupt terrorist financing networks.

The U.S. Department of Energy

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) plays a critical role in preventing and responding to nuclear and radiological terrorism threats. A key component of the DOE’s counterterrorism efforts is the Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST), which consists of highly trained nuclear specialists tasked with detecting, identifying, and neutralizing nuclear and radiological threats. The DOE works closely with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Department of Defense (DoD), and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist organizations from acquiring nuclear materials.

State and Local Law Enforcement in U.S. Counterterrorism

State and local law enforcement agencies play a critical, front-line role in the United States’ counterterrorism strategy. Their proximity and familiarity with local communities make them well-positioned to detect, investigate, and deter potential terrorist activities before they escalate. These agencies often serve as the first responders to threats and suspicious behavior, acting as the “eyes and ears” that can feed valuable intelligence into broader federal efforts. They utilize JTTFs and fusion centers.

Specialized Counterterrorism Units

Many major city police departments, such as those in Los Angeles, Chicago, and Boston, have established specialized counterterrorism and intelligence divisions similar to the New York City Police Department (NYPD). These units are responsible for monitoring potential threats, developing response protocols, and engaging with local communities to build resilience against violent extremism. State-level agencies also play a significant role in counterterrorism efforts. Many state police departments have dedicated counterterrorism sections that focus on intelligence gathering and interagency coordination.

Community Policing and Intelligence Gathering

One of the most effective counterterrorism tools for state and local agencies is community policing. By building trust with residents, officers encourage citizens to report suspicious behavior or potential radicalization. This grassroots intelligence can help thwart attacks before they materialize. Programs such as the DHS-supported “If You See Something, Say Something” campaign. The expanded counterterrorism role of local law enforcement has sparked debates

about transparency, potential overreach, and the protection of civil liberties.

Challenges and Future Directions

Terrorism is becoming increasingly decentralized, with individuals inspired by online propaganda or domestic extremist ideologies planning attacks that are harder to detect. These “lone-actor” attackers operate independently, making it challenging for law enforcement to identify them before they act. As a result, state and local agencies must continuously adapt their training and tactics to detect and disrupt these evolving threats. While major cities often have substantial counterterrorism budgets, smaller jurisdictions struggle to finance advanced technology, specialized units, or increased personnel.

Terrorist plots do not respect geographic boundaries, making interagency coordination crucial. Ensuring seamless collaboration among city, county, state, tribal, and federal agencies remains a core challenge. Fusion centers and Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) are designed to enhance coordination, but maintaining effective communication and collaboration requires ongoing effort and commitment.

The Evolving Role of the Military in Counterterrorism

Military engagement in counterterrorism serves several objectives: eliminating high-value targets, disrupting training camps, severing logistical and financial pipelines, and denying safe havens to extremist groups. Such operations often employ precision airstrikes, special operations raids, and drone warfare.

Under international law, states may invoke Article 51 of the UN Charter to act in self-defense against armed attacks or imminent threats, and additional mandates may arise through United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolutions. Domestically, countries like the United States often rely on specific authorizations, like the 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF), to define the legal scope of counterterrorism missions. Adhering to these standards safeguards the legitimacy of military operations, ensuring interventions remain targeted, proportionate, and compliant with international humanitarian law.

Open Warfare

Open warfare in counterterrorism refers to large-scale, often conventional, military operations intended to dismantle terrorist networks, secure territory, and bolster governance structures so that terrorist groups cannot reestablish themselves. While special operations forces excel at targeted counterterrorism actions, open warfare may become necessary when terrorist

organizations acquire territorial control, operate as insurgencies, or directly threaten national or international security. One significant example occurred in 2003 when a U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq, initially to depose Saddam Hussein’s regime. After U.S. forces withdrew in 2011, the Islamic State (IS) capitalized on sectarian divisions and weak governance to capture swaths of Iraq and Syria, declaring a self-styled caliphate. In response, the United States and its allies launched Operation Inherent Resolve (2014–present)

Open warfare tactics have also been employed elsewhere. A similar transition from direct largescale engagement to counterterrorism support took place in Afghanistan. In Africa, the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM) has supported local forces against al-Shabaab in Somalia, various Islamic State affiliates in the Sahel, and Boko Haram in Nigeria.

Ultimately, open warfare can weaken or expel terrorist networks from territory, but its lasting impact depends on stable governance, economic development, and the reform of security institutions. Lessons from Iraq and Afghanistan emphasize the need for a well-planned transition from large-scale military involvement to precision operations, intelligence sharing, and capacitybuilding partnerships.

Raids

Raids are tactical operations conducted to capture high-value targets, gather intelligence, or disrupt terrorist activities. They can also serve as retaliatory actions when diplomatic or legal measures are ineffective. Raids may also be punitive in reaction to terrorist acts for which there is no peaceful redress (e.g., the United States bombed Tripoli and Benghazi, Libya, in 1986 because of that nation’s role in the bombing of a nightclub in Berlin that was frequented by American soldiers).

Preemptive Strikes

Preemptive military action is defined as striking a target in advance of a reasonably anticipated attack to circumvent its occurrence and to avoid suffering its effects. In 2001, preemption was used to justify the American attack on Afghanistan, which had been harboring al-Qaeda terrorists and Usama bin Laden before and after 9/11.

Direct Action

The United States has used direct action to eliminate leaders of terrorist organizations in order to disrupt their plans and operations. Two examples from 2011 illustrate this point: (1) A drone attacked a convoy in Yemen and killed American-born Anwar al-Awlaki; and (2) Navy SEALs killed Usama bin Laden at his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan.

Hostage Rescue –

Historically, there are a number of incidences where highly trained military units attempted to or did rescue hostages. The rescue of Captain Richard Phillips from Somali pirates in 2009 is a recent example.

U.S. Military Agencies in Counterterrorism Operation

U.S. northern command (NORTHCOM)

Established in 2002, the U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM) directs the U.S. Department of Defense’s homeland security efforts and the planning, organizing, and execution of military support to civil authorities.

NORTHCOM established Joint Task Force North in 2004 to assist local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies in protecting the border between Mexico and the United States. NORTHCOM also sets the level of force protection at Department of Defense installations, facilities, and units within its area of responsibility.

NORTHCOM manages Force Protection Conditions (FPCONs) for all Department of Defense (DOD) facilities within its jurisdiction. These graduated levels, Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, and Delta, guide commanders in implementing appropriate security measures based on evolving or actual threat scenarios. The command also takes the lead in initiatives against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) risks, working with partners like the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to ensure a unified response to emergent challenges. While NORTHCOM’s primary focus lies in homeland defense, it frequently collaborates with U.S. Special Operations Command (SOCOM) and Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC), which oversee special operations forces engaged in global counterterrorism activities.

U.S. Marine Corps

Among the U.S. Marine Corps’ anti-terrorism units is the Chemical, Biological, and Immediate Response Force (CBIRF), a battalion-sized unit (usually over 500 soldiers) that can be deployed to a terrorist incident anywhere in the world within twenty-four hours. The unit is stationed at the Naval Support Facility, Indian Head, Maryland.

U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)

The U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM, or simply SOCOM) was formed in 1987 and is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. Its mission is to provide fully capable Special Operations Forces to defend the United States and its interests and to synchronize global military operations against terrorist networks.

The FBI and the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)

The FBI and the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) have an alliance that benefits both parties and has moved the FBI deeper into counterterrorism operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other countries.

U.S. Army Special Forces “Green Berets”

At the end of World War II in 1945, Colonels Aaron Bank and Russell Volckmann returned to the Army from the soon-to-be-disbanded Office of Strategic Services (OSS). OSS personnel who

joined Special Forces often wore berets of the foreign military units with which they operated. Special Forces began wearing the green beret informally. Several months later, the U.S. Department of the Army suddenly reversed itself and authorized the beret. President Kennedy called the Green Beret “a symbol of excellence, a badge of courage, a mark of distinction in the fight for freedom.” Since that time, Special Forces members have been known as “Green Berets.”

U.S. Army Delta Force

Lieutenant Charles Beckwith saw combat during the Korean War (1952–1953). Upon returning to the United States, he completed Ranger training and joined Special Forces. In 1977, Lieutenant Colonel Beckwith was given two years to create and make the new “Delta Force” mission-ready.Most of the personnel for this new unit came from Special Forces. In 1980 Delta participated in Operation Eagle Claw. In the wake of its failure, now Colonel Beckwith saw the need for more special operations training.

U.S. Navy SEAL Teams

Navy SEALs evolved out of four separate World War II organizations. Like other elite special operations units, members volunteer and then pass one of the most rigorous selection courses in the armed forces in the world. The four World War II legacy units comprising today’s Navy SEALs were (1) the Amphibious Scouts and Raiders; (2) the Naval Combat Demolition Units; (3) the Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT); and (4) the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) maritime operators. Today’s SEAL Teams, including the well-known SEAL Team 6 (also called DEVGRU), conduct a range of missions such as direct action, special reconnaissance, foreign internal defense, and counterterrorism. Renowned for the 2011 Abbottabad raid that killed Usama bin Laden.

U.S. Army 75th Ranger Regiment

Rangers have a long and distinguished military history. Today’s 75th Ranger Regiment consists of the 1st Battalion (Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia), the 2nd Battalion (Fort Lewis, Washington), and the 3rd Battalion and the Regimental Special Troops Battalion (Fort Benning, Georgia). The 75th Ranger Regiment has six primary missions: (1) direct action to seize, destroy, or capture enemy facilities and materials; (2) airport seizure for use by follow-on forces; (3) special reconnaissance to locate hostile forces for future operations; (4) personnel recovery, including evacuation or rescue of civilians and POWs in enemy territory or hostile terrain; (5) clandestine insertion to surprise the opponent, seize the initiative, and instill confusion in hostile forces; and (6) sensitive site exploitation to collect and analyze information gained on missions to conduct rapid follow-on operations.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 14 was updated to emphasize a prevention-centered approach to counterterrorism, with expanded analysis of the U.S. National Security Strategy, legal and human rights frameworks, cyber counterterrorism, intelligence coordination, and the operational role of the U.S. military and federal agencies.

• Introduced a holistic, prevention-centered counterterrorism strategy that moves beyond forcebased responses. • Expanded discussion of U.S. National Security Strategy (2022) and strategy formulation models, integrating recent global developments and strategic competition (e.g., China, Russia, and cyber threats). • Added full case analysis of U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and its long-term counterterrorism implications, including resurgent extremist networks. • Introduced new content on the FBI’s global counterterrorism roles, including the Legal Attaché program for international intelligence-sharing, as well as domestic operations such as hostage negotiations, SWAT deployments, and tactical threat response. • Expanded legal frameworks and human rights section, emphasizing the balance between security and civil liberties and including analysis of torture, indefinite detention, and profiling as counterproductive. • Introduced a comprehensive overview of the U.S. Attorney’s Office, Joint Terrorism Task Forces, and Anti-Terrorism Advisory Councils in shaping domestic counterterrorism legal action. • Integrated cyber counterterrorism content, addressing digital resilience, AI-driven threat detection, and the risks of surveillance overreach in democratic societies. • Detailed operational phases of counterterrorism, including investigative, tactical (e.g., SWAT and HRT), and judicial prosecution with updated domestic case studies (e.g., Brandon Russell plot and Brad Spafford arrests). • Expanded focus on intelligence integration and early intervention, highlighting predictive models, SIGINT/HUMINT, and post-9/11 improvements in interagency communication. • Strengthened emphasis on target hardening and infrastructure protection, with recent examples such as cyberattacks on U.S. government systems and the 2024 assassination attempt on a former U.S. president. • Highlighted the U.S. military’s role in special operations, direct action missions, and support to civil authorities in counterterrorism efforts.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Invite a guest speaker from your local police department assigned to the anti- or counterterrorism unit. Have the speaker cover the job duties, training, and current affairs. Allow students to ask questions, and have some questions ready for areas that might not get covered.

Activity 2: Register with “The Cell” website. This site has several free lesson plans for teaching about terrorism. Go to “Walking a Tight Rope” and view the examples of terrorist attacks. This chart shows the government response from each nation to the specific attack. This will be a good aid in teaching the concept of counterterrorism around the world.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO BOX QUESTIONS & END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS

Box questions

14-1 Do you think that hostage and crisis negotiations should be a strategy to effectively deal with a terrorist incident?

A: Answers will vary.

14-2 How well do you think NORTHCOM will be able to respond to a major terrorist incident? What if there were three simultaneous major attacks, each with 200,000 total casualties?

A: Answers will vary. More information about NORTHCOM can be obtained from its website.

14-3 What should have America learned from this incident as it looked to the future?

A: Answers will vary.

Review questions

1. How did the failure of Operation Eagle Claw influence the development of U.S. counterterrorism strategy, particularly in the creation of U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)?

A: USSOCOM was formed to centralize and protect special operations forces’ interests, resources, and missions of Special Operations Forces (SOF). Since its inception, USSOCOM has addressed the longstanding issues highlighted by Operation Eagle Claw and similar incidents, providing a unified command structure for U.S. special operations forces. Through USSOCOM, SOF personnel benefit from specialized training, dedicated funding, and cohesive oversight, enabling a synchronized global counterterrorism and special operations strategy. The command’s evolution reflects the U.S. military’s recognition that properly coordinated and resourced SOF are integral to meeting modern security challenges.

2. What are the primary responsibilities of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in counterterrorism, and how did intelligence failures contribute to the 9/11 attacks?

A: The CIA plays a pivotal role in counterterrorism efforts worldwide. A critical failure of the CIA before the September 11, 2001, attacks was its reluctance to share intelligence with other federal agencies, particularly the FBI. Despite having knowledge of key al-Qaeda operatives, including two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, the CIA failed to share this information with the FBI. This lack of interagency coordination prevented U.S. law enforcement from connecting key pieces of intelligence that could have thwarted the attacks. The 9/11 Commission Report later concluded that the failure to share intelligence hindered the FBI and other agencies from seeing the “big picture,” leading to missed opportunities to prevent the attacks. As a result, post-9/11 reforms forced the CIA to work more closely with the FBI and other intelligence agencies, ensuring greater collaboration in counterterrorism efforts.

3. How has the relationship between the FBI and CIA evolved since 9/11, and what measures have been implemented to improve intelligence sharing between agencies?

A: Today, the CIA remains one of the most powerful intelligence agencies involved in counterterrorism operations worldwide. It conducts surveillance, infiltrates terrorist networks, gathers human intelligence (HUMINT), and leads covert operations in conflict zones. The

agency works closely with the U.S. military’s Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) to neutralize terrorist leaders and disrupt terrorist financing networks. While the CIA’s counterterrorism role has evolved, its failure to share intelligence before 9/11 remains a critical lesson in the importance of interagency cooperation. By integrating intelligence efforts with the FBI, military, and international partners, the CIA continues to play a vital role in protecting U.S. national security from terrorist threats.

4. What are the different roles of military special operations forces in counterterrorism missions, such as Delta Force, SEAL Team 6, and the Army’s Green Berets?

A: Primarily staffed by Special Forces personnel, Delta initially faced extreme secrecy, so much so that the U.S. government often denied its existence. Many of Delta Force’s missions remain classified Their sacrifices underscore Delta Force’s high-risk role and the unit’s capacity for rapid, specialized counterterrorism and unconventional warfare missions. The U.S. Army Special Forces, commonly referred to as the “Green Berets,” and the U.S. Navy SEALs trace their lineage to four distinct World War II units. Today’s SEAL Teams, including the well-known SEAL Team 6 (also called DEVGRU), conduct a range of missions, such as direct action, special reconnaissance, foreign internal defense, and counterterrorism.

5. How do the five forms of military action, open warfare, raids, preemptive strikes, direct action, and hostage rescue, contribute to counterterrorism efforts, and what historical examples illustrate their effectiveness?

A: Unlike antiterrorism measures, which focus on defensive strategies and hardening targets, counterterrorism operations involve direct action, typically military or paramilitary interventions, aimed at disrupting, degrading, or dismantling terrorist networks. Open warfare in counterterrorism refers to large-scale, often conventional, military operations intended to dismantle terrorist networks, secure territory, and bolster governance structures so that terrorist groups cannot reestablish themselves. Raids are tactical operations conducted to capture highvalue targets, gather intelligence, or disrupt terrorist activities. Preemptive military action is defined as striking a target in advance of a reasonably anticipated attack to circumvent its occurrence and to avoid suffering its effects. The United States has used direct action to eliminate high-value terrorist leaders, aiming to disrupt their networks and prevent future attacks. These operations often involve drone strikes, special operations raids, or precision airstrikes targeting key figures within terrorist organizations.

6. What functions do the Department of Energy’s Nuclear Emergency Support Teams (NEST) perform in preventing and responding to potential nuclear terrorism threats?

A: A key component of the DOE’s counterterrorism efforts is the Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST), which consists of highly trained nuclear specialists tasked with detecting, identifying, and neutralizing nuclear and radiological threats. In a terrorist-related incident, NEST teams deploy to search for, assess, and render safe potential nuclear or radiological devices. These teams range from small expert units to large-scale emergency response teams, depending on the severity of the threat.

7. What are the key responsibilities of state and local law enforcement in counterterrorism, and how do they participate in Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) and fusion centers?

A: State and local law enforcement agencies play a critical, front-line role in the United States’ counterterrorism strategy. Their proximity and familiarity with local communities make them well positioned to detect, investigate, and deter potential terrorist activities before they escalate. These agencies often serve as the first responders to threats and suspicious behavior, acting as the “eyes and ears” that can feed valuable intelligence into broader federal efforts. One of the most effective means of coordination is through Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs). These task forces bring together officers, detectives, and special agents from multiple jurisdictions at federal, state, and local levels.

8. How has the New York City Police Department (NYPD) developed specialized counterterrorism capabilities, and what lessons can other local agencies learn from its approach?

A: Beyond major city police forces, state-level agencies also play a significant role in counterterrorism efforts. Many state police departments have dedicated counterterrorism sections that focus on intelligence gathering and interagency coordination. The New York State Police Office of Counter Terrorism, for instance, adopts a “whole-of-community” approach by partnering with local police, fire departments, and private security entities to enhance information sharing and vigilance across the state. These units are responsible for monitoring potential threats, developing response protocols, and engaging with local communities to build resilience against violent extremism.

9. What challenges do law enforcement agencies face in balancing security and civil liberties while implementing counterterrorism measures such as surveillance and intelligence gathering?

A: The expanded counterterrorism role of local law enforcement has sparked debates about transparency, potential overreach, and the protection of civil liberties. New technologies, such as surveillance cameras, license plate readers, and facial recognition, enhance investigative capabilities but raise privacy concerns. Elected officials and community stakeholders often call for oversight mechanisms, including public forums, inspector general offices, and civilian review boards, to ensure that enhanced counterterrorism powers are not abused. Building and maintaining community trust is crucial. Overly aggressive or opaque policing practices can alienate communities and discourage cooperation. To address this, many police departments pair counterterrorism units with outreach programs to foster positive relationships with diverse communities. These efforts emphasize that safeguarding public safety need not come at the expense of civil rights.

10. How are emerging threats, such as cyberterrorism and the increasing use of drones by terrorist organizations, reshaping counterterrorism strategies?

A: Emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics continue to shape the global security landscape, making counterterrorism efforts more complex and adaptable. Terrorist organizations

are increasingly moving from large, centralized operations to decentralized networks and lone actors, which makes detection and disruption more difficult. They are also adopting new technologies, such as encrypted communications, drones, and cyber capabilities, to conduct surveillance, plan attacks, and disrupt critical infrastructure. Social media platforms and online propaganda remain key to recruitment and radicalization, allowing groups to reach larger audiences with fewer resources. Additionally, tactics have become more diverse: While traditional methods like bombings and shootings remain common, terrorists are also targeting softer targets like public events, transportation systems, and critical infrastructure to maximize psychological and economic impact. The rise of cyberterrorism and hybrid threats, which combine physical and digital elements, illustrates how adversaries adapt to exploit vulnerabilities in open societies. The overall impact of these changing threats is significant: They increase uncertainty, strain law enforcement and intelligence agencies, and compel governments to continually update strategies and invest in resilience planning.

Critical thinking exercises

1. The U.S. military has conducted counterterrorism operations across the globe, often using special operations forces, drone strikes, and preemptive strikes to eliminate terrorist threats. While proponents argue that such actions are necessary to neutralize imminent threats, critics contend that military interventions create long-term instability, fuel anti-American sentiment, and often result in the deaths of innocent bystanders. Civilian casualties from drone strikes and airstrikes have led to diplomatic tensions and increased recruitment by extremist organizations, raising ethical and strategic concerns. Should the United States continue using military force as a primary tool for counterterrorism, or should it shift toward diplomatic and intelligence-based approaches? What are the potential consequences of relying too heavily on military interventions, particularly when innocent civilians are killed in the process?

A: Answers will vary, but may include aspects of the provided sample answer. Counterterrorism strategies have evolved significantly in response to the changing nature of terrorist threats. Initially, counterterrorism efforts focused primarily on reactive law enforcement responses to attacks, but over time, they have shifted toward proactive intelligence gathering, interagency coordination, and military intervention. Modern counterterrorism strategies incorporate a combination of preventive measures, such as intelligence and surveillance, to disrupt plots before they occur; defensive measures, including securing critical infrastructure and enhancing border security; and offensive actions, such as direct military operations and special forces missions targeting terrorist leaders and organizations. Additionally, counterterrorism now emphasizes international cooperation, counter-radicalization programs, and cyber defense to address the rise of digital recruitment and financing by terrorist groups. This multifaceted approach reflects the recognition that terrorism is a complex and evolving threat requiring a comprehensive and adaptive response.

2. Domestic Surveillance and Counterterrorism: Local and federal law enforcement agencies use surveillance technologies such as facial recognition, social media monitoring, and data tracking to detect potential terrorist threats. While these tools can help prevent attacks, they also raise privacy concerns and fears of government overreach. Should law enforcement have broad

authority to use surveillance technology in counterterrorism, or should stricter regulations be in place to protect civil liberties?

A: Answers will vary, but may address such topics as reconciling security demands with civil libertiesthat include the right to privacy, racial profiling, and due process protections. This balance is essential in maintaining public trust. By fostering comprehensive legislation, ethical law enforcement practices, and strong normative opposition to violence, authorities can establish a sustainable and adaptive counterterrorism framework, one that not only addresses immediate threats but also reinforces long-term resilience against evolving security challenges.

3. Targeted Killings and Legal Implications: The United States has carried out targeted drone strikes against terrorist leaders, including American citizens such as Anwar al-Awlaki, who was killed in Yemen in 2011 without a trial. While some argue these strikes are necessary for national security, others claim they violate due process rights. Should the government have the authority to target and kill American citizens suspected of terrorism without a trial, or does this set a dangerous precedent?

A: Answers will vary (opinion question). Supporters could argue that targeted strikes against individuals like Anwar al-Awlaki are justified when an imminent threat cannot be neutralized through capture, especially in active conflict zones. They contend that protecting national security may require swift action when due process is not feasible and lives are at risk. Critics could argue that killing U.S. citizens without trial undermines constitutional protections, particularly the right to due process guaranteed by the United States Constitution. They warn that granting such authority sets a dangerous precedent, potentially enabling abuse of power and eroding civil liberties over time.

4. How can law enforcement enhance the detection and prevention of attacks by lone-actor terrorists who operate independently?

A: Answers will vary. These “lone actor” attackers operate independently, making it challenging for law enforcement to identify them before they act. As a result, state and local agencies must continuously adapt their training and tactics to detect and disrupt these evolving threats. Local law enforcement can improve detection and prevention by strengthening community-based policing and building trust so residents feel comfortable reporting concerning behavior early. They should enhance information sharing with federal partners like the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Homeland Security to access threat intelligence and behavioral indicators associated with lone actors. Investing in training to recognize signs of radicalization, as well as using data analytics and monitoring publicly available information, can help identify potential threats before they escalate. Finally, proactive outreach programs and intervention strategies, such as working with mental health professionals and community leaders, can help disrupt pathways to violence while respecting civil liberties.

Chapter 15 Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security: The Future

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This concluding chapter of the book ties the subject matters of terrorism, intelligence, and homeland security together and identifies recent trends in terrorist activities. Many of the past attacks in the United States have been carried out by homegrown terrorists using lone-actor terrorist tactics. These events have been mostly bombings or spree shootings using very crude and unsophisticated weapons. Internationally, while al-Qaeda appears to be weakening and fractionalizing as a single group, radical Islamic ideology appears to be dramatically increasing throughout the Middle East and the rest of the world with the emergence of the Islamic State in Syria and Iraq. While America has been victimized repeatedly by attacks on our transportation sector (particularly the airline industry), attacks that are cyber in nature pose a much more significant threat in the future. Much of our critical infrastructure including water systems, power grids, gas pipelines, nuclear power functions, and financial and communication networks was built long before the specter of terrorism was a consideration and contains weak defenses against potential attacks by terrorists, rogue nations, or even sophisticated criminals. Indeed, rather than focusing on attacks that raise public hysteria, such as attacks from weapons of mass destruction (WMD), it might be more prudent to assume that the next major terrorist attack could be cyber in nature.

The final chapter also includes an important segment on the role of the media during terrorist events and the impact of such events on the mind of the general public. Our concluding remarks in Chapter 15 focus not on the significant dangers and potential threats that lurk in an unstable world, but rather on the richness, strength, diversity, and resilience of America as we confront the future together, no different from generations before us.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• 15.1 Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

• 15.2 Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

• 15.3 Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

• 15.4 Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

• 15.5 Discuss the effects of social media, artificial intelligence, and terrorist propaganda.

• 15.6 Identify targets currently favored by terrorists, as well as future means of attack.

• 15.7 Explain how the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction by threat actors affects homeland security considerations in the United States.

• 15.8 Describe policies and strategies that might be implemented in counterterrorism in the future. LECTURE OUTLINE

Introduction

Many citizens of this country and many policymakers, as well, continue to see terrorism as something that may be best prevented by increased security measures and traditional methodologies. However, just as policy and intelligence related to terrorism have evolved, so too have the terrorists themselves. Intelligence methods that many consider to have been effective at uncovering terror plots have met with an uproar from human rights and/or privacy advocates in recent years, limiting how information can be obtained and, according to some, the ability to secure the United States against certain kinds of attacks. These are just a few examples of how perceptions of terrorism and related intelligence have evolved over the past decade; this chapter will touch on several others as well.

Trends in Terrorist Activities

The Global Terrorism Index, compiled by the Institute for Economics and Peace, details trends in terrorism both globally and by country, including the United States. In 2024, the last year for which data was available, there were 3,492 recorded terrorist attacks around the world, killing 7,555 people. This represents a decline on both counts; however, it should be noted that the decline in the number of people killed should be set in the context that in 2023, there were several exceptional events, including the Hamas attack on Israel that killed over 1,000 people in one day. If the 2024 statistic for the number of people killed is adjusted for the Hamas attacks, it would have remained roughly the same as it was in 2023. The number of attacks globally also represents a decline, but again, additional context is needed: much of that decline is driven by an 85 percent decrease in terror attacks in Myanmar alone. If you adjust for the Myanmar decline, the number of global attacks would have actually increased by 8 percent.

In 2024, the United States experienced a total of three terrorist attacks, which killed one person It should be noted, however, that while 2024 is the last year for which data was available, 14 people were killed in a terror attack in New Orleans when Shamsud-Din Jabbar, an avowed ISIS member, rammed his Ford pickup truck, displaying an ISIS flag, into a crowd on Bourbon Street in the first few hours of 2025. The Department of Homeland Security’s annual threat assessment, published in the fourth quarter of 2024 (and, notably, before the 2024 election), looked at a period between September 2023 and July 2024 and found that domestic violent extremists (DVEs) in the United States, influenced by anti-government ideology or race- or gender-based motivations, had conducted four attacks in the United States; an additional seven DVE plots were disrupted by law enforcement.

In another concerning trend, violent attacks that targeted Latine, Black, Muslim, and Jewish Americans in the United States and throughout the world since 2019 represent a stark reminder of how deadly racially and ethnically motivated terrorist attacks can be. These types of attacks, known as REMT, are motivated by white-supremacist, xenophobic, and anti-immigrant beliefs.

Al-Qaeda, Islamic State, Fractionalization, and the Rest of the World

Once the “big bad” of global terror, al-Qaeda’s threat today is much harder to assess than it was even five years ago. At one point, this enemy was a large organization, headquartered for the most part in one major geographic location and fronted by a figurehead (Usama bin Laden) with

undeniable power and reach. Today, this is not the case. What was once the core of the organization in Pakistan has been largely decimated as part of the U.S. military involvement in Afghanistan and Iraq. The goal of the U.S. military offensive against al-Qaeda has had the unintended consequence of allowing the organization to reformulate and still flourish as a decentralized, heavily networked, and transnational movement, freed from the bureaucracy of its earlier iterations and able to move about more covertly as a result.

The events of the Arab Spring have also created a new opportunity for al-Qaeda splinter groups to strengthen, allowing groups that were operating in just eight countries (Afghanistan, Indonesia, Iraq, Lebanon, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Somalia) to establish new footholds in a few short years in Algeria, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and Lebanon.

The 2024 Annual Threat Assessment (ATA) of the U.S. Intelligence Community described Africa as the “center of gravity in the Sunni global jihad ” In December 2023, al-Qaeda’s affiliate in Yemen released official videos and publications that encouraged attacks against civil aviation and prominent individuals, urged retaliation against the West for supporting Israel, and provided bomb-making instructions. Al-Qaeda was also inspired by the Hamas attack against Israel and directed its supporters to conduct attacks against Jewish targets and Israel.

A Shift from the Middle East

The Islamic State (IS) now operates as a global network, with a presence across multiple regions through its affiliated groups. According to the Global Terrorism Index, in 2024, it was active in twenty-two countries across the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Europe. IS is extremely resilient and can evolve its operational strategies to capitalize on chaos and weakened governance in conflict-torn areas. As such, Syria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were the countries most impacted by IS in 2024. Syria alone accounted for 369 of the 559 IS attacks around the world.

Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISK, IS-K, or ISIS-K), originally formed to counter the Taliban, has expanded into one of the most active jihadist terror groups in the world. Since it formed in 2015, ISK has continued to push beyond Afghanistan into Pakistan, Iran, Russia, and Central Asia. In 2024, ISK was responsible for two of the deadliest terrorist attacks, one in Iran and another in Russia. Worryingly, ISK has doubled down on its recruitment efforts, producing multilingual propaganda targeting South and Central Asia. ISK has focused on making its outreach multilingual, generating propaganda.

Global Trends: Pakistan and Afghanistan

As of this writing in 2025, the Taliban has again risen to power in Afghanistan, after quickly capturing the country in 2021 as U.S. forces left the country, directed by President Joe Biden, and much of the Afghan government fled. Al-Qaeda, though more active currently in Syria and Africa, remains an issue in the country.

The larger movement within the Islamic State is also vying for influence in Afghanistan. Since 2021, Islamic State–Khorasan Province (ISKP, IS-K, or ISIS-K) has continued to try to undermine the Taliban; they’ve launched multiple attacks in Afghanistan against the Taliban, killing several senior officials in 2023.

In 2023, outside experts and U.S. officials reportedly assessed that IS-K was seeking to focus on external operations to skirt Taliban attention. In 2024, that assessment seems to have some merit: there were large-scale, mass-casualty attacks attributed to IS-K in both Iran and Russia. United Nations (UN) sanctions monitors reported in July 2024 that IS-K “aspires to control Afghan territory from which to infiltrate neighboring countries” and that counter-IS-K operations in Europe illustrate the group’s “renewed willingness, multiplied efforts, and potential capacity to carry out large-scale attacks on European soil.”

Domestic Terror

Today, the biggest threat to American homeland security is domestic extremism. Since 2001, there has been only one instance of a jihadist terror organization directing or coordinating a deadly attack inside the United States: the attack on the Naval Air Station Pensacola on December 6, 2019, which killed three U.S. service members. Jihadists acting on their own are responsible for 104 additional deaths in the United States since 9/11; that number is lower than the 144 killed by domestic terrorists through 2020.

In addition to COVID-19, other factors could affect trends in terrorism in the future include leftwing anarchist concerns, particularly those involving the economy, policing, and the environment; conspiracy theories such as QAnon; and movements like the anti-vaccine contingent and fringe opponents of 5G technology.

Homegrown and Single-Actor (Lone-Wolf) Terrorists

In the United States, this trend has been relatively easy to spot. So-called homegrown terrorists using lone wolf terrorist tactics carried out the last few major attacks that have occurred in the United States. The term homegrown terrorist refers to extremists who are legal U.S. residents or even citizens, and who are linked to or inspired by a specific, often intolerant ideology. This ideology may be motivated by political or religious sources and may be centered in domestic or foreign movements.

In the United States, homegrown terrorists have largely flown beneath the radar many have no criminal record. The future of homegrown terrorism is one that will see shifts in the composition of participants, as well as in the networking they engage in with al-Qaeda and other affiliated movements. As the United States continues to see successes in dismantling the major arteries of these terrorist organizations, homegrown terrorists will seek new ways to interact with them.

• Movie Note: The HBO documentary “Homegrown: The Counter-Terror Dilemma” (2016) explores the growing and concerning phenomenon of homegrown Islamic extremism and can be used to discuss the real and perceived threats posed by homegrown terrorists in America today.

The Role of Social Media, Artificial Intelligence, and Terrorist Propaganda

Social media has transformed the terrorist landscape by allowing relationships with like-minded individuals and discover new interests. And while that’s generally benign, it stands to reason that more sinister applications abound.

Studies around the ways that terror groups could use GenAI have identified five main categories:

1. Generation and distribution of polarizing or emotional content.

2. Disinformation and/or misinformation

3. Recruitment.

4. Tactical learning.

5. Attack planning

The Dark Web and Terrorism

The dark web has become a hotbed for terrorist activity, allowing for recruitment, fundraising, operational planning, circulation of disinformation, and cybercrime activity. The advantage of the dark web for terrorist use is its ability to enable anonymous operation: Internal communication and external propaganda, recruitment and training, financials, weapons procurement, and drug trade.

Cryptocurrency

Cryptocurrency is also easy to move between actors; is very secure; and unevenly regulated between countries. The cryptocurrency space has been definitively used by terror groups. It’s been estimated that Hamas received about $41 million in cryptocurrency wallets between 2020 and 2023.

Crude devises and non-sophisticated weapons

Another result of the effects of splintering terror cells and increased intelligence is that homegrown terrorists are now largely forced to use crude devices or easily obtained weapons (such as firearms) to carry out their attacks. The bombs used in the Boston Marathon attacks were basically pressure cookers, found in any large retailer, filled with nails and ball bearings.

New Trends in Tactics

• The ISIS-K plot to bomb a Taylor Swift concert in Vienna in 2024 was disrupted.

• For years, the digital capabilities of extremist groups have been a major concern in counterterrorism: the digital space is so large, it’s impossible to police all of the content that’s been generated. Despite this, the U.S. intelligence agencies have been able to disrupt multiple plots over the past several years.

• Experts warn that only about 18 percent of recorded plots in the United States have involved formal contact between plotters and known terrorist organizations.

Commercial Drone Use and Terrorist Plots

Drones are an attractive mode of attack for terrorist and violent extremist organizations for multiple reasons. First, they have a variety of applications that can be easily modified to fit a terrorist agenda. Second, there have been leaps and bounds made in drone technology over just the past few years. Third, while sophisticated air defense systems have been built to detect incoming missiles and larger drones, these small, commercial drones can sometimes evade detection at multiple points: their sales aren’t tracked the way conventional weapons sales are; they are small enough to avoid some radar detection systems; and their low-power radio frequencies can also go undetected. Their small size also makes them relatively agile.

Drone software has also undergone rapid evolution in the past several years: AI capabilities and optical sensors can offer facial and object recognition, allowing for real-time tracking capabilities.

Transportation Hubs and Other Terrorist Targets

Since 2001, much of the attention on the potential for terror attacks has focused on transportation hubs. Air travel in particular has been an emphasis for policy and practice related to terror prevention. Ground transportation targeting by terrorists in the same time period, however, remained a point of easy access for terrorists. Another concern for future terror attacks is that of school shootings.

Random Targets

Attacks on random targets, as opposed to transportation hubs, critical infrastructure, or political figures, also appear to be a new methodology for terrorist individuals and organizations. Though the act of terror itself cannot be considered random, as it is designed to achieve some sort of political or ideological aim, the targets themselves might be unconnected to those ideologies or might be happened upon by chance.

Future Attacks on Critical Infrastructure

The Department of Homeland Security reported in its 2024 Homeland Threat Assessment that U.S. critical infrastructure was at risk of continued attacks on communications, energy, transportation, wastewater and water treatment facilities; ransomware attacks on the financial, government, and healthcare sectors were rampant; and violent actors had attacked electric grid substations with firearms. Most of these attacks were localized and short-term, amounting essentially to nuisance attacks, but DHS warned that larger and more impactful attacks, motivated by ideological and sociopolitical goals, were possible.

Many infrastructure companies have been identified with weaknesses such as easy online access to critical operations systems, insecure or easily guessed passwords (such as 1234) for major controls, and weak credentialing standards. However, experts warn that many industries have become complacent when it comes to the potential for cyberattacks. It might be more prudent to assume that the next terrorist attack may be cyber in nature.

Weapons of Mass Destruction and Homeland Security

The Department of Defense assessed in 2023 that global dynamics and evolving technological capabilities have raised the threat level related to the possibility of military confrontation or terrorist acts using WMD. The 2023 Department of Defense Strategy for Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction indicates that one of the biggest threat actors as it relates to WMDs is the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Russia remains an acute threat to the United States, with the world’s largest stockpile of nuclear weaponry. The Department of Defense also recognizes the persistent threat of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK). Iran’s nuclear capabilities remain a major concern due to its potential destabilizing influence in the Middle East and its existential threat to Israel, particularly following a series of military strikes between the two countries in 2024. The country does not currently have nuclear weapons, but has engaged in weapons research and development for years (in violation of international agreements).

Global coordination around intelligence gathering, hazardous materials tracking, training, communication, and threat mitigation is required to monitor and prevent the acquisition and deployment of WMDs by terrorist and extremist groups

Strategy, Policy, and Beyond

Given the history of terrorism, the current paradigm of Middle East unrest, and the always volatile, fluid nature of the issues and players at stake, it stands to reason that there is no onesize-fits-all approach to terrorism prevention. Based on our current understanding of the issues surrounding terrorism, the United States has much work to do beyond its current counterterror efforts:

• Reevaluate intelligence programs that collect mass amounts of data.

• Ensure that investigations, interrogations, and operations are in line with current human rights practices.

• Continue to refine emergency response plans to adapt to smaller-scale incidents.

Focused Monitoring

• The Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa should be carefully and continuously monitored.

• Focus on individuals as well as known terrorist groups.

• Engage the public.

• Evaluate U.S. progress in counterterrorism strategies in the years since September 11, 2001.

Globally, the Israel-Hamas war still rages on, though there have been multiple cease-fires and hostage exchanges, and there is still major uncertainty about the path forward. Instability in Syria, Pakistan, Afghanistan, regions of Africa, Yemen, and beyond means that radical Islamists will have the opportunity to regain or establish footholds, threatening the security of the Middle East and the West. Multiple plots by IS and Iran against European and American targets were

disrupted in 2024 alone.

American foreign policy stands to change immensely: In less than 60 days in oﬃce, President Donald J. Trump has reshaped foreign relations with Russia, Ukraine, Israel, and others.

Additionally, President Donald Trump’s “Department of Government Efficiency,” led by billionaire Elon Musk, has been tasked with fundamentally reshaping and reducing the United States government to increase efficiency and reduce costs and this includes all of the agencies tasked with homeland security initiatives. President Trump and his cabinet have made clear that they intend to root out “politicization” in the federal law enforcement and homeland security agencies. Many of the officials involved in the January 6, 2020, investigations and prosecutions have already been dismissed.

Other major shifts discussed in this text include the designation of eight South American drug cartels and/or gangs as terrorist organizations to stop the flow of fentanyl into the country; a push for the deportation of undocumented immigrants; and a massive bolstering of border security to stem the flow of narcotics and better limit the passage of potential terrorists into the country.

Trump has also continued a campaign against IS; on March 14, 2025, it was announced that U.S.-led coalition forces, in conjunction with Iraq, had killed the head of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, Abdallah Maki Mosleh al-Rifai.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE

Chapter 15 highlights the paradigm shift caused by the election of President Donald J. Trump in U.S. strategy, policy, and reaction to terrorist events and threats globally and domestically. This includes significant changes in homeland security, immigration, and border protection. The chapter includes updated material on al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, and other global concerns, as well as the increasing threats (such as low-tech infrastructure attacks and assassination attempts) from domestic groups within the United States.

• New and updated material on trends in terrorist activities as reflected by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (NCSTRT), the DHS Annual Threat Assessment in 2024, and other important sources. • New section on “al-Qaeda, Islamic State, Fractionalization, and the Rest of the World.” • New discussion on the shift of terrorism incidents from the Middle East to more sub-Saharan Africa. • New and updated material on terrorism involving Pakistan and Afghanistan, including new IS-K. • New discussion on the emergence and rise of domestic extremism, signaling a major paradigm shift in U.S. approaches to counterterrorism. • New and significant material on “The Role of Social Media, Artificial Intelligence, and Terrorist Propaganda.” • New box on the “Assassination Attempts on President Donald J. Trump.” • New Quick Facts box on “Low-Tech Terrorist Attacks” and “Future Attacks on Critical Infrastructure.” • New sections on “Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and Homeland Security” and the “Focused Monitoring” of the Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa, Individual Terrorists and Organizations, the Israeli-Hamas War, and other unstable areas globally. • New and final comments on the impact of President Trump on foreign policy and relationships with the Middle East, Ukraine, and Russia, and updated material on homegrown and single-actor terrorists.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Register with “The Cell.” This site has several free lesson plans for teaching about terrorism. Go to “Terrorists and the Media” and download the three PDFs. You can tweak the lesson to make it shorter or use the entire activity as is.

Activity 2: Go to the PBS Frontline website and click on lesson 7 – Media and Perception. Utilize all or any parts of the materials to aid in teaching how terrorists use the media.

Critical thinking exercises

1. Interactive Terrorism Map. Visit the website at www.globalincidentmap.com and view the global incident map. Click on one of the flashing items in the Middle East. How many of the incidents represent threats to critical infrastructure (oil and gas wells or pipelines) in the area? How many involve threats from radical Islamic groups? Now click on one of the flashing points in the United States or Europe. Discuss the above questions for the new area. Finally, notice that the entire map is delivered in real time for subscribers. As a free user, the map is time-delayed by 24 to 48 hours. Notice how many of the incidents are “hoaxes,” or threats that never materialized. As a class, discuss the value of having real-time access to such a map for response measures, deployment of personnel, identifying trend activity, analytic examination of specific threats, research, and the like.

A: Answers will vary.

2. What is a “Dirty Bomb?” Visit this documentary on bombs at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyUmrW2emeM&t=4s. Review the blast scenarios and discuss the potential of such an event occurring within the homeland of the United States. What can be done to predict and prevent such an event from occurring? Discuss the social and economic impact of such an event as well as the long-term effect on the psyche of the American public. If a worst-nightmare scenario ever occurred, do you think that the U.S. government and public would continue to support individual freedoms as defined in the Constitution, or would there be calls to abandon the 200-year-old document in favor of one that is more realistic in a nuclear age threatened by radical terrorists? Discuss this question as a class.

A: Answers will vary (opinion question).

TEST BANK

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 1 Defining, Conceptualizing, and Understanding Terrorism

1.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) The reduction of air travel and avoiding certain cities after 9/11 corresponds with which of the following reasons it is important to understand terrorism?

A) There is no quick and easy solution to terrorism.

B) America has a preoccupation with protecting the homeland.

C) Terrorism has become transnational and global.

D) Terrorism can be adopted at a frightening speed.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 2

Objective: State six reasons why we should understand terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2) Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons for needing to understand terrorism?

A) Terrorism’s impact is only regional.

B) There is no quick and easy solution to terrorism.

C) Terrorism has become transnational and global.

D) Terrorism can be adopted at a frightening speed.

Answer: A

Page Ref: 2

Objective: State six reasons why we should understand terrorism.

Level: Basic

3) Which major policy change did President Trump implement in 2025 to combat transnational criminal organizations?

A) Increased humanization parole programs for migrants

B) Designated several gangs and cartels as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs)

C) Lifted sanctions on Latin American drug cartels

D) Ended cooperation between the FBI and DEA

Answer: B

Page Ref: 31

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Basic

4) Under President Trump’s 2025 executive orders, which U.S. agency gained expanded authority to coordinate enforcement actions against cartels?

A) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

B) Department of Education (DOE)

C) Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

D) National Park Service (NPS)

Answer: C

Page Ref: 31

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Intermediate

5) This type of terrorist has no formal connection to and doesn’t receive material supply from a terrorist movement, but has a psychological affinity with one:

A) lone wolf

B) international

C) homegrown violent extremist

D) domestic

Answer: C

Page Ref: 4

Objective: State six reasons why we should understand terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) The concept that terrorist attacks are changing and focusing on the destruction of infrastructure is called:

A) homegrown terrorists

B) new war

C) jihad

D) black swan events

Answer: B

Page Ref: 14

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7) Which group assumed power in Syria after President Bashar al-Assad fled to Russia in 2024?

A) The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)

B) The Islamic State (IS)

C) Hayat Tehrir al-Sham (HTS)

D) The Free Syrian Army (FSA)

Answer: C

Page Ref: 7

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

8) Early terrorism in the United States was typically:

A) very deadly

B) racial, labor, or anarchist-related

C) motivated by religion

D) well-planned and organized

Answer: B

Page Ref: 16

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

9) Which U.S. organization sought to overthrow the federal government by bombing the Capitol Building and the Pentagon in 1970 and 1971, respectively?

A) Black Panther Party

B) Students for a Democratic Society

C) Black September Organization

D) Weather Underground

Answer: D

Page Ref: 18

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

10) What event triggered Israel’s formal declaration of war against Hamas in 2023?

A) The assassination of an Israeli prime minister

B) The Hamas attack that killed over 1,200 Israelis and took hundreds of hostages

C) An Israeli airstrike on Gaza schools

D) A U.N. resolution condemning Israel’s settlements

Answer: B

Page Ref: 8

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

11) What controversial suggestion did President Trump make regarding the Palestinian population?

A) Recognize Palestinian independence immediately

B) Permanently resettle Palestinians into countries like Jordan and Egypt

C) Allow the U.N. to govern Gaza

D) Remove Israel’s control of the West Bank

Answer: B

Page Ref: 8

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) What action did the Trump administration take in 2025 concerning the Houthis?

A) Removed them from the Foreign Terrorist Organization list

B) Negotiated a peace treaty between Yemen and Saudi Arabia

C) Re-designated the Houthis as a Foreign Terrorist Organization

D) Declared Yemen a U.S. protectorate

Answer: C

Page Ref: 9

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

13) Hezbollah is a Muslim group that is simultaneously viewed as a political organization, terrorist group, and a(n):

A) force multiplier

B) militia

C) ally

D) religious group

Answer: B

Page Ref: 25

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

14) Which key distinction sets the Wagner Group apart from traditional terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda or IS?

A) It is driven by a strict religious ideology.

B) It primarily engages in cyberterrorism.

C) It operates as a private military company (PMC) funded by the Russian state

D) It was formed to support humanitarian missions in Africa.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 11

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Difficult

15) FTO stands for:

A) federal terrorist organization

B) foreign terrorist organization

C) funding, training, and optimization

D) feuding throughout organizations

Answer: B

Page Ref: 25

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

16) Carlos Bledsoe converted to Islam, changed his name to Abdulhakim Muhammad, and trained in Yemen in a terrorist camp. This process is known as:

A) radicalization

B) internationalism

C) anarchism

D) system disruption

Answer: A

Page Ref: 35

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

17) What was Abu Sayyaf’s primary goal in the Philippines?

A) To overthrow the Philippine government

B) To establish an Islamic state in the southern Philippines

C) To promote democracy through violence

D) To gain control of oil reserves in Mindanao

Answer: B

Page Ref: 12

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

18) What is meant by the term “New War” according to Robb?

A) Wars fought only with nuclear weapons

B) Conflicts centered on destroying major religious institutions

C) A type of warfare focused on system disruption rather than mass casualties

D) Traditional large-scale conflicts between state militaries

Answer: C

Page Ref: 13–14

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

19) Which event is described as a “Black Swan” example in the text?

A) The 9/11 terrorist attacks

B) The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel

C) The Orlando nightclub shooting

D) The assassination of the Russian ambassador to Turkey

Answer: B

Page Ref: 14

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

20) What major change regarding drone strikes did President Trump implement in early 2025?

A) He banned the use of drones in counterterrorism operations.

B) He required White House approval for every drone strike.

C) He removed limits on drone strikes and allowed field commanders to authorize them.

D) He transferred all drone operations to the United Nations.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 29

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Intermediate

21) This army used guerrilla war tactics in an effort to gain its country’s independence from the British Commonwealth during the early 1920s.

A) Iranian Militia Army

B) Confederate Army

C) Irish Republican Army

D) Army of God

Answer: C

Page Ref: 22

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

22) The definition triangle includes: terrorism label applied, definition of terrorism written, and:

A) a force multiplier

B) a terrorist threat

C) a policy developed

D) a violent event

Answer: D

Page Ref: 24

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

1.2 True/False Questions

1) According to the New War concept, protecting the infrastructure is at least as important as fighting terrorists “over there.”

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 15

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2) Terrorism and terrorist attacks are a relatively new occurrence that was conceived in the early 1900s.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 16

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Basic

3) The term terrorism emerged in the late eighteenth century in France.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 16

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

4) Radical movements do not exist in the United States.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 15

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Basic

5) There was a previous attack on the World Trade Center in New York City by radical Muslims in 1993.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 18

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

6) There is a specific, concrete, working definition of terrorism that is universal in the United States and across the world.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 24

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

7) The United Nations has not been able to draft a definition of terrorism acceptable to all member nations because they reserve the political right for themselves to determine what acts constitute terrorism.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 23

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

8) The 2025 executive order issued by President Trump allowed potential use of U.S. military forces to engage designated drug cartels and gangs along the border.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 30

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Intermediate

9) President Trump’s 2025 immigration policies emphasized expanding humanitarian parole for Venezuelan and Haitian migrants without additional enforcement measures.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 31

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Basic

10) Terrorism is a non-natural world event and cannot be measured and characterized with scientific accuracy.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 24

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) Political powers often determine who are terrorists and terrorist groups.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 24

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

12) The Houthis are part of Iran’s “Axis of Resistance” and have targeted commercial ships in the Red Sea.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 9

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

13) President Trump’s proposal for Gaza included turning it into an academic hub for Middle Eastern universities.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 8

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

14) The tri-border region of Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay is considered a hot spot for terrorist fundraising activities.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 12

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

15) Although there are a lot of articles on terrorism, there is a shortage of publicly accessible empirical research.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 25

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

16) America’s level of concern regarding terrorism has historically been quite low.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 17

Objective: State six reasons why we should understand terrorism.

Level: Basic

17) Hamas is a fundamentalist foreign terrorist organization that provides extensive social service in Gaza, the West Bank, and Israel.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 25

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

18) Due to the media, the public is well educated and has expert knowledge of terrorism.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 25

Objective: Contrast individual and cultural perspectives of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

19) The New War strategy depends heavily on cyber and infrastructure attacks to cripple economic and social systems.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 13

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

1.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) There are serious national conversations between the balancing of national security and ________ rights.

Answer: constitutional

Page Ref: 15

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

2) Early terrorism in the United States was typically racial, labor, or ________ related.

Answer: anarchist

Page Ref: 16

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Basic

3) ________ terrorism uses violence that focuses on specific targets and does not use indiscriminate violence just to cause mass casualties among defenseless civilians.

Answer: Selective

Page Ref: 22

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

4) The process of acquiring and holding extreme beliefs is known as ________.

Answer: radicalization

Page Ref: 4

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

5) President Trump’s 2025 executive order prioritized the construction of a _________ along the U.S.-Mexico border to strengthen homeland security.

Answer: wall

Page Ref: 31

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Basic

6) According to U.N. counterterrorism experts, __________ has become the “global epicenter of terrorism.”

Answer: Africa. Page Ref: 9

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

7) The attack on the Pulse nightclub in Orlando in 2016 was described by President Obama as both an act of terrorism and a hate __________.

Answer: crime

Page Ref: 14

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Basic

8) ________ violent extremists have no formal connection to or receive material support from a terrorist movement.

Answer: Homegrown

Page Ref: 4

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001

Level: Basic

9) Terrorist tactics that are directed at infrastructures is the concept of ________War.

Answer: New

Page Ref: 13

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) The Wagner Group is a __________ military company funded by the Russian state, often acting as a proxy for the Kremlin’s foreign interests.

Answer: private

Page Ref: 11

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) The ________ Union offered a framework for terrorism legislation that was adopted by all its members.

Answer: European Page Ref: 23

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Basic

12) In 2024, the __________ attack on Israel, which killed over 1,200 people, was described as a “Black Swan” event due to its shock and unpredictability.

Answer: Hamas Page Ref: 14

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

13) President Trump’s 2025 policy changes removed restrictions on drone strikes, allowing field commanders increased use of __________ aircraft in counterterrorism operations.

Answer: armed Page Ref: 29

Objective: Summarize the new steps that have been initiated by President Donald J. Trump to safeguard the homeland.

Level: Intermediate

14) The _________ gang, Tren de Aragua, originated in a Venezuelan prison and became known for human trafficking and violent organized crime across the Americas.

Answer: transnational Page Ref: 32

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

15) The unpredictable and devastating attacks that analysts fail to foresee are described as __________ Swan events.

Answer: Black Page Ref: 14

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

1.4 Matching Questions

Match up the terrorist attack or event in the left column to the group or reason for the attack in the right column.

A) Weather Underground

B) Suicide bombs in vehicles used by Muslim terrorists

C) attack to prevent America from entering World War I in Europe

D) related to striking workers in Chicago's Haymarket Square

E) Knights of the White Camellia for the purpose of getting a candidate elected

F) Palestinian nationalist group Black September

G) attacked because of its anti-union stand

H) Libyan terrorists

I) al-Qaeda

J) Iran militant Muslims

1) Terrorizing of voters in 1868

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

2) 1886 bomb that killed seven police officers at a demonstration

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

3) Bombing of the Los Angeles Times

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

4) Bombing of the Reception Room of the U.S. Senate

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

5) Attempt to overthrow America's national government

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

6) Massacre of members of the Israeli delegation at the 1972 Munich Olympics

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

7) Taking of U.S. Embassy workers hostage in Tehran

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

8) 1979 Pan Am 103 exploded over Scotland

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

9) Attacks of U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

10) 9/11 attacks

Page Ref: 2–36

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

1.5 Essay Questions

1) Discuss the six main reasons why it is important to understand terrorism.

Answer: 1. Terrorism has a long history and is not just a recent event. More recently, terrorism has far-reaching capabilities and has become a global concern and problem. 2. Terrorism is highly adaptive to the needs of many causes. 3. Terrorism is not just an American problem, and even though we are preoccupied with protecting our homeland, there are many terrorist acts and deaths annually around the world. 4. There is no quick or easy resolution to terrorism; therefore, it will be around for the foreseeable future. 5. Service members and their families live with the dangers they face and the collective sacrifices they make to secure our nation, and, therefore, they deserve our respect. 6. Terrorism evolves and adapts, which presents a continuous series of new challenges.

Page Ref: 2–13

Objective: State six reasons why we should understand terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) Discuss the key differences between old and new concepts of terrorism.

Answer: Early terrorism in the United States was typically related to racial, labor, or anarchist reasons. Older definitions of terrorism involved the deliberate and unlawful use of threats or actual violence to inculcate fear, with the intention to intimidate and coerce groups or governments to change their political, social, or religious basis. Older types of terrorism had more tangible goals, and, because of this, conflicts could potentially be resolved through negotiation. New terrorism has a religious belief that undergirds the violence. New terrorism is transnational; groups are sometimes only loosely affiliated; targets can be innocent civilians; groups adapt quickly and are technologically savvy; and new terrorism often lacks specific goals or maintains goals that are simply never going to be achieved.

Page Ref: 18–19

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

3) Address some of the basic reasons as to why there are several definitions for terrorism.

Answer: Terrorism is a non-natural world event that cannot be measured or characterized with scientific accuracy. It requires constructs to explain it, and this process can be endlessly repeated and refined. There is a lack of empirical data, and this can cause misunderstandings about how to define terrorism. In addition, groups change and adapt, so a group initially viewed as a political organization can turn into a terrorist group. Along that same note, as relationships between governments and countries change, so can the government or state view be changed regarding a particular group. Nations and governments can use the term terrorism to describe certain types of violent acts committed against them, which can lead to a switch in beliefs across a society. This aids political powers in determining who are terrorists and acts as a means to promote national policy agendas.

Page Ref: 19–23

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism and give examples of the different frameworks through which it can be viewed.

Level: Intermediate

1.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Discuss some changes that have occurred regarding terrorism.

Answer: Answers may vary but can include several of the following topics. The concept of a “New War,” in which the destruction of national or critical infrastructures are the targets. Instead of the traditional use of weapons of mass destruction or improvised explosive devices, system disruption is the new weapon. The concept of Black Swan events, which feature attacks that are so different that they are difficult to predict or prevent. Due to the use of the Internet by terrorist groups, training, communication, and recruitment can be done on a greater and more anonymous scale. The use of the Internet allows individuals to become radicalized and has increased the development of homegrown terrorists and lone-wolf attacks. In part due to the success the United States has made in the destruction of terrorist groups and the capturing or killing of terrorist group leaders, terrorist groups have fractured. This fracturing has allowed smaller groups to operate, which makes them harder to track, gather intelligence from, and prevent attacks. This fracturing has also allowed different terrorist groups to change their strategies, reformulate their goals, and recruit new members and funding.

Page Ref: 2–8

Objective: Trace the history of key events in terrorism from the nineteenth century to 9/11/2001.

Level: Intermediate

2) Several countries and terrorist groups were discussed in this chapter. As mentioned in the text, terrorist groups and terrorist situations adapt and change quickly. Pick a terrorist group or a country in the Middle East and discuss the most recent activity involving this group or country. Outside, cited material must be utilized. Students may present their findings to the class in person or be able to summarize the most important findings via a discussion thread.

Answer: Answers will vary, but responses should include outside, cited material and be very present, up-to-date happenings.

Objective: Provide examples of global events that shape our understanding of terrorism.

Level: Difficult

3) Pick one of the two case studies presented in this chapter (page 35 on Carlos Bledsoe or pages 35–36 on Nidal Malik Hasan) and write an opinion on whether the outcome is correct. Be sure to explain why.

Answer: Answers will vary, but should be supported with logical arguments. Page Ref: 35–36

Objective: Explain why there are so many definitions of terrorism. Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 2 Political Ideology and the Historical Roots of Terrorism

2.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which of the following is NOT a benefit associated with identifying a particular political theory or ideology?

A) Reduce uncertainty

B) Feeling more secure

C) Increasing feelings of solidarity

D) Attracted to a particular country

Answer: D

Page Ref: 47

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2) Terrorism attacks the very bases of social order, culture, and:

A) government

B) religion

C) capitalism

D) military

Answer: A

Page Ref: 47

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) The ideologists who have had the greatest impact on modern terrorism are considered:

A) modernists

B) rightists

C) leftists

D) federalists

Answer: C

Page Ref: 47

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

4) Marxism is heavily focused on:

A) maintenance of law and order

B) the means of overthrowing government

C) peaceful demonstrations

D) small changes to governmental processes

Answer: B

Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) The belief that there should be no centralized government and that society should be based on voluntary cooperation and free association between individuals is:

A) socialism

B) Marxism

C) anarchism

D) capitalism

Answer: C

Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

6) Antifa is

A) is an old, highly centralized terrorist group

B) an anti-fascist, far-left group

C) is a group only in the Middle East

D) a pro-fascist organization

Answer: B

Page Ref: 49

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7) What was the outcome of the relationship between FARC and ELN in the early 2000s?

A) They became rival groups competing for control of northern Colombia.

B) They merged to form a stronger guerrilla faction known as FARC-ELN.

C) ELN surrendered while FARC expanded into Venezuela.

D) FARC absorbed ELN and rebranded under a new communist leadership.

Answer: B

Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Basic

8) The transitional stage or social stage from capitalism to communism is known as:

A) anarchy

B) socialism

C) capitalism

D) dictatorship

Answer: B

Page Ref: 50

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) Which belief motivated al-Qaeda and other Arab fundamentalist groups to oppose the U.S. military presence in the Middle East?

A) The United States sought to protect Islamic holy sites and promote democracy.

B) American troops in Saudi Arabia symbolized Western imperialism and a desire for oil control.

C) The U.S. presence was invited by Mecca and Medina’s religious authorities

D) America aimed to establish trade alliances with Arab monarchies

Answer: B

Page Ref: 72

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

10) Which group was NOT a Latin American Leftist Group that furthered Marxist ideology?

A) Bolshevik Party

B) Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia

C) National Liberation Army

D) Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement

Answer: A

Page Ref: 51

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

11) This leftist group was a mishmash of mysticism, Marxism, the teachings of Mao, and racial bigotry:

A) Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia

B) National Liberation Army

C) Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement

D) Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path

Answer: D

Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

12) This term refers to the practice of inhabiting a specific area outside the native country and domination of the Indigenous Peoples of the area, as well as the natural resources and wealth of that territory.

A) Colonialism

B) Nationalism

C) Anarchism

D) Socialism

Answer: A

Page Ref: 58

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

13) After World War I, this agreement essentially carved up the Middle East into British and French colonies.

A) Balfour Declaration

B) Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916

C) The Mandate System

D) The Palestinian Compromise

Answer: B

Page Ref: 58

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

14) Most British and French colonization of the Middle East ended:

A) before World War I

B) after World War I

C) after World War II

D) during the 1970s

Answer: C

Page Ref: 59

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

15) Who is responsible for the adopted partition plan that created Israel?

A) Britain

B) United States

C) United Nations

D) Palestine

Answer: C

Page Ref: 62

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

16) Who was the founder and leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)?

A) Yasser Arafat

B) Sabri al-Banna

C) George Habash

D) Wadi Haddad

Answer: C

Page Ref: 65

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Intermediate

17) The Palestine Liberation Organization and the Palestine Liberation Army:

A) support Israel

B) are fractured but linked to over hundred different groups that want a free and independent Palestine

C) were short-lived groups and no longer exist

D) were independent of the greater Arab League

Answer: B

Page Ref: 62

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

18) It has been argued that the driving force behind every U.S. action in the Middle East is based on America getting access to the oil. Which of the following action appears to support this action?

A) Not supporting the partition of Israel and Palestine

B) Support for Iran, which allowed the U.S. to obtain 40 percent of the oil fields in that country

C) Not getting involved in the Iran–Iraq War

D) Supporting left-wing groups

Answer: B

Page Ref: 61

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

19) Which of the following is one of the reasons the United States launched ground attacks in Iraq in 2003?

A) To disarm weapons of mass destruction

B) To free the Iranian people

C) To institute colonization for the U.S.

D) To obtain possession of the oil fields

Answer: A

Page Ref: 73

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

20) Which statement best describes the Abu Nidal Organization (ANO)?

A) A peaceful political faction within the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat.

B) A Marxist-inspired Palestinian group that conducted paid assassinations and bombings for multiple countries.

C) A humanitarian branch of the Fatah movement focused on refugee assistance

D) A religious organization promoting Islamic education in the Middle East

Answer: B

Page Ref: 67

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Intermediate

2.2 True/False Questions

1) Terrorism does not have a direct effect on the social structure of a society.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 47

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) Left-wing extremism is heavily rooted in the works of Karl Marx.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

3) Anarchism believes that there should be no centralized government.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

4) Fundamentalist Arab groups view the U.S. military presence in the Middle East as a modern form of colonialism driven by America’s desire to control oil.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 73

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

5) U.S. policies in the Middle East have consistently focused on promoting democracy and human rights rather than protecting oil interests and regional stability.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 71

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

6) The German-based Red Army Faction is one of the most notorious leftist group.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 56

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

7) Marxism was often the ideological justification for groups that fought newly established colonial rule by European countries in the Middle East after World War I.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 58

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

8) After World War II, tens of thousands of Jewish immigrants flooded into Palestine illegally.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 61

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

9) The Arab stance against Israel as a Jewish state within Palestine has not changed: It was and is against international law.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 62

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

10) Yassir Arafat originated the group al-Fatah.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 63

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Basic

11) The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine is a Christian group that wanted to liberate Palestine.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 65

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Basic

12) The PFLP’s first major international act of terrorism was the hijacking of an Israeli El-Al airliner, bringing global attention to the Palestinian cause.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 53

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Intermediate

13) The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN) remained fierce rivals throughout the early 2000s and never formed an alliance.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

14) The National Liberation Army operates in Iraq.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Basic

15) Usama bin Laden justified the 9/11 attacks as retaliation against Western imperialism and the U.S. military presence on Islamic holy lands.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 73

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

16) The “big 4” at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 included Great Britain, the United States, France, and Russia.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 59

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

17) After World War I, Syria, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Egypt were placed under French control.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 59

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

18) Black September occurred in Jordan and was the mass slaughter of Palestinian men, women, and children.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 66

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Basic

2.3

Fill in the Blank Questions

1) ________ ideology is the set of beliefs about the proper order of society and how it can be achieved.

Answer: Political Page Ref: 47

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) The hijacking of Air France Flight 139 in 1976 led to the famous Raid on __________, where Israeli commandos rescued over 100 hostages from Uganda.

Answer: Entebbe Page Ref: 57

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

3) ________ seeks to change or eliminate a capitalist system that is perceived to be corrupt and oppressive in nature and restore power and autonomy to the working class.

Answer: Marxism Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

4) “Propaganda by the ________” was promoted by Necheyev, wherein acts of violence were advocated as the principal means of revolution.

Answer: deed Page Ref: 48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) The ________ are the advanced and tenacious representatives of the working class, who would organize revolutions and overthrow the bourgeois ruling class.

Answer: vanguard Page Ref: 51

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

6) The Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), also known as the __________, was founded in Uruguay during the late 1960s and was rooted in Marxist ideology.

Answer: Tupamaros Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

7) In Italy, the __________ Brigades kidnapped and murdered former Prime Minister Aldo Moro in 1978 as part of their campaign of urban terror.

Answer: Red Page Ref: 56

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

8) Marxism is considered an economic, social, and ________ theory.

Answer: political Page Ref: 51

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) People who are sympathetic to the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine are known as________.

Answer: Zionists Page Ref: 61

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Basic

10) The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) was founded by Christian Marxist leader George Habash, who saw the ______________ cause as part of a global revolutionary struggle.

Answer: Palestinian Page Ref: 53

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Basic

11) In the 1990s, the deployment of coalition troops near __________, one of Islam’s holiest cities, fueled anti-American sentiment and motivated groups like al-Qaeda to launch terrorist attacks.

Answer: Mecca Page Ref: 73

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

12) Fundamentalist Arab groups accused the United States of engaging in __________,

interpreting its military presence and quest for oil as a new form of colonial domination.

Answer: neocolonialism

Page Ref: 73

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

13) The ____________ Organization, led by Sabri al-Banna, was one of the last Marxist-oriented Palestinian groups known for carrying out politically motivated assassinations and bombings for profit.

Answer: Abu Nidal Page Ref: 53

Objective: Describe the first secular Palestinian terror groups.

Level: Intermediate

14) The Vietnam War ended in 1973 with the withdrawal of U.S. forces and the ________ of Vietnam under Communist control two years later.

Answer: unification Page Ref: 53

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

15) Sayyid Qutb called it a duty of every Muslim to join the “Holy ________”

Answer: Jihad Page Ref: 53

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2.4 Matching Questions

Match the terrorist group in the left column to the region that group primarily resides in the right column. Answers may be used more than once.

A) Latin America

B) Russia

C) Middle East

D) Europe

1) “Springtime of the People”

Page Ref: 48

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

2) Bolshevik Party Page Ref: 51

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

3) FARC

Page Ref: 53

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

4) Red Brigades

Page Ref: 55

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

5) Palestine Liberation Organization

Page Ref: 62

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

6) Revolutionary Cells

Page Ref: 57

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

7) National Liberation Army

Page Ref: 54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

8) Black September Organization

Page Ref: 66

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

9) Red Army Faction

Page Ref: 56

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

2.5 Essay Questions

1) Summarize the basic tenets of Marxism and explain how this ideology came to be a basis for terrorist groups.

Answer: Marxism was originally a theory rooted in the works of Karl Marx during the 1800s. It sought to change or eliminate capitalism because it was perceived to be corrupt and oppressive by taking away the possibility of the working class to obtain wealth and power. This was to be done by overthrowing the government. It did not promote peaceful demonstrations and incremental changes in the government. Initially, middle- and working-class people in Europe had movements to overthrow monarchies and institute self-rule. This became the basis for revolutions through the dissatisfaction of different groups of people under a governing body. Since these dissatisfied groups were often smaller than the reigning government, terrorist tactics were used to aid their success.

Marxism also promoted the concept of communism, which purports that capitalism is exploitative, corrupt, and leads to wealth that is concentrated in a few hands. Communism is characterized by the elimination of private property and that all goods and services should be available to all as needed. The means to obtain communism is through socialism, which is achieved through revolution.

Page Ref: 50–54

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

2) Terrorism is not just located in the Middle East. Outline the major terrorist groups located in Latin America and Europe.

Answer: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) purports to support rural farmers in Colombia against the wealthy class, but it is heavily armed and funded by the drug trade. It is responsible for kidnappings, extortion, and illegal 'taxes.' The National Liberation Army (ELN) also operates in Colombia, is funded by the drug trade, and wants to replace the government with an egalitarian democracy. Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) is primarily in Peru and Argentina. It is known as the Tupamaros and started in Uruguay, and is steeped in Marxism. Their goal is to reform the governments, but used bank robbery, kidnapping, and extortion as a means to obtain funds; they do, however, distribute the money to the poor people living in the urban areas. Peru’s most notorious leftist group is the Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, which combines mysticism, Marxism, teachings of Mao, and racial bigotry. They claim to be the vanguard of the world communist movement and are very brutal. Argentina has the Montoneros and the People's Revolutionary Army, which incorporates radical Catholic principles.

The “new left” or “revolutionary thinkers” came from Europe during the 1960s and 1970s; they viewed underdeveloped countries as being exploited by Western powers and embraced the role

of being advocates. The Red Brigades of Italy became the largest leftist group in Europe and had three phases to overthrow the government: armed propaganda, attack the heart of the states, and finally a general civil war. Germany had the Red Army Faction (RAF), which were young German aristocrats against the government. The Revolutionary Cells and the Red Zora were also developed in Europe.

Page Ref: 50–57

Objective: Provide an overview of leftist terror cells, including Latin American and European groups.

Level: Intermediate

3) What is political ideology and how does it relate to terrorism and revolutionary strategy?

Answer: Political ideology is the set of beliefs about the proper order of society and how society should be structured. Although it can produce feelings of solidarity, if political ideology becomes extreme there becomes a lack of tolerance for those that have differing political ideologies. Political ideology often uses terrorism as a revolutionary strategy. Terrorism destroys solidarity and trust, instills fear, and attacks the bases of social order.

Page Ref: 47–48

Objective: Describe the concept of political terrorism.

Level: Basic

2.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) The creation of Israel has led to the furtherance of terrorism. Explain how and why Israel was created. Offer one possible solution that might be viable to reduce the terrorism that has resulted from the creation of Israel. Be sure to explain why the solution suggested might work.

Answer: Although the mandate system and colonization occurred after World War I in the Middle East, primarily between Britain and France, it was after the end of World War II that the state of Israel was created. Jewish immigration to the Palestinian Territory began before the start of World War II, and increased violence against Jews in this region began. After World War II, the Palestinian Territory was handed over to the United Nations, and another influx of Jewish immigrants occurred. The United Nations developed the Special Committee on Palestine to address the problem, and the solution was a National Jewish Homeland and an Arab Palestinian State. This pitted the Arabs against the Jews. In 1948, Israel declared itself an independent state, which led to a full-scale war. Israel has retained the majority of land formerly considered Palestine, leaving only small areas under Arab Palestinian control. The Arab position is that the establishment of a Jewish state within Palestine is against international law, so the fighting continues with intermittent peace. Possible solutions will vary, but grading and answers should be based on the instructor's discretion.

Page Ref: 58–68

Objective: Discuss how colonialism and the mandate system set the stage for future conflict in the Middle East.

Level: Intermediate

2) The perception of the United States in some Middle East countries is very negative. Explain why this might have occurred, and discuss options on how the United States could change this negative perception.

Answer: Several reasons exist as to why the United States is disliked among several Middle Eastern countries, and the Muslim community. Answers can include: the idea that the United States only has interest in the area because of the natural resources, like oil; the supporting of the creation of Israel; the support given to Iran, which led to the United States owning several oil fields in the region; the United States’ repeated military involvement in many of the countries in the Middle East; and the perception that the United States is trying to corrupt Islamic views and ways of life and instill Western culture and beliefs in their communities. With regard to changing the perceptions of the United States in the eyes of the Middle East, answers will vary.

Page Ref: 58–74

Objective: Provide insight into how the United States and its policies toward oil exploration and development have impacted terrorist ideology in the Middle East.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 3 Islam and the Middle East: History, Culture, and Conflict

3.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) To genuinely understand terrorism:

A) one must know only the basic definitions surrounding terrorism

B) one must carefully examine the social, political, and religious positions between the parties involved in conflict

C) one must watch the news on television

D) one must read all the data on the Internet

Answer: B

Page Ref: 83

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

2) This terrorist group’s former leader became the President of Egypt, but was removed by the military after one year in office:

A) Muslim Brotherhood

B) al-Qaeda

C) FARC

D) al-Fatah

Answer: A

Page Ref: 83

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

3) This is a strategy or set of strategies in which beleaguered believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity by a selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs and practices from a sacred past.

A) Radicalization

B) Extremism

C) Fundamentalism

D) Socialism

Answer: C

Page Ref: 99

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Basic

4) The Middle East is comprised of more than:

A) a million people

B) ten million people

C) a billion people

D) over twenty billion people

Answer: C

Page Ref: 84

Objective: Describe the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East.

Level: Basic

5) The number one negative trait Muslims see in Westerners is:

A) arrogant

B) selfish

C) immoral

D) all of the above

Answer: B

Page Ref: 86

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

6) By demonizing the group toward which violence is directed, it reinforces the idea that they are good people doing God’s work and:

A) lessens the punishment

B) absolve them of any culpability

C) makes the punishment worth the crime

D) tricks people into suicide

Answer: B

Page Ref: 101

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

7) According to Islamic fundamentalists, the only way to re-Islamize the Muslim world is to:

A) take over the United States

B) make Islam the only religion

C) re-politicize Islam itself

D) institute a worldwide jihad

Answer: C

Page Ref: 108

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

8) The central point of al-Wahhab’s fundamentalism is:

A) jihad is not a holy war

B) violence is not part of the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad

C) every tenet of Islam after its establishment by the Prophet Muhammad was false and should be eliminated

D) separating the unity of God and Sharia

Answer: C

Page Ref: 110

Objective: Examine the rise and significance of the Wahhabi movement and the Muslim Brotherhood, highlighting key figures such as Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb.

Level: Intermediate

9) One of the primary reasons for Usama bin Laden and al-Qaeda to attack us on our homeland was:

A) because his terrorist groups were already stationed in the U.S.

B) our lack of knowledge about the true political and economic conditions in the Middle East, in which we disrespected Islam by stationing troops by their Holy sites

C) because we were an overly easy target

D) because we had the technology they needed

Answer: B

Page Ref: 87

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

10) Which one of the following is NOT one of the four “whys” that Kingsley identifies as an explanation for terrorism:

A) radical Islamic interpretations of the Qur’an

B) social and political conditions foster authoritarianism

C) globalization and modernity threaten religions

D) terrorist groups have become so large that they now actually have the potential to achieve their goals

Answer: D

Page Ref: 131

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

11) Al-Banna, the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood, had two goals. His first goal was to liberate Egypt from all foreign powers. Which of the following was his second goal?

A) To reduce some of the restrictive Islamic traditions

B) To unite Islam with governmental rule

C) To develop a free state functioning under the rules of Islam

D) To institute Islamic teachings in public schools

Answer: C

Page Ref: 111

Objective: Examine the rise and significance of the Wahhabi movement and the Muslim Brotherhood, highlighting key figures such as Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb.

Level: Intermediate

12) Hezbollah is backed by Iran, and has been extensively involved in these two countries’ politics:

A) Lebanon and Syria

B) Iraq and Iran

C) Egypt and Yemen

D) Palestine and Israel

Answer: A

Page Ref: 129

Objective: Explore the roots of extremist interpretations of Islam from the Shi’a perspective (Khomeinism) and assess the role of Hezbollah.

Level: Intermediate

13) This is a broad intellectual movement that focuses on the adoption of modernity and technology within Islam:

A) Shi’a

B) al-Banna

C) Wahhabi

D) Salafism

Answer: D

Page Ref: 113

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Intermediate

14) The emergence of the Sunni and Shi'a came about as a result of:

A) the differences in the understanding of the Five Pillars of Islam

B) the vast spreading of Islam to different parts of the region

C) the death of Muhammad

D) the separation of church and state

Answer: C

Page Ref: 90

Objective: Outline the origins and early development of Islam in the region, noting the distinctions between Sunni and Shi’a traditions, the concept of “jihad,” the Islamic creed, and the Five Pillars of Faith.

Level: Basic

15) This is the collection of words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad, his closest companions, and the views of luminary Islamic scholars and religious figures within the Islamic faith.

A) Hadith

B) Qur'an

C) Caliphate

D) Mecca

Answer: A

Page Ref: 90

Level: Intermediate

16) A key distinction between the Shi’a and Sunni is:

A) Shi’a believe Jesus was a divine prophet of God

B) Sunni believe Jesus was a divine prophet of God

C) the latter elect separate spiritual and political leaders

D) the former elect separate spiritual and political leaders

Answer: C

Page Ref: 91

Level: Intermediate

17) Which city is the holy city for Muslims?

A) Caliph

B) Jerusalem

C) Kaaba

D) Mecca

Answer: D

Page Ref: 91

Level: Basic

18) What was the primary tactic used by Hamas from the late 1990s through 2005 to carry out attacks in Israel?

A) Car bombings

B) Suicide bombings

C) Rocket artillery strikes

D) Kidnappings of political leaders

Answer: B

Page Ref: 117

Level: Intermediate

19) Using all of one’s strength to overcome adversity and difficulty in the struggle to submit to the will of God is the true meaning of:

A) hadith

B) caliph

C) jihad

D) hijab

Answer: C

Page Ref: 92

Level: Intermediate

20) The change in the use of the word jihad from an internal struggle for perfection and the development of a sense of community to a physical attack under the guise of a holy war began in:

A) the twelfth century during the Crusades

B) during World War I with colonization

C) after World War II and the creation of Israel

D) just prior to the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center

Answer: A

Page Ref: 93

Level: Intermediate

21) The five pillars of Islam:

A) are things the Muslim community is not allowed to do

B) represent the first five hundred years of the Islamic religion

C) are the terrorist actions radical Muslims are allowed to do

D) are the primary obligations that Muslims must satisfy in order to live a good and responsible life according to Islam

Answer: D

Page Ref: 96

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Basic

22) This pillar represents prayer five times a day:

A) Pillar 1: Shahada

B) Pillar 2: Salat

C) Pillar 3: Zakat

D) Pillar 4: Hajj

Answer: B

Page Ref: 97

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Basic

3.2 True/False Questions

1) Most Westerners have a limited understanding of the Middle East and Islam, and people in the Middle East have a misunderstanding of Westerners.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 82

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Basic

2) Fundamental Christians in the United States have misinterpreted certain passages in the Bible, just like Fundamental Muslims have done with passages in the Qur’an.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 100

Level: Basic

3) Muslims fear that secularism leads to the marginalization of their religion.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 122

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

4) In parts of the Middle East, some people still live as they did centuries ago.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 85

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Basic

5) There is one monolithic global “Muslim view” that the United States is evil.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 86

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Basic

6) Terrorism can be easily eradicated because the root cause of terrorism has been identified.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 86

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

7) Islam is just a religion, not a way of life.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 88

Level: Intermediate

8) Muslims do not believe in the divinity of Jesus but honor him as an esteemed prophet.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 88

Level: Basic

9) The Sunnis believe that the Prophet’s successor should be selected by merit, not by inheritance or birth of family.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 90

Level: Basic

10) Hezbollah is one of the smallest terrorist groups but is one of the deadliest

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 129

Objective: Explore the roots of extremist interpretations of Islam from the Shi’a perspective (Khomeinism) and assess the role of Hezbollah.

Level: Basic

11) The Shi’a elected Abu Bakr as the first Caliph of Arabia and leader of the Muslim community.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 90

Level: Intermediate

12) The Shi’a is the minority in the Islamic world as the Sunni represents about 80 percent of the Islamic people.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 91

Level: Basic

13) Islam is the fastest growing religion on Earth and 80 percent of believers now live outside the Middle East.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 92

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Basic

14) Salaam is the Arabic word for submission.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 92

Level: Basic

15) Islam is an intimate personal connection with the same God worshiped by Jews and Christians as a source of strength, a way of life, and hope in a troubled world.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 92

Level: Intermediate

16) Jihad traditionally was an internal struggle to attain one’s own essence and perfection.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 92

Level: Intermediate

17) The Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) is the largest and most successful of the Islamic fundamentalist groups.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 116

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Basic

18) Fundamentalists believe that they need to fight a perceived decay by “re-Islamizing” the Muslim world.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 107

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

19) The Muslim Brotherhood movement was a political-religious movement that began in Iran.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 111

Objective: Examine the rise and significance of the Wahhabi movement and the Muslim Brotherhood, highlighting key figures such as Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb.

Level: Basic

20) Islam is a religion of quite practical “commandments.”

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 107

Level: Intermediate

3.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Both Islamic fundamentalist and many extremist or domestic terrorist groups rely on selective interpretation or ________ of important documents.

Answer: misinterpretation

Page Ref: 99

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

2) The historical sites in the Middle East are often referred to as the “________ of civilization.”

Answer: cradles

Page Ref: 124

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Intermediate

3) Islam is more than just a religion; it is a prescription for a total way of life, both individually and ________.

Answer: collectively

Page Ref: 88

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Basic

4) ________ is the part of religion that focuses on the last days, or ultimate destruction of the world.

Answer: Eschatology

Page Ref: 102

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Basic

5) Muslims often say the phrase “________ be upon him” after speaking or hearing the name of the Prophet Muhammad.

Answer: peace

Page Ref: 88

Level: Intermediate

6) The ________believe that the Prophet’s successor should be selected by merit, not by inheritance or birth of family.

Answer: Sunnis

Page Ref: 90

Level: Basic

7) ________ is what the leader of the Muslim community is called.

Answer: Ummah

Page Ref: 90

Level: Basic

8) Arab ________ refers to a series of recent revolutions beginning in December 2010 in Tunisia; aimed at increasing individual rights and freedoms for the people living in the Middle Eastern countries.

Answer: Spring

Page Ref: 103

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

9) The ________believed Ali ibn Abi Talib was the rightful caliph because he was a direct blood descendant of Muhammad.

Answer: Shi'a

Page Ref: 90

Level: Intermediate

10) Islamic fundamentalism is rooted in the assumption that the Muslim world has turned into a state of disorder because of centuries of political and ________ decay.

Answer: moral

Page Ref: 107

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

11) ________ is the official form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia.

Answer: Wahhabism

Page Ref: 108

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Basic

12) The struggle for ________ jihad characterizes a spiritual front against one’s own ego and destructive emotions, desires, and thoughts that prevent man from attaining perfection.

Answer: greater

Page Ref: 92

Level: Intermediate

13) The lesser jihad is much more ________ in nature that consist of physical acts that strengthen the overall community of Muslim believers.

Answer: materialistic

Page Ref: 92

Level: Intermediate

14) When people lose power in the present, they also lose hope for the ________, and these conditions create cosmic states of afterlife, which, in turn, allow for justification of radical action like terrorism and suicide bombing.

Answer: future

Page Ref: 94

Objective: Define fundamentalism and discuss the political and historical factors that have shaped it.

Level: Intermediate

15) ________ Salafism embrace violence as the only means to return to the original message of Islam.

Answer: Jihadist

Page Ref: 119

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Basic

3.4

Matching Questions

Match up the term, concept, or example in the left column to one of the Five Pillars of Islam in the right column. Answers can be used more than once.

A) Pillar 4

B) Pillar 3

C) Pillar 5

D) Pillar 1

E) Pillar 2

1) Must be done five times a day: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

2) Sawm

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

3) Shahada Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

4) “There is no true god but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet.” Page Ref: 96–98

Objective: Outline the origins and early development of Islam in the region, noting the distinctions between Sunni and Shi’a traditions, the concept of “jihad,” the Islamic creed, and the

Five Pillars of Faith.

Level: Intermediate

5) Nisaab is owing more zakat when they have or exceed more than a certain amount of money. Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

6) Salat

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

7) Fasting during Ramadan

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

8) Zakat

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

9) A once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to the Holy Kaaba in Mecca

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

10) Hajj

Page Ref: 96–98

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) E 2) A 3) D 4) D 5) B 6) E 7) A 8) B 9) C 10) C

3.5 Essay Questions

1) Discuss the Middle East's geography, history, and culture and how these components have impacted the Middle East.

Answer: The geographical and cultural area of the Middle East extends from the western Saharan Plains of Africa to the eastern mountains of ancient Persia–current day-Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The area is bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and on the south by the beginning of the jungles of Africa. It also has significant historical sites, some of which are referred to as “the cradles of civilization,” in the Nile River Valley in Egypt and Mesopotamia on the plains between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Iraq. The area historically represents some of the earliest and most advanced civilizations known to mankind and is the birthplace of the world's three major monotheistic religions–Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. It is precisely because of the long, rich, and varied culture that conflicts existed in ancient times and, in part, still exist today. Due to oil, some of these countries are very rich, but the wealth is often concentrated in the hands of a few. This disparity between the rich and the poor has also created strife within these nations.

Page Ref: 82–84

Objective: Summarize the geographical, historical, and cultural aspects of the Middle East, including common misconceptions held by Westerners and Muslims.

Level: Basic

2) Summarize the development and basic history of Islam. List some of the similarities and differences between Christianity and Islam.

Answer: Islam is one of the three great monotheistic religions of the world (along with Judaism and Christianity) believing in one God. The religion traces its roots directly to the Prophet Muhammad during the late 500s A.D. Muslims believe that Muhammad was visited by the Archangel Gabriel and presented with the Word of God–that there is but one God–Allah. The communications between Muhammad and the Angel Gabriel were compiled into the Qur'an, defining everything from the nature of God and Man to the mundane rituals of cleanliness and bathing. Islam believes Jesus was also a prophet but not of divinity. Muslims also use the Old and New Testaments as part of their tradition. Christianity does not see Muhammad as the final Prophet of God, and it doesn’t use the Five Pillars. Muhammad, like Jesus, as accepted in some areas and not welcome in others. Both religions saw fractures and developments of different components within the respective religions upon the deaths of Jesus and Muhammad. Islam has a Caliph, and the Catholic Church has the Pope. Islam, for the most part, combines or wants to combine religion and state, whereas Christianity separates church and state.

Page Ref: 88–92

Level: Intermediate

3) Summarize the Five Pillars of Islam.

Answer: The Five Pillars of Islam represent the five essentials of Islamic faith. They are: (1) Testimony of Faith (Shahada), which is combined into a single statement: “There is no true god but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet.” It is the belief that Allah is all-knowing, all-powerful, and all merciful. (2) Prayer (Salat), which is performed five times a day: dawn, noon, midafternoon, sunset, and at night. It is a quiet time for reflection and aid in guidance and mercy. Muslims try to go to the mosque on Fridays for the noon prayer. (3) Giving Alms (Zakat) represents purification and growth in the form of a payment to remind Muslims that all that they have is a gift. It also promotes a sense of community. (4) Fasting (Sawm) occurs in the ninth month of the Arabic calendar, Ramadan, and entails fasting from food, drink, and sexual relations from sunup to sundown. It is to gain understanding and sympathy with those who go hungry and to achieve spiritual growth. (5) Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) is a once-in-a-lifetime trip in the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar. Pilgrims wear simple clothes and this trip represents a spiritual journey. More than two million people go to Mecca each year.

Page Ref: 95–99

Level: Basic

4) Select two Islamic fundamentalist leaders and write a summary of their roles.

Answer: Answers will vary, but can include any of the following. Muhammad ibn Abd alWahhab in the 1700s is recognized as the first modern Islamic fundamentalist and founded the Wahhabi movement. Hassan al-Banna in the early 1900s started the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. Sayyid Qutb, also in the early 1900s, is called the father of modern terrorism and used the ideological beliefs of al-Banna and the Muslim Brotherhood to develop revolutionary movements throughout the Middle East. Fathi Shaqaqi formed the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in the Gaza Strip and gained support from Syria and Iran. Dr. Ramadan Abdallah Shalah became the leader of PIJ. Sheikh Ahmed Yassin founded Hamas, which is the largest and most successful Islamic fundamentalist group. Nineteenth-century Muslim reformers Muhammad Abdu, Jamal al-Afghani, and Rashid Rida founded the Islamic philosophy of Salafism. Usama bin Laden became the charismatic and instrumental leader of the Jihadist Salafi movement after the Soviet-Afghan War. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was a conservative and radical cleric who created a fundamentalist movement within Shi’a Islam known as Khomeinism. Hassan Nasrallah created the paramilitary organization known as Hezbollah.

Page Ref: 107–118

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Intermediate

5) Why and how are the major Palestinian jihad organizations different from earlier groups?

Answer: These groups have engaged in a bloody and violent “holy war” against Israel, marked by attacks, suicide bombings, and assassinations of innocent Israeli civilians. The Palestinian jihad organizations are different from earlier groups. These groups do not follow secular

ideologies as expressed by Marx, Guevara, and others, but rather are part of the much larger radical and fundamentalist Islamic movement throughout the Middle East. Their philosophical roots are based in the teachings of fundamentalist Islam as expressed by al-Banna and Qutb. Hence, they are focused not only on the liberation of Palestine but on the complete destruction of Israel and the development of an Islamic unified state throughout the Middle East.

Page Ref: 106–120

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Intermediate

3.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Explain the original meaning of jihad and the current use of jihad in terms of a “holy war.” The concept of this word has changed over the years. Even today the meanings of modern words change (example: Sick can mean to be unhealthy or to be cool). Provide other examples of words that have had their meanings change.

Answer: From an Islamic perspective, the term “jihad” is derived from the Qur'an. The word represents an internal struggle to overcome adversity and difficulty in submitting to the will of God. The greater jihad characterizes a spiritual front over one’s own ego and the destructive emotions often associated with malice, hate, envy, and pride that prevent man from attaining perfection; the lesser jihad is much more material and consists of acts of mercy and faith that are designed to help others. The Western perspective on “jihad” is based on a Middle Eastern perversion of the word meaning “holy war” and is often associated with violent actions and attacks by Islamic radicals and terrorists, as exemplified by Usama bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Examples in the changing meaning in more recent words will vary, but should allow the student to see logical connections on how these shifts can happen and to what extent these changes can have on society.

Page Ref: 92–94

Level: Difficult

2) Discuss the split of Islam into Sunni and Shi’a. What impacts has this split caused?

Answer: The Shi'a stem from a group of followers of Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, who believed that Ali was divinely chosen to be the leader of the Islamic community after Muhammad's death in 632 A.D. They argue that the leader of Islam must provide political, governmental, and spiritual leadership to Islam as well as be directly descended from the Prophet. On the other hand, the Sunni or “True Path of Allah” tradition believes that the leadership of Islam should be elected, and segregated from temporal and political life. Government should be secular, meaning that religion and government are separate. Sunnis represent about 85 to 90 percent of the Muslim population in the world; the Shi’a represent the minority and are primarily located in Iran, southeastern Iraq, and Lebanon. Because Islam is a way of life, and in part due to the change in the term Jihad, this split has been

a major source in the development of terrorist groups that have the ethnocentric ideology that those not like them in their beliefs need to be converted or abolished. The means to doing so, through terrorist acts, is all in the name of God, and therefore not immoral.

Page Ref: 90–92

Level: Intermediate

3) Al-Qaeda from Afghanistan is one of the most well-known jihadist Salafist groups that are active throughout the world, but there are several others in existence. Using Table 3–1 on pages 120–121 of the textbook, pick another jihadist Salafist group and conduct outside research regarding the group. Try to find more recent information, news events, and changes within the group that have occurred since the publication of this text.

Answer: Answers will vary, but can include information on: Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM), Jemaah Islamiya (JA), Lashkar-i-Tayyiba (LT), AlQaeda in Iraq (AQI) or the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), or the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), or simply the Islamic State, Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), or Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG).

Page Ref: 120–121

Objective: Distinguish among Wahhabi, Salafi, Salafi Jihadist, and Islamic State movements, emphasizing their ideological differences.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 4 New Threats at Home

4.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which extremist ideology seeks to accelerate the collapse of society to create a new fascist or racial order?

A) Globalism

B) Isolationism

C) Accelerationism

D) Populism

Answer: C

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

2) The “Great Replacement Theory” falsely claims there is a secret effort to replace populations in white-majority nations.

A) Asian

B) White

C) Hispanic

D) Jewish

Answer: B

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Basic

3) Which group founded in 2015 promotes a militarized form of neo-Nazi accelerationism?

A) Patriot Front

B) TheBase

C) Atomwaffen Division

D) Sonnenkrieg Division

Answer: C

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Difficult

4) Who founded the Atomwaffen Division while serving in the Florida National Guard?

A) Samuel Woodward

B) Brandon Russell

C) DevonArthurs

D) JamesMason Answer: B

Page Ref: 4

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

5) The Feuerkrieg Division operated largely before being dismantled.

A) domestically

B) online

C) through universities

D) only in Russia

Answer: B

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

6) The Sonnenkrieg Division first emerged in which country?

A) Germany

B) UnitedKingdom

C) France

D) Russia

Answer: B

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Basic

7) Which militia group’s motto is “Not on ourwatch”?

A) ThreePercenters

B) ProudBoys

C) Oath Keepers

D) Constitutional Sheriffs

Answer: C

Page Ref: 146

Objective: Analyze the universe of anti-government or anti-authority violent extremists (AGAAVEs), including militia violent extremists, anarchist violent extremists, and sovereign citizen violent extremists.

Level: Basic

8) The Oath Keepers claim to defend which amendment as central to their identity?

A) First

B) Second

C) Fourth

D) Tenth

Answer: B

Page Ref: 146

Level: Intermediate

9) The militia known as the ThreePercenters was named after an inaccurate belief about _____.

A) thepercentageofAmericans who fought Britain in theRevolution

B) voterturnout

C) taxrates

D) numberofstates with militias

Answer: A

Page Ref: 148

Level: Intermediate

10) ProudBoys founder Gavin McInnes was also a co-founder of which company?

A) Newsmax

B) Breitbart

C) ViceMedia

D) Rebel Media

Answer: C

Page Ref: 148

Level: Intermediate

11) Which country officially designated the Proud Boys as a terrorist entity?

A) UnitedStates

B) Canada

C) UnitedKingdom

D) Mexico

Answer: B

Page Ref: 149

Level: Intermediate

12) The Constitutional Sheriffs movement argues county sheriffs federal authority. A) are subordinateto B) outrank

C) cannot oppose

D) areequal to

Answer: B

Page Ref: 149

Level: Intermediate

13) The Boogaloo movement’s core goal is to provoke _____.

A) guncontrol laws

B) asecondU.S. civil war

C) anewconstitutional convention

D) worldwidepeace

Answer: B

Page Ref: 150

Level: Intermediate

14) NFAC’s ideology centers on _____.

A) environmental activism

B) blackempowerment and self-defense

C) anti-government sentiment

D) anti-abortion activism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 151

Level: Basic

15) “Paperterrorism” is most associated with which extremist movement?

A) Sovereign Citizens

B) Antifa

C) ELF

D) QAnon

Answer: A

Page Ref: 153

Level: Intermediate

16) The AnimalLiberation Front operates through _____.

A) central leadership

B) political parties

C) leaderless resistance

D) government-approved cells

Answer: C

Page Ref: 157

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

Level: Difficult

17) What major doctrine do both ALFand ELFembrace to avoid detection?

A) Marxism

B) Leaderless resistance

C) Hierarchical organization

D) Isolationism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 158

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

Level: Intermediate

18) The QAnon conspiracy theory originated around 2017 on which online message boards?

A) Reddit and Discord

B) 4chan and 8kun

C) Facebook and Twitter

D) Telegram and Signal

Answer: B

Page Ref: 160

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

19) The Sinaloa Cartel is known for perpetuating which Spanish maxim regarding their approach to corruption?

A) “Vida o muerte” (life or death)

B) “Plomo o plata” (lead or silver)

C) “Todo o nada” (all or nothing)

D) “Fuego y hielo” (fire and ice)

Answer: B

Page Ref: 161

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Difficult

20) MS-13 was originally formed in which U.S. city during the 1980s?

A) Miami, Florida

B) Houston, Texas

C) Los Angeles, California

D) New York, New York

Answer: C

Page Ref: 162

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

21) A 2022group called Jane’s Revengeclaimed attacks connected to which issue?

A) Animal rights

B) Climatechange

C) Abortion rights extremism

D) Guncontrol

Answer: C

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Evaluate the evolution of abortion-related violent extremists and how these groups have changed over time.

Level: Basic

22) QAnon followers believed in a coming event called _____.

A) TheRevolution

B) TheStorm

C) TheAwakening

D) ThePurge

Answer: B

Page: 159 – 160

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

4.2 True/False Questions

1) Racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) include neo-Nazis, whitesupremacists, and Black Identity Extremists.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

2) The Atomwaffen Division was created to defend minority rights in the United States.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Basic

3) The Feuerkrieg Division primarily recruited young people through online platforms. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

4) The Base’s founder, Rinaldo Nazzaro, is believed to live in Russia under the protection of theKremlin.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Difficult

5) Patriot Front is a far-left organization that promotes multiculturalism and anti-racism.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 145

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Difficult

6) The Oath Keepers actively recruit from military and law-enforcement communities.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 146

Level: Intermediate

7) The ThreePercenters’ name accurately reflects that only 3percent of Americans fought in theRevolutionary War.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 148

Level: Basic

8) The ProudBoys often engage in violent confrontations with left-wing groups such as Antifa. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 148

Level: Difficult

9) The Constitutional Sheriffs movement believes that local sheriffs are subordinate to

federal officials.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 149

Level: Intermediate

10) The Boogaloo movement’s core ideology is anti-government and anti-law-enforcement, not strictly racial.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 150

Level: Intermediate

11) NFAC promotes racial justice and Black self-defense, distinguishing it from far-right militias.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 151

Level: Intermediate

12) “Paperterrorism” is a non-violent form of harassment used by Sovereign Citizens involving false legal filings.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 153

Level: Basic

13) The AnimalLiberation Front advocates political lobbying rather than direct action.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 157

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the AnimalLiberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front(ELF).

Level: Difficult

14) The EarthLiberation Front seeks to damage property, not people, to protest environmental destruction.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 158

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the AnimalLiberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front(ELF).

Level: Intermediate

15) The 2022Madison attack by Jane’s Revenge was an example of anti-abortion extremism.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Evaluate the evolution of abortion-related violent extremists and how these groups have changed over time.

Level: Intermediate

16) Many QAnon followers believed that a hidden cabal of elites controlled global governments.

Answer:TRUE

Page Ref: 159

Objective:  Assess violent conspiracy-theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

17) Mexican cartels like CJNGandSinaloawere designated as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs) by2025.

Answer:TRUE

Page Ref: 160 – 161

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

18) TrendeAragua originated in Mexican prisons before expanding worldwide.

Answer:FALSE

Page Ref: 162 – 163

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Difficult

4.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) The belief system that promotes using violence to hasten the collapse of society is called __________.

Answer: accelerationism

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

2) The conspiracy claiming that elites are replacing white populations in Western nations is known as the theory.

Answer: replacement

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

3) The British-based neo-Nazi accelerationist group that splintered from Atomwaffen is called the Division.

Answer: Sonnenkrieg

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Difficult

4) The ___________ organization was founded by Rinaldo Nazzaro, a former U.S. government contractor.

Answer: Base

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVEs) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Basic

5) The ThreePercenters are obsessed with a false legend about the War.

Answer: Revolutionary Page Ref: 148

Level: Intermediate

6) Members of the Boogaloo movement often wear _______________ shirts as their signature outfit.

Answer: Hawaiian Page Ref: 151

Level: Intermediate

7) The term forusing bogus legal filings to harass officials is paper __________.

Answer: terrorism Page Ref: 153

Level: Basic

TheAnimalLiberation Front andEarthLiberation Front conduct illegal actions theycall direct ________.

Answer: action

Page Ref: 158

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

Level: Difficult

9) The1998arsonat aColorado ski resortwas committed by theEarthLiberation __________.

Answer: Front

Page Ref: 158

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

Level: Basic

10)

ThegroupJane’s claimedresponsibility forattacks on anti-abortion centers in2022.

Answer: Revenge

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Evaluate the evolution of abortion-related violent extremists and how these groups have changed over time.

Level: Basic

11)

Thefigureknownas “Q” was believed by followers to leakclassified information onlineforthe movement.

Answer: QAnon

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy-theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

12) Joaquin Guzman, also known as “El Chapo,” was the leader of the ___________ Cartel. Answer: Sinaloa

Page Ref: 160

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

13) TheVenezuelan gang TrendeAraguaoriginated insidethe prison in 2005. Answer: Tocoron

Page Ref: 162

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

14) QAnon conspiracy theories accelerated during the ________ pandemic when people spent

more time online.

Answer: COVID-19

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

15) QAnon followers believed in an event called “The __________” where Trump would expose and arrest elite conspirators.

Answer: Storm

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

4.4

Matching Questions

Match up the organizational group with the type of group they are categorized under. Answers may be used more than once.

A) Radically or Ethically Motivated Violent Extremists

B) Conservative Extremist Groups

C) Liberal Extremists Groups

D) Criminal Gangs, Cartels, and Violent Drug Trafficking Organizations

E) Conspiracy Theorists

1) Atomwaffen

Page Ref: 142

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

2) Sinaloa

Page Ref: 160

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

3) The Base

Page Ref: 144

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

4) Mara Salvatrucha

Page Ref: 162

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Intermediate

5) Black Identity Extremists

Page Ref: 146

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

6) Oath Keepers

Page Ref: 146

Objective: Analyze the universe of anti-government or anti-authority violent extremists (AGAAVEs), including militia violent extremists (MVEs), anarchist violent extremists, and sovereign citizen violent extremists.

Level: Intermediate

7) Patriot Front

Page Ref: 145

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

8) Anarchism

Page Ref: 154

Level: Intermediate

9) Not Fucking Around Coalition

Page Ref: 151

Level: Intermediate

10) QAnon

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Assess violent conspiracy theory movements such as QAnon.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) A 2) D 3) A 4) D 5) A 6) B 7) A 8) C 9) B 10) E

4.5 Essay Questions

1) Some of the most heinous attacks on U.S. soil in recent years have been RMVE attacks. Several examples are provided in the chapter. Pick one example and write a summary of the

attack.

Answer: Answers will vary, but may include any examples provided in the book.

Page Ref: 142–146

Objective: Describe characteristics of racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists (RMVE) and list which groups fall into this category.

Level: Intermediate

2) What is Black Bloc and what do they do differently?

Answer: Black Bloc is an international protest movement of violent anarchists who largely want to eliminate the power of governments and financial institutions in the global system. Black bloc is primarily a tactic, not a cohesive group. Black Bloc is closely associated with anarchism but, instead of being a movement or organization, is a tactic used by protesters primarily anarchists and anti-authoritarians dressed in all black with their faces covered, who move in unison during demonstrations to establish a momentum of force. In general, this approach is noted for its attempts to protect individual identities, forge close bonds of trust and solidarity, and make it more difficult for law enforcement authorities to target specific individuals.

Page Ref: 156

Level: Basic

3) What are the core beliefs of the Animal Liberation Front movement?

Answer: Core beliefs include an opposition to animal exploitation, direct action over legal reform, economic sabotage, and leaderless resistance. ALF activists believe that animals should not be used for food, clothing, research, or entertainment. Rather than lobbying for legal changes, ALF members prefer to take matters into their own hands, which include illegal actions to disrupt industries they are against.

Page Ref: 157–158

Objective: Compare and contrast two animal rights/environmental violent extremists: the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF).

Level: Basic

4.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Many changes have occurred in the United States surrounding the issue of abortion. The Dobbs decision brought abortion rights back to the states. How has this change impacted the abortion-related violent extremist individuals or groups?

Answer: Answers will vary.

Page Ref: 159

Objective: Evaluate the evolution of abortion-related violent extremists and how these groups have changed over time.

Level: Difficult

2) In 2025 and 2026, there have been many changes in Venezuela. Pick one topic that has been in the news lately, and write a summary of the occurrence. Topics could include: the deportations from the U.S. to Venezuela, news on the Venezuelan prison, drug cartels and organized crime in Venezuela, and the changes to the government and their impact on drug cartels.

Answer: Answers will vary, but should include the most recent updates on occurrences in Venezuela.

Page Ref: 162–163

Objective: Provide an overview of criminal gangs operating on U.S. soil and measure their capabilities as well as what can be done to counter these groups.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 5 Terrorist Organizations and Structures

5.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) An important characteristic of organizations is:

A) an orientation toward achieving goals

B) bureaucracy

C) employment of a large number of people

D) autonomy

Answer: A

Page Ref: 169

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Basic

2) Which of the following is NOT a key dilemma terrorist organizations face when choosing an organizational structure?

A) Action versus secrecy

B) Growth versus control

C) Paramilitary versus civilian

D) Recruitment versus retention

Answer: C

Page Ref: 169–174

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Basic

3) Terrorist organizations take action because:

A) they need to obtain finances

B) they need to advance their cause

C) they will lose their geographical area

D) they will lose their military skills

Answer: B

Page Ref: 169

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

4) This is the core group in a terrorist organization and is responsible for intelligence, targeting, logistics, propaganda, and communication:

A) hardcore leadership

B) cadre

C) active supporters

D) passive supporters

Answer: B

Page Ref: 170

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Difficult

5) These people participate in fundraising activities and are fully aware that they are aiding a terrorist organization.

A) Hardcore leadership

B) Cadre

C) Active supporters

D) Passive supporters

Answer: C

Page Ref: 170

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

6) One way terrorist organizations ensure longevity is to:

A) have short-term, easily obtainable goals

B) have extremely radical and violent ideologies

C) kill defectors

D) reinvent itself

Answer: D

Page Ref: 173

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

7) When the March of Dimes reinvented itself, changing its focus from polio to prevention of birth defects, this is an example of which problem associated with organizations:

A) growth versus control

B) success versus longevity

C) resource acquisition versus constituencies

D) recruitment versus retention

Answer: B

Page Ref: 173

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Difficult

8) According to Alex P. Schmid, radicalization is best described as:

A) a single traumatic event that instantly changes someone's beliefs

B) a process involving shifts from dialogue and compromise to confrontational tactics

C) only a group phenomenon that cannot occur individually

D) exclusively related to religious extremism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 180

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

9) The number of active followers and the geographical location are two factors that:

A) determine if the group is a bureaucracy or a lone wolf model

B) reduce a terrorist’s level of success

C) shape the decision about the organizational form a terrorist group will take

D) aid in the demise of a group

Answer: C

Page Ref: 174

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

10) According to Connor and Flynn’s radicalization model, what is the second stage in the lone actor radicalization process?

A) Personal grudge or grievance

B) Moral outrage and anger

C) Cognitive opening or receptive point

D) Trigger point for action

Answer: C

Page Ref: 181

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

11) These types of attacks are self-contained, prevalent in the United States, and hard to prevent:

A) cell attacks

B) lone actor attacks

C) network attacks

D) virtual attacks

Answer: B

Page Ref: 175

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

12) Terrorist cells must be

A) all male

B) large to be effective

C) leaderless

D) a cohesive group of trained individuals

Answer: D

Page Ref: 183

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Difficult

13) This type of cell makes all the final decisions about the execution of an attack.

A) Sleeper cells

B) Command and control cells

C) Tactical operations cells

D) Intel cells

Answer: B

Page Ref: 185

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

14) This type of cell provides supplies and other support to other cells, such as bomb-making materials:

A) tactical operation cells

B) intel cells

C) logistic cells

D) fund-raising cells

Answer: C

Page Ref: 186

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

15) This type of network has the leader in the center, and the leader is the only person communicating with higher levels of the terrorist movement and interacts directly with others who, in turn, have no contact with each other.

A) Chain network

B) Star network

C) Wheel network

D) All-channel network

Answer: B

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

16) This type of network is highly decentralized, and all nodes can communicate with each other and the hub; it increases the potential for collaboration in problem solving.

A) Chain network

B) Star network

C) Wheel network

D) All-channel network

Answer: D

Page Ref: 193

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

17) Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an option for replacing a missing terrorist leader?

A) Train and infiltrate a new leader

B) Transition to a leaderless cell

C) Awaken a qualified sleeper

D) Initiate a redundant leader protocol

Answer: B

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

18) The characteristics of destructible, occupied, near, and easy are from:

A) chain networks

B) military strikes against terrorist groups

C) the acronym EVIL DONE as attractive targets

D) al-Qaeda’s handbook

Answer: C

Page Ref: 197

Objective: Discuss how ideology influences terrorists in identifying targets and dehumanizing victims through propaganda and indoctrination.

Level: Intermediate

19) Suicide bombings:

A) are not successful

B) are very effective in killing and injuring people

C) are unplanned

D) are completed mostly by uneducated females

Answer: B

Page Ref: 198

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

20) Inexperience, bad operational decisions, lack of capital, and poor environment are all:

A) occurrences that can happen in a terrorist cell

B) reasons a terrorist group might fail

C) problems associated with wheel networks

D) items that terrorist groups provide instructions on as a means of prevention

Answer: B

Page Ref: 205

Objective: Identify the ways terrorist organizations end, explain why the use of force alone may not be effective, and understand the importance of comprehensive counterterrorism strategies that respect human rights.

Level: Basic

5.2 True/False Questions

1) Terrorist movements do not need to develop some form of organizational structure.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 169

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Basic

2) Terrorist leaders must relinquish more and more control as an organization grows.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 170

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

3) Suicide bombings are usually spontaneous and driven by emotion rather than planning.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 198

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

4) Having friends and family that are involved in a terrorist group is one reason as to why someone might join a terrorist group.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 203

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

5) al-Qaeda’s stated goal is to establish a worldwide Muslim community.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 173

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

6) The LTTE carried out over 200 suicide attacks, including assassinations of political leaders.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 199

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Basic

7) Lone actors terrorists are controlled by terrorists’ groups, but act alone and don’t receive material assistance.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 181

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

8) Cell members have to be located in close physical proximity. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 183

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

9) Leaderless cells are autonomous, self-enrolling, and self-organizing. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 183

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

10) Financial cells almost exclusively commit illegal acts to raise funds for terrorist movements or specific attacks.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 186

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

11) The hub network can be disrupted when some members go missing, but rolling up the entire network isn’t likely.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

12) Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute

attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Identify six organizational models of terrorist organizations and briefly describe each.

Level: Intermediate

13) Leftist terrorist groups have historically relied heavily on suicide bombings as a primary tactic.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 200

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

14) Wade Page’s attack on the Sikh Temple in Wisconsin was classified by the FBI as a lone actor domestic terrorist attack.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 180

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

15) An attractive target for terrorists is one that is iconic or symbolic.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 197

Objective: Discuss how ideology influences terrorists in identifying targets and dehumanizing victims through propaganda and indoctrination.

Level: Basic

16) According to Polko, people join terrorist organizations solely because of strong ideological or religious motives, not for financial reasons.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 181

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Basic

17) Inexperience, bad operational decisions, lack of capital, and a poor environment are the four main factors that lead to a terrorist organization’s failure.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 205

Level: Intermediate

18) The killing or capturing of the terrorist group's leader can lead to the group coming to an end.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 205

Level: Basic

19) Terrorist groups never enter into negotiations to meet their goals.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 205

Level: Intermediate

20) Start-up terrorist organizations are more at risk when recruiting because much of it must be done face-to-face.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 205

Level: Basic

5.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) A terrorist organization is not concerned about ________ security.

Answer: external

Page Ref: 170

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

2) ________ are the dependable nucleus or core group members of a terrorist organization. Answer: Cadre

Page Ref: 170

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

3) Terrorist organizations must balance the risks associated with conducting operations with the need to ensure their own long-term ________.

Answer: survival

Page Ref: 173

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

4) Durable terrorist organizations have ________ methods of attack that include multiple bases from which to operate, and inflicting high casualties with their attacks.

Answer: diverse

Page Ref: 173

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Intermediate

5) Suicide bombers are often referred to as martyrs or in radical contexts.

Answer: Shaheeds

Page Ref: 200

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Basic

6) The Chechen female suicide bombers were commonly called “Black ______.”

Answer: Widows

Page Ref: 201

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

7) An tactic is used by weaker groups to exploit the vulnerabilities of stronger opponents.

Answer: asymmetric

Page Ref: 201

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

8) Network organizational models can include: chain, hub or star, ________, and all-channel structures.

Answer: wheel

Page Ref: 191

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

9) A ________ drop is a secret, innocuous place where a “package” that a courier leaves is retrieved by another courier.

Answer: dead

Page Ref: 191

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

10) The chief advantages of the ________ model are that the chain of command is clearly understood, people know what their jobs are, specialization can be accommodated, and control is normally high.

Answer: hierarchical Page Ref: 194

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

11) The ________ organizational model has a core group that to some degree assists the groups that voluntarily associate with it and is a relatively recent hybrid organizational structure.

Answer: umbrella

Page Ref: 195

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

12) A terrorist group can be defeated by ______________.

Answer: force

Page Ref: 206

Level: Intermediate

13) In the ideological framework of terrorist movements, ________ are blamed for the violence inflicted on them.

Answer: victims

Page Ref: 196

Objective: Discuss how ideology influences terrorists in identifying targets and dehumanizing victims through propaganda and indoctrination.

Level: Intermediate

14) Terrorists choose their targets specifically because they want them exposed and ________ visible.

Answer: publicly Page Ref: 197

Objective: Discuss how ideology influences terrorists in identifying targets and dehumanizing victims through propaganda and indoctrination.

Level: Intermediate

15) ________ seldom end terrorism but may be associated with producing a decline in terrorist operations.

Answer: Negotiations

Page Ref: 205

Level: Intermediate

5.4 Matching Questions

Match the terminology in the left column to the definitions in the right column.

A) follows a chain of command in which each lower organizational unit is under the direct control of a superior organizational unit

B) is highly decentralized, and all nodes can communicate with each other and the hub

C) the leader is the only person communicating with higher levels and interacting directly with the nodes, who do not have contact with each other

D) is the simplest type of network in which a courier leaves a “package” and another courier picks it up

E) responsible for reconnaissance, information gathering, and target selection, providing critical intelligence to support tactical decision-making and operational planning

F) has a core group that to some degree assists the groups that voluntarily associate with it

G) terrorist members carrying out normal life duties, waiting to be “awakened” to commit a specific purpose

H) all nodes can communicate with the members to their “left” or “right” because of a link

I) the smallest terrorist unit, often acting alone

J) multiple terrorists working together to achieve a particular goal

1) cell organizational model

Page Ref: 183

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

2) lone actor organizational model

Page Ref: 175

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

3) sleeper cell

Page Ref: 187

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

4) chain network

Page Ref: 191

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

5) hub or star network

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

6) wheel network

Page Ref: 192

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

7) all-channel network

Page Ref: 193

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

8) hierarchical organizational model

Page Ref: 194

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

9) umbrella organizational model

Page Ref: 195

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

10) Intelligence cells

Page Ref: 186

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) G 2) I 3) J 4) D 5) C 6) H 7) B 8) A 9) F 10) E

5.5 Essay Questions

1) What are some reasons as to why people join terrorist groups?

Answer: According to Frisch, there are three main reasons why individuals choose to join a terrorist movement. First, family members, friends, or individuals in the recruit's social network are going to join or have already done so. Second, the recruit’s family members, or members of the recruit’s social network, have strong grievances against the government. Third, deep religious and/or political beliefs inspire the recruit to fight for a cause. Often, there are no other jobs; the recruit needs money to support himself and his family; and joining provides the family with services and assistance that the government does not. Occasionally, some terrorist groups coerce people to join an unwise strategy because they are candidates to leave the movement and become informers. Some fighters switch from one movement to another because they will be paid better. Games, comics, graphic novels, and videos are used to indoctrinate children and attract recruits.

Page Ref: 171–172

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Basic

2) Describe lone actors and why they are so difficult to prevent.

Answer: The lone actors attack seemingly comes out of nowhere, with no warning. A lone actor is one person acting alone and he or she can be every bit as dangerous or lethal as any major terrorist organization. Simon notes, there are no constraints on their level of violence because lone actors are not beholden to a financial or other type of supporter who might mediate their degree of lethality. Lone actors have no group decision-making process, peer pressure, or supervisor to stifle their inclinations. A lone actor may have a personal grudge or may have some affinity for a domestic or foreign ideology. However, the lone actor is neither controlled by nor receives material assistance from domestic or foreign terrorist movements, although their websites may be visited. A citizen of the United States or a legal resident living here, the lone actor is known as a “homegrown terrorist.” An American lone actor is self-radicalized and ordinarily shows little stomach for suicide attacks. A discreet lone actor is hard to detect because he or she identifies the target; plans the attack; assembles the materials needed; doesn’t have to communicate, coordinate, or get the approval of anyone; and executes the attack. Thus, the lone actor is self-contained. Lone actor attacks are more prevalent in the United States than elsewhere. Lone actors are considered a very significant problem in the United States.

Page Ref: 175–182

Objective: Explain the motivations and processes behind suicide terrorism, including the psychological, ideological, and organizational factors involved.

Level: Intermediate

3) Outline the seven types of cells and what each cell is responsible for.

Answer: (1) Sleeper Cells: Members lead normal lives, engaging only in lawful employment and activities that call no attention to themselves. The jobs they select may facilitate future terrorist activities. Illustratively, a taxi driver will learn a great deal about a city’s geography, can

identify potential targets, and move terrorists around. A sleeper cell may receive a signal that “awakens” it for a specific purpose, such as providing a safe house or sabotage. Iran has been inserting sleeper cells in Latin America with the goal of committing, fomenting, and fostering acts of international terrorism. (2) Command and Control Cells: C2 cells make all of the final decisions about the execution of an attack and other matters pertaining to the activities of a cell; (3) Tactical Operations Cells: TAC-OPS cells actually execute attacks under the guidance of C2; (4) Intel Cells: These cells collect data, make recommendations, may select targets, provide information about the best route to approach the target (ingress), and, if not a suicide attack, the best route to follow when leaving (egressing) the area of the attack; (5) Logistics Cells: LCs provide supplies and other support to other cells, especially TAC-OPS, including bomb-making materials and the names and locations of sympathetic doctors to use if there is a medical emergency; and (6) Financial Cells: FRCs almost exclusively commit illegal acts to raise funds for the terrorist movement or to be used in support of a particular attack. Illustrations include kidnapping for ransom, arms and drug trafficking, operating bogus charities, extortion, and credit card fraud. (7) Propaganda Cells: Propaganda cells are dedicated to disseminating the ideology and promoting the image of a terrorist organization through well-coordinated information campaigns.

Page Ref: 185–187

Objective: Describe different terrorist cell structures, their roles, and how they operate to execute attacks while maintaining secrecy and resilience.

Level: Basic

5.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Discuss the five key dilemmas facing terrorist groups. Expand on each of the five by giving a recent example from an outside source. In addition, provide a counterterrorism tactic that the United States could, or has, deployed to break up or destroy this dilemma in the organization.

Answer: 1. Action versus Secrecy: Action is necessary to advance the cause, publicize it, and gain recruits and supporters. As more attacks are made, it becomes more difficult to maintain internal secrecy. However, internal secrecy also complicates the task of communicating and coordinating with the various parts of the terrorist movement. 2. Growth versus Control: As a terrorist movement grows, the leader must relinquish operational control and delegate tasks to lower-ranking leaders. 3. Recruitment versus Retention: Poor recruitment can cripple or cause a terrorist organization to fail. Recruitment must be based on the individual, not a blanket approach, as there are many different reasons as to why a person will join a terrorist group. Because the recruitment process is tedious, the maintenance of those recruits is very important. 4. Success versus Longevity: Terrorist organizations must balance the risks associated with conducting operations with the need to ensure their own long-term survival. Ensuring longevity may require the organization to reinvent itself or adopt long-term goals. 5. Resource Acquisition versus Constituencies: The use of roving and stationary bandits as a means of creating a flow of resources. Examples from outside sources and counterterrorism tactics will vary, but should be cited, credible, and viable.

Page Ref: 169–174

Objective: Analyze the five key dilemmas facing terrorist organizations and how these challenges affect their strategies and longevity.

Level: Difficult

2) The book discusses how terrorist organizations can end. Examine the changes that have occurred in al-Qaeda. Be sure to address the death of Usama bin Laden and how this has impacted al-Qaeda. Conclude with an opinion of al-Qaeda's future and the possibility of how or if it can end.

Answer: There are four factors that might cause a terrorist organization to fail or end. They include: (1) inexperience, for example, leaders may not be able to sustain the zeal of followers because they neither know how to do so nor recognize its importance; (2) bad operational decisions, such as attacking “hard” targets beyond the capabilities of the group; (3) a lack of capital, for example, either they cannot attract well-heeled financial supporters or such supporters are convinced by bad operational decisions that the group does not have a future and stop contributing; and (4) an environment in which mistakes may lead to catastrophic failure. Specifically, Cronin states there are six different ways: the leader is captured or killed, the group enters into negotiations, the group's aims are achieved, there is an implosion or loss of the group's public support, the group is defeated by force, or the group transitions from terrorism into other forms of violence.

Since bin Laden's death, al-Qaeda has fractured into smaller groups, each with its own ideology and leader; however, al-Qaeda is now more of an umbrella organization that provides some support for the groups under its umbrella. To some extent, there was success in breaking alQaeda with bin Laden's death, but in some ways it has made the fight against terrorism more difficult because there are more leaders and more groups that the U.S. needs to gather intelligence on and watch. The conclusions and opinions of the students’ responses should vary, but the logic applied to their discussion should be viable.

Page Ref: 205–206

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 6 Critical Processes of Terrorist Organizations

6.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Describing a terrorist organization:

A) is difficult because they are always changing

B) is easy because we can often find their handbook online

C) is easy because terrorist groups get locked in their own ideology and don’t change

D) can quickly be achieved by interrogating their members

Answer: A

Page Ref: 222

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement's capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

2) Which type of terrorist attack involves seizing control of vehicles like airplanes or ships?

A) Sabotage

B) Hijacking

C) Arson

D) Cyberterrorism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 225

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement's capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Basic

3) The “R” in the acronym POSDCORB for universal methods of administration stands for:

A) Reporting

B) Restructuring

C) Rebuilding

D) Return rate

Answer: A

Page Ref: 226

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

4) Organizational tools:

A) are physical items needed to get things done

B) are only necessary in extremely large organizations

C) can aid in viability

D) are not utilized in terrorist organizations

Answer: C

Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

5) Which of the following is NOT one of the four organizational tools?

A) Ideology

B) Leadership

C) Capitalism

D) Publicity

Answer: C

Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

6) Human rights abuses, economic inequality, a sense of injustice, religion, and political repression all:

A) create extremism

B) are United Nation’s problems

C) occur in Middle Eastern governments

D) aid in the development of ideologies

Answer: D

Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

7) Which of the following is NOT one of the three common characteristics of terrorist ideologies?

A) Belief system that instructs people to do certain things

B) Things to be done must be directed at achieving some goal

C) Respect people’s differences

D) The belief can’t be questioned

Answer: C

Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

8) A major challenge in recruiting new members is:

A) identifying those who can be indoctrinated to the degree that they are willing to risk death

B) having too many potential new members

C) having to pay too much money for new members

D) relocating new members

Answer: A

Page Ref: 230

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

9) Why do terrorist groups continue to use kidnapping as a source of funding?

A) It is considered an ineffective and rarely used tactic

B) It consistently results in financial losses for terrorist groups.

C) It reinforces their belief that kidnapping is a profitable and reliable source of revenue

D) It is primarily used for political negotiations only.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 235

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

10) Members of terrorist groups may leave because:

A) of disillusionment with the group’s strategies or tactics

B) of increased loyalty to the group’s mission

C) of strong trust in leadership decisions

D) of greater satisfaction with compensation and roles

Answer: D

Page Ref: 236

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

11) The cheapest and fastest means of gaining this is by using the Internet to communicate with supporters, shape opinions, and demoralize enemies:

A) radicalism

B) respect

C) publicity

D) money

Answer: C

Page Ref: 237

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

12) Terrorist movements need operational tools in order to:

A) maintain their secrecy

B) generate attacks

C) maintain their control

D) achieve their goals

Answer: B

Page Ref: 238

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

13) This is the operational tool that plans, staffs, trains, coordinates, and executes attacks:

A) command and control system

B) weapon obtainment

C) safe havens

D) intelligence and counterintelligence

Answer: A

Page Ref: 238

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

14) For most recruits into terrorist groups, training begins with an initial indoctrination, physical conditioning, and:

A) relocation to a terrorist camp

B) isolation from family members and friends

C) a swearing-in to establish commitment to the organization

D) small arms familiarization and marksmanship

Answer: D

Page Ref: 241

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

15) What is meant by the “crime-terror nexus”?

A) The complete separation of criminal groups and terrorist organizations

B) The cooperation between criminal organizations and terrorists, each using their own strengths.

C) The elimination of illegal activities by terrorist groups

D) The focus of terrorists only on ideological goals without financial motives.

Answer: B

Page Ref: 236

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

16) Hawalas are:

A) completely illegal

B) developed out of a lack of trust

C) highly regulated

D) built on trust and operate without regulatory oversight

Answer: D

Page Ref: 244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

17) This person, to build and maintain his empire, killed three candidates for Colombia’s presidency, more than 200 judges, and over 1,000 police officers.

A) Usama bin Laden

B) Pablo Escobar

C) Yasser Arafat

D) Younis Tsouli

Answer: B

Page Ref: 247

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

18) Al-Qaeda and the Taliban control lands that grow poppies and the laboratories that turn them into heroin in both Pakistan and:

A) Afghanistan

B) Iraq

C) Iran

D) Egypt

Answer: A

Page Ref: 247

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

19) The U.S. Treasury calculates that in 2013 this much money was paid in ransom to terrorists worldwide:

A) $1 million

B) $10 million

C) $165 million

D) $1 billion

Answer: C

Page Ref: 248

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

20) This IS online magazine served as both a propaganda tool and a means to provide tactical guidance to supporters, covering topics from ideological indoctrination to practical advice on carrying out attacks.

A) QAnon

B) The Workers Party

C) Atomwaffen

D) Dabiq

Answer: D

Page Ref: 224

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

6.2 True/False Questions

1) There is a wide variance in how terrorist organizations behave, and not all have specific intentions to kill as many people as possible.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 220

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

2) There are only two ways to look at terrorist organizations: motivation and capabilities.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 222

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

3) The organizational tool of publicity must be powerful enough to motivate members to make sacrifices.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 237

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

4) The organizational tool of ideology is important in communicating what “we are about.”

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Basic

5) Cyberterrorism can target systems like power grids and financial networks.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 225

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

6) Terrorist always use their full capabilities when carrying out attacks.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 221

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

7) The United States Joint Prioritized Effect List has some 2,000 names of people the U.S. wants to capture or kill.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 229

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

8) Terrorist groups may change their motivations and capabilities over time.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 220

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement’s capability to launch certain types of

attacks.

Level: Basic

9) Intelligence must be delivered with conclusions useful to the terrorist “client” in need of it; otherwise, it is just data.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 243

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

10) Hawalas offer worse currency exchange rates than banks. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Basic

11) Bitcoin can actually be deposited into a bank account, and all transactions are recorded. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 245

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

12) In an effort to obtain funding, terrorist groups have turned toward the drug trade.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 246

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Basic

13) In response to drug crop eradication programs, many terrorist groups became involved in the development of synthetic drugs.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 247

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

14) Terrorists have been able to counterfeit U.S. currency. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 248

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

15) Sometimes a terrorist group becomes so involved in for-profit crimes that the radical ideology becomes secondary, and the group transitions primarily to a criminal organization. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 248

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

16) All terrorist groups behave the same, but have their own specific objectives.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 220

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement's capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Basic

17) Al-Qaeda successfully heavily damaged the USS The Sullivans by loading a smaller boat with explosives and driving it into the Navy ship.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 223

Objective: State why it is important for terrorist groups to become learning organizations.

Level: Basic

18) Publicity is one of the four organizational tools that calls attention to what the terrorist organization broadly intends to do and heralds its successes.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 237

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

19) Recruiting is not as big of an issue as it once was because most of it is done on the Internet.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 234

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

20) The capturing of weapons is still a reliable means of building up an arms inventory.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 239

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

6.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Terrorist organizations may get stuck at any stage, and they may advance, ________, dissolve, or their motivations and capabilities may change.

Answer: regress

Page Ref: 220

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement's capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

2) To achieve some longevity, terrorist movements must become ________ organizations.

Answer: learning Page Ref: 222

Objective: Explain what restrains a terrorist movement's capability to launch certain types of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

3) Terrorism occurs when opportunity, motivation, and ________ intersect.

Answer: ideology Page Ref: 227

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

4) Importing new energy, acquiring new skills, increasing operational capabilities, and replacing losses caused by fighting are related to the ________ organizational tool.

Answer: recruiting

Page Ref: 230

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement's four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

5) ________ safe havens are situated on lands bordering littoral or shallow waters, as well as along rivers that flow to the ocean.

Answer: Maritime

Page Ref: 245

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

6) In response to growing pressure from formal banking systems, terrorists began making greater use of alternative ________ systems.

Answer: remittance

Page Ref: 245

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

7) ________ is an informal and often unregulated remittance system that operates from many countries but was developed in India.

Answer: Hawala

Page Ref: 244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Basic

8) A terrorist organization that abandons violence and becomes political falls into Group . Answer: F

Page Ref: 221

Objective: State why it is important for terrorist groups to become learning organizations.

Level: Basic

9) ________-terrorism originally referred to campaigns of extreme violence, including torture, beheadings, bombings, and assassinations by drug traffickers against competitors.

Answer: Narco

Page Ref: 246

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

10) To reduce the income of terrorists and criminal organizations, the police adopted the strategy of ________ poppy fields and coca tree crops.

Answer: eradicating Page Ref: 247

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

11) ________, the annual giving of money to be used in charity by Muslims, can also be funneled into terrorist groups.

Answer: Zakat Page Ref: 249

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Basic

12) The convergence of criminal organizations and terrorist groups is known as the crime-terror .

Answer: nexus Page Ref: 222

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools.

Level: Intermediate

13) Terrorist recruiting efforts are shaped like a ________.

Answer: funnel Page Ref: 234

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

14) ________ (use the acronym) is a Colombian terrorist group that has converged and become more of a criminal organization, and the radical ideology that initiated the groups has fallen to secondary.

Answer: FARC Page Ref: 229

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organization tools.

Level: Intermediate

15) Al-Qaeda successfully and heavily damaged the USS ________ by loading a small boat with explosives and driving it into the Navy ship.

Answer: Cole

Page Ref: 223

Objective: State why it is important for terrorist groups to become learning organizations.

Level: Basic

6.4 Matching Questions

Match the description or item in the left column and determine whether it is an organizational tool or an operational tool in the right column. Answers will be used more than once.

A) operational tool

B) organizational tool

1) command and control system

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

2) leadership

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

3) acquiring weapons

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

4) ideology

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

5) safe havens

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

6) publicity

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

7) training

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

8) intelligence and counterintelligence

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

9) recruiting

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

10) finance

Page Ref: 226–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational tools; identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools.

Level: Intermediate

6.5 Essay Questions

1) Pick one of the four operational tools and discuss it in detail.

Answer: 1. The adoption of an ideology to communicate what the terrorist organization is about. This ideology must be powerful enough to motivate members to make sacrifices and believe that the violent acts they commit are in the name of Allah. Ideologies have belief systems that instruct people to do certain things, which can’t be questioned, and the things done must be directed toward some goal within the ideology. 2. Leadership is a very important and dangerous role. Leaders are often on the capture and kill list. How large the organization determines how stratified the organization is which creates multi-layered leadership. 3. Recruiting fulfills four important needs: importing new energy, acquiring new sets of skills, increasing operational capabilities, and replacing losses caused by being captured, killed, or quitting. Recruiting tactics vary based on the person being recruited, and some recruitment efforts focus on recruiting people who don’t fit the profile of a terrorist as a strategy. Recruiting can take place anywhere and at any time. It is easier to recruit for established terrorist organizations versus new terrorist organizations. Recruiting efforts often take the form of a funnel, in which they start with a large group of potential recruits and end with a few who fully complete training and become members.

4. Publicity is used to reach out to current and potential supporters, shape favorable international public opinion, and demoralize the enemy. Self-learning tools are also available for those who are interested. The Internet has little to no regulation and censorship, provides global coverage, has a huge audience, and is inexpensive.

Page Ref: 227–238

Objective: Identify and briefly describe a terrorist movement’s four organizational tools. Level: Basic

2) Outline the six operational tools. Conclude each tool with a potential counterterrorism action that could be taken to reduce the success of that tool.

Answer: 1. Command and control system is the mechanism in a terrorist movement that plans, staffs, trains, coordinates, and executes attacks. It is referred to as C or C2. The sophistication level is based on the stage of development and the size of the terrorist organization. Intelligence gathering can be used to reduce effectiveness and prevent attacks; answers may vary. 2. Acquiring weapons and spare parts for weapons is essential, and an organization's supply is usually a mixture of those supplied by individual or state sponsors, purchased on the black market, or captured. The arms inventory is a crude indicator of its size, intentions, and capabilities. Protection of military caches of arms as a means of preventing them from being captured is one answer that could be provided as a counterterrorism action. 3. Operational space is a physical safe haven where attacks can be planned, trained for, and rehearsed with a measure of security. There are land safe havens, urban safe havens, maritime safe havens, and virtual safe havens. Destruction of safe havens or sanctions against governments that allow safe havens are counterterrorism action for this operational tool. 4. Training recruits begins with an initial phase of indoctrination, physical conditions, small arms familiarization, marksmanship, and basic martial arts. It can include more advanced topics like building and planting bombs, hostagetaking, and assaulting military convoys. Shutting down training websites is a response to reduce terrorist training. 5. Intelligence and counterintelligence is an essential operational tool only if the data is processed, integrated, analyzed, evaluated, and interpreted on a specific subject and delivered with conclusions. Counterintelligence is the means to disrupt the intelligence of terrorist groups. 6. Finance is vital to a terrorist organization's success and longevity. Due to stricter banking regulations, terrorist organizations have taken to profiting from the drug trade, committing crimes like kidnapping, setting up fake charities, and use of hawala. Continued increase of banking regulations, and tracing and interrupting the use of hawala is one means of reducing a terrorist’s ability to gain finances. Answers will vary in regard to counterterrorism actions that could be done to reduce the various organizational tools.

Page Ref: 238–244

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement’s six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

3) Explain hawala. Discuss how it works and why terrorist organizations use it. Be sure to also include why it is a problem from a counterterrorism perspective.

Answer: Hawala is an informal and often unregulated remittance system that operates from many countries conducting domestic and international transactions. It was developed in India before formal banking practices were introduced. In some cities of the world Hawala services are

openly advertised. Hawalas are a faster and safer means than using a courier who could be arrested for currency violations or another offense while traveling. Hawalas are distinguished from traditional banks by (1) strong trust; they are illegal in some countries, yet they operate effectively and efficiently without regulatory oversight or any legal recourse; (2) hawala dealers are often bound together by family, business partners, or regional connections; (3) they make minimal use of formal negotiable instruments; (4) no money is actually transferred between hawalas; (5) transactions take place based on communications between members of a network of hawaladars or hawala dealers; (6) hawalas operate with little paperwork, and what exists is minimal and often in codes; (7) they provide better currency exchange rates than banks offer; (8) the person receiving the money gets it quickly, within hours to a day or two at most; (9) some hawaladars are open and available twenty-four hours a day, such as local grocery stores; and (10) all taxes are avoided. Because hawala operates in secret, virtually no paper trail exists, and the fact that hawala can involve several steps, it is very hard to trace and interrupt. This is the main reason it is a problem for counterterrorism efforts.

Page Ref: 244–245

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

6.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Explain the concept of a terrorist organization needing to become a learning organization in order to achieve longevity. Provide one example of how al-Qaeda has “learned” and changed since the 9/11 attacks. This example should not be from the text, but from an outside source.

Answer: The main reason terrorist organizations must become a learning organization is to maintain their own longevity. If an organization becomes stagnant, it is a much easier target for destruction and much more likely to dissipate. Terrorist organizations need to acquire new knowledge, be nimble when faced with new situations, and think outside the box. Since the 9/11 attacks, al-Qaeda has splintered and, at the same time, become an umbrella organization. The splintering has allowed smaller cells to attack targets without being as easily detected. The textbook provides the example of the U.S. using drone attacks, which forced al-Qaeda to change its training strategy. If al-Qaeda did not change its training strategy, it could possibly be the end of al-Qaeda. Examples of al-Qaeda’s learned behavior will vary.

Page Ref: 222–223

Objective: State why it is important for terrorist groups to become learning organizations.

Level: Intermediate

2) Financial obtainment is a necessity for terrorist organizations. Discuss the different means terrorist organizations obtain money.

Answer: As state and individual sponsorships of terrorism have declined and increased regulations in banks have hampered a terrorist’s ability to maintain obvious illegitimate accounts, terrorist groups have turned to a number of creative means to obtain funding. Narcoterrorism is one of those means. Narco-terrorism originally referred to campaigns of extreme violence, including torture, beheadings, bombings, and assassinations by drug traffickers against competitors, the police, and others. The type of involvement in the drug trade can be as little as

“taxing” the grower for protection to all-out growing, manufacturing, and distributing the drug. Terrorist organizations can also become involved in more traditional crimes in order to obtain finances. Kidnapping may produce as much as $165 million in paid ransom. Counterfeiting money and pirating ships have also been done as a means to obtain money. A final topic that may be addressed is the use of fraudulent charity organizations. Terrorist groups are adept at developing these organizations with key names to attract donors. For example, the Global Relief Fund sounds particularly benign. When you combine these fake charities with the Muslim requirement of zakat, it is particularly easy to obtain funding.

Page Ref: 243–249

Objective: Identify and briefly explain a terrorist movement's six operational skills.

Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 7 Typologies of Terrorism: State-Involved and Single- or Special-Issue Movements

7.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) A shortcoming of typology is:

A) it creates patterns out of what otherwise would be a chaotic mass of information

B) items that can't be comfortably slipped into any category are forced into the best-fitting category despite the fact that it has some of the features of other categories

C) they allow us to have shared understandings

D) they use carefully reasoned categories

Answer: B

Page Ref: 259

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2) During this wave of terrorism, which occurred in the 1880s and continued for 40 years, people worked to overthrow the government through revolutions:

A) anarchist wave

B) anti-colonial wave

C) new left wave

D) religious wave

Answer: A

Page Ref: 259

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) The present-day happenings in Somalia are an example of which of the four waves of terrorism:

A) religious wave

B) new left wave

C) anti-colonial wave

D) anarchist wave

Answer: D

Page Ref: 259

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

4) This war essentially started the New Left Wave in which terrorism was a tactic to reform governments:

A) World War I

B) World War II

C) Vietnam War

D) Korean War

Answer: C

Page Ref: 261

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) This U.S. New Left Wave group robbed banks to fund its operations and bombed twelve federal buildings and facilities:

A) ELF

B) KKK

C) National Socialist Movement

D) Weather Underground

Answer: D

Page Ref: 261

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) According to the passage, which of the following is a key trend identified in anti-government and anti-authority violent extremism (AGAAVE) in the United States?

A) Most attacks are directed at foreign governments rather than domestic targets.

B) Terrorists are increasingly motivated by partisan political beliefs and lack strong ties to organized groups.

C) The lethality of attacks against government targets has significantly increased due to weaker security

D) AGAAVE groups are becoming more centralized and formally organized.

Answer: B

Page Ref: 264

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Difficult

7) This type of state-involved terrorism occurs when a government uses its own security force operatives to commit terrorism in foreign countries, such as assassinating their expatriates who are former governmental officials:

A) state terrorism

B) state-enabled terrorism

C) state-sponsored terrorism

D) state-perpetrated/international terrorism

Answer: D

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

8) Totalitarian state terrorism is usually the most extreme, sustained, and most common. Which leader below is NOT considered a state terrorist?

A) Adolf Hitler

B) Usama bin Laden

C) Josef Stalin

D) Mao Tse-Tung

Answer: B

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) This leader is estimated to have killed up to 5,000 Kurds and injured another 10,000 when his Air Force deployed gas over civilians living in the northern portion of his country:

A) Saddam Hussein

B) Pol Pot

C) Papa Doc

D) Rafael Trujillo

Answer: A

Page Ref: 274

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) What is the Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP) primarily known for?

A) being a peaceful political organization focused on regional development

B) operating as a regional affiliate of ISIS in Afghanistan and surrounding areas

C) supporting only humanitarian missions in Central Asia

D) functioning as a United Nations peacekeeping force

Answer: B

Page Ref: 262

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) State-enabled terrorism fosters safe haven(s) for terrorist group(s) because it cannot govern its own territory in the case of:

A) a failed state

B) not conducting operations against terrorism

C) condoning terrorism

D) a dictatorship government

Answer: A

Page Ref: 276

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) Somalia is the most extreme example of a failed state and is considered a(n):

A) abolished state

B) imploded state

C) collapsed state

D) undeveloped state

Answer: C

Page Ref: 276

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

13) In 2014, the U.S. Department of State designated Iran, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Syria, and this country as state sponsors of terrorism:

A) Egypt

B) Cuba

C) Yemen

D) Iraq

Answer: B

Page Ref: 278

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

14) This country’s government allows Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad to maintain their terrorist headquarters in the country:

A) Iran

B) Iraq

C) Egypt

D) Syria

Answer: D

Page Ref: 278

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Difficult

15) The United States secretly and illegally arranged the sale of military arms to Iran in return for its help in freeing American hostages. This became known as:

A) The Reagan Scandal

B) The Contras

C) The Iran-Contra Affair

D) The Sandinistas’ disgrace

Answer: C

Page Ref: 281

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

16) The Pan Am Flight 103 bomb, which caused the death of 259 people, was an example of:

A) state-enabled terrorist act

B) state-perpetrated terrorist act

C) state-sponsored terrorist act

D) state terrorist act

Answer: B

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

17) The key difference between a homegrown violent extremist and domestic terrorist is:

A) domestic terrorists want mass casualties

B) the latter is not influenced by a foreign terrorist organization

C) the latter is influenced by a foreign terrorist organization

D) homegrown violent extremists want mass casualties

Answer: B

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

18) As a rule of thumb, single-issue/special-issue extremists target:

A) churches

B) military bases

C) people

D) property

Answer: D

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

19) The two largest and most violent single-issue/special-issue groups in the United States are:

A) FLA and FLE

B) white supremacists and neo-Nazis

C) ALF and ELF

D) FARC and al-Qaeda

Answer: C

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

20) These two single-issue/special-issue groups committed 2,000 attacks over a 29-year period and caused $110 million in damages:

A) FLA and FLE

B) white supremacists and neo-Nazis

C) ALF and ELF

D) FARC and al-Qaeda

Answer: C

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

21) This U.S. Supreme Court case held that abortions were legal and fueled the anti-abortion movement:

A) Roe v. Wade

B) Dred Scott v. Sandford

C) Plessy v. Ferguson

D) Brown v. Board of Education

Answer: A

Page Ref: 286

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

7.2 True/False Questions

1) Typologies and taxonomies are both methods of classification.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 259

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) The Anti-Defamation League reported that far-right extremists were responsible for the majority of extremist-related fatalities in the United States between 2008 and 2017.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 263

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

3) All state terrorism is terrorism and cannot be labeled political violence or criminal genocide.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

4) The Parsley Massacre in the Dominican Republic involved killing people crossing from Haiti

into the Dominican Republic if the person did not pronounce the word “parsley” with the proper Spanish trill.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 272

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) Tonton Macoute was the name of a mythological Haitian bogyman that kidnapped disobedient children and ate them for breakfast, and it is also the name of a private force that brutally killed anyone opposed or was thought to oppose the President of Haiti.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 273

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) In Argentina, “The Disappeared” involved throwing drugged women out of airplanes into the Atlantic Ocean.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 274

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Basic

7) State-sponsored terrorism has been around since the beginning of civilization.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 277

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Basic

8) The U.S. Department of State considers Iran as the most active state sponsor of terrorism.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 278

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Basic

9) The United States has never been accused of being a state sponsor of terror.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 280

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) State-perpetrated/state international terrorism occurs when governments that lack the economic or military resources necessary to achieve their policy objectives use their own internal security forces to commit acts of terrorism on foreign soil to further their agenda.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 281

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) Since Iran’s Islamic Revolution in 1979, at least 250 Iranian exiles living in foreign countries have been murdered by Iranian officials.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) By 2019, the Islamic State was completely eliminated and no longer posed a threat in any region.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 268

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

13) At the national level, the FBI has primary responsibility for terrorism investigations.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

14) The federal government generates an official and public list of domestic terrorist individuals and groups.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

15) Groups with extreme views enjoy all the protections of the U.S. Constitution, including the right to free speech to advocate for their cause.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

16) As a rule of thumb single-issue/special-issue extremists target people and not property.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

17) Single-issue/special-issue attacks are the most common form of violent political extremism in the U.S. and most of the industrialized nations of the world.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

18) GMO extremist groups want to destroy “Frankenfood” .

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 285

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

19) ALF’s mission is to commit economic damage against those entities that are profiting from the destruction of the natural environment while taking precautions against harming life.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 284

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

20) Theodore Kaczynski was a single-issue/special-issue extremist who focused on the antiabortion cause.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 286

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

7.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) ________ have categories that are formed by empirically studying observable and measurable characteristics.

Answer: Taxonomies

Page Ref: 259

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) During the anti-colonial wave, colonies sought their independence by ________ and when that failed, they often turned to terrorism.

Answer: negotiation

Page Ref: 260

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) Support for radical Islam and global jihad may be trending ________.

Answer: downward

Page Ref: 262

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

4) State-________ occurs when a national government passively allows the presence of terrorists.

Answer: enabled

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) ________ terrorism is terrorism committed by a national government inside its national borders and directed at its own people, and sometimes visitors.

Answer: State

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) Tonton Macoute was the name of a mythological Haitian ________ that kidnapped disobedient children and ate them for breakfast, and it is also the name of a private force that brutally killed anyone who opposed or was thought to oppose the President of Haiti.

Answer: bogeyman

Page Ref: 273

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7) Pol Pot wanted to turn the clock back to ________ year and return to an agrarian society, and it is estimated that 1.7 million people died under his reign.

Answer: zero

Page Ref: 273

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and state-

perpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

8) State sponsors of terrorism generally prefer to act ________, without other nations being aware of their actions.

Answer: covertly

Page Ref: 277

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) ________ sued the U.S. over the Iran-Contra Affair and won.

Answer: Nicaragua

Page Ref: 281

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) The systematic killing of all or part of a racial, ethnic, religious, or national group within a specific country or area is called ________.

Answer: genocide

Page Ref: 270

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Basic

11) ________ violent extremists are persons who encourage, endorse, condone, justify, or support the commission of a violent criminal act to achieve political ideology, religious, social, or economic goals by a citizen or long-term resident of a Western country.

Answer: Homegrown

Page Ref: 282

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

12) Groups with extreme views enjoy all the protections of the U.S.________, including the right to free speech to advocate for their cause.

Answer: Constitution Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

13) ________ use the Internet to attack hate sites, damage them, and release personal information about their members.

Answer: Hacktivists

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

14) According to ELF, ________ involves destructive acts and acts of obstruction geared toward economic sabotage.

Answer: monkeywrenching

Page Ref: 284

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

15) The term, ________, was developed by anti-genetically modified organism groups to describe genetically altered agricultural plants, such as wheat and potatoes.

Answer: frankenfood

Page Ref: 285

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Basic

7.4 Matching Questions

Match up the event, group, or item in the left column to the type of terrorism in the right column. Answers may be used more than once.

A) Anti-technologists

B) State Terrorism

C) State-Sponsored

D) State-Perpetrated/International Terrorism

E) Anti-Abortionists

F) Anti-Genetically Modified Organism Groups

G) State-Enabled Terrorism

H) Single-issue/special-issue extremist

1) Somalia and failed states

Page Ref: 276

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

2) Animal Liberation Front

Page Ref: 283

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) Theodore Kaczynski, the Unabomber

Page Ref: 286

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

4) The Dominican Republic The Parsley Massacre

Page Ref: 272

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) Iraq The Kurds Page Ref: 274

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) Earth Liberation Front Page Ref: 283

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7) Iran–Contra Affair Page Ref: 281

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

8) Army of God Page Ref: 286

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) Frankenfood Page Ref: 285

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) Killing of Iranian exiles after Iran’s Islamic Revolution in 1979 Page Ref: 261

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and state-

perpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7.5 Essay Questions

1) Summarize the four waves of terrorism and explain why it is helpful to break these terrorist periods into typologies.

Answer: The four waves are: (1) anarchist, which predominated during 1880s–1920s. Pure anarchy requires an absence of a central government and people who respect and help each other; (2) colonialism began in the early modern period (1500–1800) when powers used their military might to impose their will on other parts of the world; (3) the New Left wave (1960s–1990s) saw America and its allies engaging in a form of imperialism and were opposed to it. They saw revolution as the way to reform governments, but were very unsuccessful; and (4) the religious wave began in 1979 during Iran's Islamic Revolution and continues. It is fundamentally, but not exclusively, Islamic in nature. Its ultimate goal is a worldwide Islamic religion entwined with Islamic government. It is helpful to have typologies in regard to terrorist actions because it organizes a mass amount of information. Once the information is organized, it is easier to understand and learn from. Although these groups are not perfect, they do provide information that may aid in the reduction or prevention of future terrorist acts. They allow us to see patterns and locate similarities and differences.

Page Ref: 259–264

Objective: Identify and describe the four waves of terrorism.

Level: Basic

2) Compare and contrast state terrorism and state-enabled terrorism.

Answer: State terrorism is terrorism directed internally, within its national borders. This action contravenes a state's moral and legal duty to protect its citizens. Defined more broadly, state terrorism is directed at a nation's citizens or residents to repress and instill fear in them, to consolidate the ruling regime's power (e.g., by genocide), and to maintain control over the country's civilian population. It is carried out by a state's security, intelligence, and military organizations, and, in some cases, volunteers. In contrast, state-enabled terrorism is passive. A country allows one or more terrorist movements to exist within its borders as long as no attacks are directed at the citizens or the government.

Page Ref: 270–277

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) Define state-perpetrated terrorism. Summarize Iran’s Islamic Revolution and why it is categorized as a state-perpetrated terrorist act.

Answer: State-perpetrated/state international terrorism occurs when governments that lack the economic or military resources necessary to achieve their policy objectives use their own internal security forces to commit acts of terrorism on foreign soil to further their agenda, or when a country with resources chooses to do so using its own operatives. State-perpetrated terrorism has been used to spy on, harass, and assassinate a state's vocal dissidents and opposition leaders living abroad.

The taking of 53 American hostages at the United States Embassy in Tehran, Iran, by radicalized Iranian Muslims, which lasted 444 days, and the defeat of the Soviets in Afghanistan led to the Iranian Islamic Revolution. Since Iran's Islamic Revolution in 1979, at least 83 Iranian exiles living in foreign countries have been murdered by Iranian officials. Iran's former Prime Minister Bakhtiar fled to Paris, where he led the Iranian government in exile. Although he had survived a previous attempt on his life, he was not so fortunate in 1991. In 2012, there was a similar incident. Manssor Arbabsiar, who holds dual U.S. and Iranian citizenship, pleaded guilty to criminal charges involving a plot to assassinate the Saudi Arabia Ambassador to the United States at a Washington, D.C., restaurant. Arbabsiar admitted that he was acting at the direction of Iranian military officials. It is these actions and many more which allow for the categorization of Iran being a state-perpetrated terrorist government.

Page Ref: 281–282

Objective: Identify the three goals that differentiate religious and secular terrorism; provide an argument that supports the emergence of the Islamic State as a form of religious terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

7.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Some believe that the U.S. Iran-Contra Affair made the U.S. a state-sponsored terrorist. Summarize the Iran-Contra Affair. Write your opinion as to whether the U.S. was acting as a state-sponsored terrorist or no the U.S. was not acting as a state-sponsored terrorist. Factor in Nicaragua winning a lawsuit against the United States.

Answer: In the mid-1980s, the United States secretly and illegally arranged the sale of military arms to Iran in return for its help in freeing American hostages held in Lebanon by various factions of Iran's proxy Hezbollah. The profits from these sales were clandestinely used to support the Contras, in contravention of congressional legislative actions that forbade such assistance. Ultimately, America’s clandestine practices were discovered, and the resulting “IranContra Affair” brought President Reagan’s administration under blistering criticism from Congress.

The answer as to yes or no will vary but should be logical and can address the different ways of thinking about state-sponsored terrorism, such as: (1) the amount of control a sponsor is actually able to exert over a proxy; (2) the amount and kinds of support (e.g., substantial amounts of arms and ammunition); (3) the frequency of such support (e.g., only infrequent sharing of low-level intelligence on anticipated movement of vessels in the region); and (4) the degree of openness with which it assists terrorist organizations.

The response should also address the fact that it was a covert operation and that Nicaragua sued

the United States and won. The reasons for acting covertly may be: (1) the use of terror groups as proxies offers an attractive alternative to open, all-out warfare because the state's homeland and conventional forces are not placed at risk; (2) compared to conventional warfare, it is a low-cost alternative that may have a high impact, such as destabilizing a rival regime or affecting voting outcomes; (3) if the connection to the sponsoring state is discovered, the terrorist attack(s) may not lead to open war. It may also be mentioned that the United States had a duty to make reparations for damages, but Nicaragua has never sued to collect them.

Page Ref: 281

Objective: Contrast state terrorism, state-enabled terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, and stateperpetuated/international terrorism.

Level: Difficult

2) Pick a single-issue or special-issue threat group that is addressed in the text and find a recent example of an occurrence from that group. The example should not come from the book, but from an outside source and be recent (no earlier than 2013).

Answer: Answers will vary. They can include incidents perpetrated by ALF or ELF, a GMO group, a hacktivist (like the Samsung incident), an anti-technology individual or group, or an anti-abortion group.

Page Ref: 282–287

Objective: Explain why single-issue/special-issue movements are so important in the United States.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 8 Typologies of Terrorism: The Right and Left Wings and Separatist or Nationalist Movements

8.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) The number of hate groups have been ________ roughly since 2000, in part due to gun control measures and the 9/11 attacks.

A) decreasing

B) increasing

C) avoiding

D) stable

Answer: B

Page Ref: 298

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

2) What is the traditional objective of left-wing terrorism?

A) To promote nationalism and independence

B) To overthrow society and replace it with Marxist-Leninist principles

C) To support capitalist economies

D) To expand religious influence

Answer: B

Page Ref: 316

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

3) Which factor contributed to the decline of left-wing movements in the United States?

A) Increased support from foreign governments

B) Growth of anarchist organizations

C) The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe

D) Expansion of labor unions

Answer: C

Page Ref: 316

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

4) Which of the following is a right-wing political party in Europe?

A) National Front Party

B) White Supremacist

C) KKK

D) Hammerskin Nation

Answer: A

Page Ref: 300

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

5) In this country, right-wing movements are substantially nationalistic and are anti-Korean and anti-Chinese:

A) Taiwan

B) Japan

C) Vietnam

D) Philippines

Answer: B

Page Ref: 300

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

6) James Earl Ray killed:

A) President John Kennedy

B) David Koresh

C) Martin Luther King Jr.

D) Theodore Kaczynski

Answer: C

Page Ref: 302

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

7) This is the ultra-preference for the traditional culture of a homeland to the exclusion of immigrants and their alien ways.

A) Xenophobia

B) Nativism

C) Homophobia

D) Ethnocentrism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 302

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

8) Which of the following is NOT one of the three major right-wing movements in the United States?

A) Racist/white supremacy movement

B) Anti-federalist movement

C) Religious fundamentalists

D) Islamic movement

Answer: D

Page Ref: 303

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

9) In the pre-revolution English colonies in America, these immigrants were very lowly regarded, almost as lowly regarded as the African American slaves:

A) Irish

B) Italian

C) French

D) Chinese

Answer: A

Page Ref: 304

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

10) The discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill led to waves of this immigrant group coming to America to seek their fortune:

A) African Americans

B) Irish

C) English

D) Chinese

Answer: D

Page Ref: 304

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

11) The Japanese American internment camps came about:

A) at the beginning of World War I

B) at the outbreak of World War II

C) during the Korean War

D) in 1965

Answer: B

Page Ref: 305

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

12) By the mid-1860s, the KKK was a full-blown terrorist organization, and its members called it the:

A) Grand Cyclops

B) Invisible Empire of the South

C) Imperial Wizard

D) White Confederate Return

Answer: B

Page Ref: 308

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

13) This group was virulently anti-immigration, anti-Catholicism, anti-Semitic, and anti-African

American, while at the same time being pro-family, pro-Protestant, pro-prohibition, and proAmerican white nation:

A) Hammerskin Nation

B) neo-Nazi

C) KKK

D) Zionist Occupied Government

Answer: C

Page Ref: 308

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

14) What was the original purpose of the Black Panther Party (BPP)?

A) To promote international trade

B) To protect Black communities from police brutality

C) To support government policies

D) To eliminate all political parties

Answer: B

Page Ref: 317

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

15) George Lincoln Rockwell wanted to use his American Nazi Party to become:

A) the leader of the KKK

B) the President of the United States

C) the Supreme Leader of the White Supremacist

D) the leader of the Jewish community

Answer: B

Page Ref: 310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

16) What is a key characteristic of Antifa?

A) It has a centralized leadership structure.

B) It is officially designated as a terrorist organization

C) It is a decentralized movement with loosely defined principles.

D) It focuses only on economic reform.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 320

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

17) What was the goal of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) during the Anglo-Irish War?

A) To maintain British rule

B) To achieve Irish independence

C) To establish a monarchy

D) To expand into other European nations

Answer: B

Page Ref: 326

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

18) The Institute for Historical Review:

A) has the purpose of promoting the truth and accuracy in history

B) promotes the denials of the Jewish Holocaust and defends Nazism

C) raises funds for the Jewish community

D) studies all the neo-Nazi groups in the United States

Answer: B

Page Ref: 312

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

19) The anti-federalist movement is sometimes referred to as:

A) the Posse Comitatus

B) the Constitutional Review movement

C) the Sovereign Citizen movement

D) the Christian Patriot movement

Answer: D

Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

20) The second most deadly terrorist attack in the United States was carried out by:

A) Timothy McVeigh

B) Theodore Kaczynski

C) al-Qaeda

D) Dr. William Luther Pierce

Answer: A

Page Ref: 314

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

8.2 True/False Questions

1) Right-wing movements and politics are liberal by nature.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 298

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Basic

2) These is no clear conceptual framework that fits all forms of right-wing terrorism, and this hinders our understanding.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 301

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

3) There are many terms used for right-wing, including the far right, extreme right, radical right, and right-wing populist.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 302

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Basic

4) Right-wing attacks in American have declined since the 1990s.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 301

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

5) In pre-revolutionary America indentured Irishman were often given more dangerous jobs than slaves because the latter were considered more valuable.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 304

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

6) Antifa has an official designation as a domestic terrorist organization in the United States. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 320

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

7) Left-wing extremism in the United States has caused multiple deaths in recent decades. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 316

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Basic

8) During the 1980s the KKK morphed from being a hate organization to a theologically based, patriotic white supremacy movement.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 309

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

9) There are as many as 200 neo-Nazi groups in the United States and although they hate many minorities, they perceive the Jewish people as their cardinal enemy.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

10) The neo-Nazi National Alliance (NA) was the largest and most active neo-Nazi organization in the United States until 2012, when many members defected to the National Vanguard.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

11) Red laces in boots mean a person has killed another person and is a member of the Hammerskin Nation.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 312

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

12) The anti-federalist movement is relatively new and began around the time of the civil rights movement.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 314

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

13) McVeigh bombed the Murrah Building to revenge the federal agents for raiding the Branch Davidians and killing the members.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 314

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

14) The Christian Identity movement expresses a strong belief that it is wrong to mix races and that interracial marriage is a sin.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

15) In the United States, the left wing originally sprang from religions seeking religious freedom. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 316

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today’s left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

16) Thomas Naylor wanted Vermont to become its own nation. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 322

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

17) National liberation organizations (NLOs) already have legal authority over the territories they seek to control.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

18) The League of the South aims to maintain unity with the United States rather than seek independence.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

19) A nation is ideally defined as a group with shared ideology, institutions, and a sense of unity. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

20) The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 officially ended the Anglo-Irish War.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 327

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

8.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) ________ involves an irrational fear, hatred, and hostility toward people who are different,

including immigrants, those with different lifestyles, sexual preferences, and “strange” ideas.

Answer: Xenophobia

Page Ref: 302

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Basic

2) The Irish Republican Army primarily used ______ tactics during the Anglo-Irish War.

Answer: guerrilla Page Ref: 326

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Basic

3) ________ essentially gave rise to the wider white supremacist movement.

Answer: Racism

Page Ref: 304

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

4) The ________ destiny was a concept in the 1800s that held the United States had a divine destiny to push its boundaries ever forward and a pervasive belief in American cultural and racial superiority.

Answer: manifest

Page Ref: 304

Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Intermediate

5) Zoot suit fashion originated in the African-American jazz movement, but spread to the ________ culture.

Answer: Chicano

Page Ref: 306

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

6) Although it may not be recognized, ________ patrols were the first formal racist organizations in the United States.

Answer: slave Page Ref: 308

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

7) The National Socialist Movement uses the symbol of 88, which stands for ________ Hitler.

Answer: Heil

Page Ref: 311

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

8) ________ is the name of a female Hammerskin Movement member.

Answer: Skinbyrd Page Ref: 312

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

9) The U.S. Christian Identity Movement postulates that the Jews were not God’s chosen people, but instead the direct descendants of ________.

Answer: Satan Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

10) Richard Butler, a former aerospace engineer for Lockheed, combined the ideology and symbols of neo-Nazism and fundamental Christianity with the racial hatred of the KKK to form the ________ Nations.

Answer: Aryan Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

11) Ideally, a nation is a group that shares a common ideology, common institutions and customs, and a sense of ________.

Answer: homogeneity Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

12) National ________ organizations do not possess legal authority over a specific territory, but they are seeking to liberate it.

Answer: liberation Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

13) The island of Ireland hosts the largely Catholic Republic of Ireland in the south, but is substantially ________ in Northern Ireland.

Answer: Protestant Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Intermediate

14) The League of the South was founded in 1994 and is a nationalist movement whose ultimate

goal is a free and independent ________.

Answer: South Page Ref: 322

Objective: Define National Liberation Organization and identify groups that are involved in NLO movements across the world.

Level: Basic

15) Four Georgia soldiers formed a militia-style group called “Forever Enduring, Always Ready” (FEAR), which wanted to kill President ________ and start a revolution to give America back to the people.

Answer: Obama Page Ref: 314

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

8.4

Matching Questions

Match the group or person in the left column to one of the three major ideological right-wing movements in the right column. Answers may be used more than once.

A) anti-federalist

B) religious fundamentalist

C) racist/white supremacy

1) German American Bund Page Ref: 306

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

2) Matthew Hale Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

3) Benjamin Smith Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

4) KKK Page Ref: 308

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

5) David Koresh Page Ref: 314

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

6) American Nazi Party

Page Ref: 310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

7) Christian Identity Movement

Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

8) Timothy McVeigh Page Ref: 310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

9) Hammerskin Nation

Page Ref: 311

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

10) Christian Patriot movement

Page Ref: 315

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

8.5 Essay Questions

1) Describe the basics of American right-wing ideology. How is it different from the left-wing movement in America?

Answer: American right-wing ideology envisions having a homeland population that is homogeneous with respect to ethnicity, language, culture, and beliefs, as well as a systematic rejection of all those who are different. The right rests on the notion that “being American” equates to emanating from European Anglo-Saxon stock, being Christian, nationalistic, and ruggedly independent. Right-wing movements have been growing since 2000. Right-wing movements and politics are conservative and can become extreme or far-right. The traditional objective of left-wing terrorism is to overthrow the economic, political, and social structure of a society and replace it with one developed on Marxist-Leninist principles. In the United States, the left wing originally sprang from labor/working-class movements seeking to eliminate class distinctions, setting the stage for later developments such as the Communist Party USA. The violent left has not received a great deal of attention in recent years because it is not

considered a serious threat.

Page Ref: 298–302, 316–322

Objective: Compare and contrast the traditional goals of left-wing terrorism with the current goals of today's left-wing groups.

Level: Intermediate

2) Provide the historical background of the development of the KKK. Outline the different waves of the KKK.

Answer: Bored Confederate veterans formed the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in 1866 to create a stir and excitement at parties. They made up nonsensical names like the Grand Cyclops and Imperial Wizard and rode off to parties wearing costumes and masks to create a little stir. By 1868, the KKK was a full-blown terrorist organization that its members called the “Invisible Empire of the South.”

In 1915, a second, revitalized KKK appeared that was prominent into the 1930s; its membership extended into regions outside of the South and at its height it had 5,000,000 members. The 1915 KKK was the most successful far-right-wing movement in U.S. history in terms of the power to elect political candidates, recruit dues-paying members, and turn out supporters at rallies. To no small measure the silent film “Birth of a Nation,” released in 1915, aided recruitment by portraying African Americans negatively and the Klan as a heroic force holding back this “threat” to America. This “second” KKK pursued a national agenda that was virulently antiimmigration, anti-Catholicism, anti-Semitic, and anti-African-American, while at the same time being pro-family, pro-Protestant, pro-prohibition, and pro-American white nation.

The KKK also distributed a magazine to reinforce these messages and allowed for local agendas, such as targeting Mormons and labor radicals. Additionally, there were affiliate organizations, including the Women's Ku Klux Klan (WKKK), the Junior Order of the Ku Klux Klan for boys, and the Tri-K Klan for girls. The Great Depression that began in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s gutted the ability of many to pay KKK dues, and membership declined. The entry of the United States into World War II diverted potential recruits to military service, and the Klan substantially disappeared until after the Korean War.

The resurrection of the “third” Klan was inhibited by many states passing anti-Klan laws, the passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964, the enforcement of its provisions by the FBI, arrests made in cold cases, including the bombing of African-American churches, and a series of civil suits that cost the Klan millions of dollars.

Beginning in the 1970s and continuing into the 1980s, the Klan toned down its racial rhetoric and reframed its messages in a neo-conservatism shift. Jews were at the heart of a conspiracy to destroy America. In doing so, the Klan morphed from being a hate organization to a “theologically based, patriotic white supremacy movement.” The Christian Identity movement is discussed later in this chapter and is sometimes referred to by mainstream theologians as “Counterfeit Christians.”

Page Ref: 308–310

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

3) Explain how and why anti-federalist/Christian Patriot movement developed.

Answer: The original anti-federalists were opposed to the ratification of the United States Constitution. The modern anti-federalist movement, sometimes called the Christian Patriot movement, has many variations. Some individuals live the movement's tenets without formally joining any organization. The Christian Patriot movement grew out of the Posse Comitatus and Sovereign Citizen movements that began in the 1970s and 1980s. The anti-federalist ideology is based on the idea that there is an urgent necessity to undermine the influence, legitimacy, and practical sovereignty of the federal government and its proxies. In this view, America has been hijacked by external forces determined to make it part of a New World Order in which the United States would be embedded in the United Nations or a global government and policed by foreign peacekeeping forces. Members see themselves as the successors to the nation’s founding fathers, trying to restore America’s true identity, values, and way of life.

Page Ref: 314–316

Objective: Identify three major right-wing ideologies in the United States.

Level: Basic

8.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) The FBI maintains statistics on hate crimes. Go to the FBI website and keyword search for “hate crimes.” Write a brief summary of significant findings.

Answer: Answers will vary, but the FBI’s hate crime statistics have been released. Objective: State what is at the core of American right-wing ideology.

Level: Difficult

2) The U.S. has mistreated many different groups of people throughout its history. Choose either African Americans, early Irish immigrants, the Jewish community, Chinese immigrants, Chicano zoot suiters, or Japanese Americans and summarize how and why they were mistreated and how it relates to one of the three major ideological right-wing movements in the United States.

Answer: Answers will vary. With respect to African American’s answers should address how they have been persecuted by almost all three of the main right-wing movement, and can focus on the KKK. The Jewish community, likewise, has also been persecuted by many of the rightwing groups, but answers can focus on the neo-Nazi groups. Racist violence toward the Chicanos who wore zoot suits occurred during World War II. The zoot suits were seen as a waste of material, which could be used to go towards the war effort, so there were a number of clashes between the servicemen and the Chicano. The attack on Pearl Harbor led the American government to fear an invasion by the Japanese military, so Japanese Americans were placed in secured internment camps as a means of national security. They were forced to abandon their homes and businesses, and the Army discharged all Japanese American citizens. The Chinese immigrated to America in response to the gold found at Sutter's Mill. They were quickly forced into menial jobs, like the railroads, and during the economic depression of 1873–1879, they were considered a threat to white jobs, and racist laws regulating the Chinese were passed. Congress even enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act, which barred Chinese immigration. Irish immigrants were at the bottom of society’s ladder in pre-Revolutionary America because of the long, rebellious history between Ireland and England. They were given jobs that were considered too dangerous for enslaved African Americans.

Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 9 Intelligence and Terrorism

9.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) What is the primary goal of transnational organized crime?

A) To spread religious ideology

B) To influence political systems

C) To generate profit

D) To promote nationalism

Answer: C

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

2) What primarily motivates terrorist organizations?

A) Economic gain

B) Ideology and politics

C) Social networking

D) Environmental concerns

Answer: B

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

3) What term describes the relationship between criminal organizations and terrorist groups?

A) Globalization

B) Crime–terror nexus

C) Black market economy

D) Diaspora network

Answer: B

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Intermediate

4) Which of the following is considered a major global trend impacting transnational organized crime?

A) Agricultural reform

B) Urbanization

C) Space exploration

D) Language diversity

Answer: B

Page Ref: 340

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

5) How has globalization affected transnational organized crime?

A) It has eliminated illegal markets.

B) It has reduced communication

C) It has created new opportunities for illicit activity.

D) It has stopped human trafficking.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Difficult

6) What effect has globalization had on national borders?

A) Made them stronger and more controlled

B) Made them more permeable

C) Eliminated them entirely

D) Reduced international travel

Answer: B

Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Difficult

7) How do criminal organizations use technology to their advantage?

A) To reduce profits

B) To increase transparency

C) To enhance communication and reduce risk

D) To eliminate illegal activity

Answer: C

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

8) What role does encryption play for criminal organizations?

A) It increases law enforcement access.

B) It prevents communication

C) It allows secure and anonymous communication.

D) It eliminates cybercrime

Answer: C

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

9) What is one way that criminals use globalization to facilitate illegal activities?

A) Reducing trade routes

B) Limiting financial flows

C) Hiding illicit goods within legal trade

D) Ending migration

Answer: C

Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

10) Which type of city provides the most opportunities for transnational organized crime due to weak governance?

A) Smart cities

B) Rural towns

C) Fragile cities

D) Capital cities

Answer: C

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

11) What is a key characteristic of transnational organized crime groups?

A) Strictly legal operations

B) Hierarchical structure only

C) Flexibility in organizational structure

D) Limited international presence

Answer: C

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Difficult

12) What do the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common?

A) They operate only in one country

B) They engage in legal business only.

C) They are involved in a wide range of illicit activities.

D) They are government organizations.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Intermediate

13) How are Chinese Triads typically structured?

A) Strict hierarchical chain of command

B) Loosely connected networks

C) Government-controlled agencies

D) Military-style units

Answer: B

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Intermediate

14) What is a key feature of the Camorra’s organizational structure?

A) Centralized leadership

B) Loose network of clans

C) Military command system

D) Government oversight

Answer: B

Page Ref: 348

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

15) Why is the ’Ndrangheta difficult for law enforcement to infiltrate?

A) It operates only online

B) It has no leadership.

C) It is based on tight family clans

D) It is publicly visible.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 348

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

16) What distinguishes La Cosa Nostra from the Camorra?

A) It lacks organization.

B) It has a strict hierarchical structure.

C) It operates only locally.

D) It avoids criminal activity

Answer: B

Page Ref: 350

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

17) What challenge do decentralized criminal networks present to law enforcement?

A) Easier identification of leaders

B) Faster dismantling of organizations

C) Greater resilience to arrests

D) Reduced criminal activity

Answer: C

Page Ref: 348

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Difficult

18) What is meant by “jihadi cool”?

A) A military training strategy

B) A financial tactic

C) A cultural appeal blending style and extremism

D) A law enforcement program

Answer: C

Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus. Level: Basic

19) How did the Islamic State use “jihadi cool”?

A) To improve economic conditions

B) To recruit new members

C) To strengthen governments

D) To reduce crime

Answer: B

Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Intermediate

20) What type of individuals did the Islamic State often recruit in Europe?

A) Government officials

B) Military generals

C) Individuals with criminal backgrounds

D) Teachers and educators

Answer: C

Page Ref: 351

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus. Level: Basic

21) What is “do-it-yourself” organized crime?

A) Government-sponsored crime

B) Large-scale cartel operations

C) Small-scale criminal activity by individuals or small cells

D) Legal business ventures

Answer: C

Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Basic

22) Why is do-it-yourself organized crime difficult for law enforcement to combat?

A) It is highly visible.

B) It requires large funding

C) It is decentralized and low-cost.

D) It is controlled by governments

Answer: C

Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Intermediate

23) What role do drugs play in the crime–terror nexus?

A) They reduce violence.

B) They eliminate funding.

C) They serve as a major source of funding

D) They are unrelated to terrorism.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 352

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

24) What is one way terrorists finance attacks in Europe?

A) Government grants

B) Legal employment

C) Petty crime and drug trafficking

D) Donations only

Answer: C

Page Ref: 352

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Difficult

25) What are “black hole areas” in the context of transnational organized crime?

A) Regions with strong governance

B) Areas with advanced technology

C) Regions with weak or absent governance

D) Areas with no population

Answer: C

Page Ref: 346

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

9.2 True/False Questions

1) Transnational organized crime and terrorism are essentially the same in purpose and motivation.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

2) Transnational organized crime is primarily motivated by profit. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime. Level: Basic

3) Terrorist organizations are mainly driven by financial gain. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

4) Globalization has slowed the growth of transnational organized crime. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

5) The free flow of goods and people has created opportunities for criminal activity. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Difficult

6) Migration and diaspora communities can provide support networks for transnational criminal organizations. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 343

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

7) Climate change has no impact on transnational organized crime. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 342

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Basic

8) Criminal organizations can exploit natural disasters for profit and influence. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 342

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

9) Advances in technology have made it easier for law enforcement to monitor criminal groups. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

10)Encryption and anonymization technologies can hinder law enforcement efforts.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

11)Virtual currencies like Bitcoin pose challenges for preventing money laundering. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

12)The Yakuza operates exclusively within Japan and has no global presence. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Basic

13)Chinese Triads engage in activities such as human trafficking and money laundering. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Intermediate

14)The Camorra operates as a highly centralized and rigid hierarchy. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 348

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

15)La Cosa Nostra requires initiation and loyalty from its members. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 350

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

16)Conflicts and wars can create opportunities for organized crime to expand. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 345

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Difficult

17)The Islamic State avoided recruiting individuals with criminal backgrounds.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 351

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Basic

18)Many terrorist plots in Europe have been partially financed through petty crime. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 352

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Intermediate

19)The crime–terror nexus always involves permanent partnerships between criminals and terrorists.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Intermediate

20)Weak governance and corruption can create safe havens for transnational organized crime.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 346

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Basic

9.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Transnational organized crime is primarily focused on generating ______. Answer: profit Page Ref: 339

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Basic

2) Terrorism is primarily driven by ______ and politics. Answer: ideology Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

3) The relationship between criminal organizations and terrorist groups is called the crime–terror ______.

Answer: nexus Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Basic

4) The increasing interconnectedness of countries is known as ______. Answer: globalization

Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

5) Globalization has made national borders more ______. Answer: permeable

Page Ref: 341

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

6) Criminal organizations often exploit ______ states where governance is weak. Answer: fragile

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

7) The use of secret codes and systems to protect communication is known as ______. Answer: encryption

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Basic

8) The process of people moving from rural areas to cities is called ______. Answer: urbanization

Page Ref: 344

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Basic

9) The Yakuza originated in ______. Answer: Japan

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Basic

10)Chinese Triads are often structured as loosely connected ______. Answer: networks

Page Ref: 347

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Intermediate

11)The Camorra operates as a network of ______ rather than a hierarchy. Answer: clans

Page Ref: 348

Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Intermediate

12)The Sicilian Mafia is also known as ______ Nostra. Answer: Cosa

Page Ref: 350 Objective: Analyze similarities and differences between the Camorra, ’Ndrangheta, and La Cosa Nostra.

Level: Basic

13)Criminal opportunities often increase during periods of ______. Answer: conflict

Page Ref: 345

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

14)Regions with weak or absent governance are sometimes referred to as _____ areas.

Answer: black Page Ref: 346

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

15)The Islamic State recruited many individuals with ______ backgrounds in Europe. Answer: criminal Page Ref: 351

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Intermediate

16)The blending of style and extremism used for recruitment is known as jihadi ______. Answer: cool Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Intermediate

17)Small-scale, decentralized criminal activity used to fund terrorism is called ______ organized crime.

Answer: DIY

Page Ref: 353

Objective: Describe the various European dimensions of the Islamic State’s crime–terror nexus.

Level: Difficult

9.4 Matching Questions

Match the type of issue or topic that interacts with transnational organized crime in the left column with the example of the type in the right column. Answers may be used more than once.

A) Globalization

B) Rise of anti-globalization

C) Climate change

D) Migration and diasporas

E) Urbanization

F) Technology

G) Global crisis of governance

1) By elevating the market and capital accumulation above all else, neoliberalism has helped foster conditions, providing an ideal environment for transnational organized crime

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

2) According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), wildlife trafficking, forestry, and other environmental crimes are already approximately a $9-billion-a-year business.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

3) Kurds and Kosovar Albanians distributing heroin in Germany.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

4) Smart cities, bristling with sensors and tracking devices and providing technological opportunities for mobilizing the power of citizens against criminal activities and illicit markets.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

5) Anonymous remailers, strong encryption systems, and the advent of cheap, disposable cell phones have complicated the tasks of law enforcement.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

6) It creates spaces of impunity, provides safe havens, and enlarges the transnational operational and cross-border space within which criminal organizations can move freely and easily.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

7) Feral cities provide potential safe havens in extremes, but might be too disorderly to be entirely comfortable as operating spaces for transnational organized crime, not least because they provide Petri dish environments for local mafias and local organized crime, creating crowded and competitive environments.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

8) The resurgence of the strong state in at least some parts of the world would have paradoxical consequences for transnational organized crime.

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

9) Nigerians trafficking women to Italy

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

10) A paternalistic approach pioneered by Escobar and perpetuated by El Chapo

Page Ref: 340–347

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Intermediate

9.5 Essay Questions

1) What do Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common?

Answer: Both of these groups operate with a more networked organization, deliberately implemented in order to evade law enforcement. Both of these organizations, which have been around for many years, have also worked overtime to diversify their illicit funding portfolios, which extend to include the smuggling and trafficking of humans, narcotics, weapons, and other items. Both the Yakuza and Chinese Triads also maintain a global footprint, with their tentacles extending into various countries and regions across the globe.

Page Ref: 347–348

Objective: Assess what groups like the Yakuza and Chinese Triads have in common.

Level: Intermediate

2) What are megatrends?

Answer: The word “megatrends” typically refers to “great forces in societal development that will affect all areas state, market, and civil society for many years to come. Megatrends are the forces that define our present and future worlds, and the interaction between them is as important as each individual megatrend.” Issues and topics interact with transnational organized

crime: globalization, the rise of anti-globalism, climate change, migration and diasporas, urbanization, technology, conflicts and their aftermath, and the global crisis of governance are examples of megatrends. Identifying drivers along with scenario development has become an important tool for foresight and an enhanced understanding of the range of future possibilities. It is useful to conceptualize drivers as global megatrends that have a far-reaching impact on the future context within which specific problems and challenges arise.

Page Ref: 340

Objective: Describe what trends are impacting the future of transnational organized crime.

Level: Basic

3) What are climate refugees?

Answer: Where climate change leads to “climate refugees,” this could provide new opportunities for criminal groups focused on human smuggling operations and as an offshoot of this, human trafficking that moves refugees into the commercial sex trade or forced labor

Page Ref: 342–343

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Intermediate

9.6 Critical thinking questions

1) Complete some additional research and discuss the relationship between the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and Turkish narcotics traffickers based in Europe.

Answer: Answers will vary, but may contain elements of the sample answer. The relationship between the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and Turkish narcotics traffickers based in Europe is often cited as a clear example of the crime–terror nexus within transnational organized crime. The PKK, while primarily a militant and political organization, has been linked to criminal networks that engage in drug trafficking to generate revenue and sustain its operations. Turkish narcotics traffickers operating in Europe provide an established infrastructure for the distribution of illicit drugs, which the PKK can leverage either through direct involvement or cooperative arrangements. This relationship demonstrates how terrorist groups and criminal organizations may collaborate for mutual benefit, with traffickers gaining protection or logistical support while the PKK secures funding.

Such cooperation is not always permanent or ideological, but rather a “marriage of convenience,” where both parties exploit shared opportunities in illicit markets. The European environment, with its large diaspora communities and extensive black-market networks, facilitates these connections and allows both actors to operate transnationally. This case highlights how terrorist groups can embed themselves within existing criminal economies, making detection and disruption more difficult for law enforcement. It also underscores the blurred lines between political violence and profit-driven crime in modern security challenges. Overall, the PKK’s interactions with Turkish narcotics traffickers illustrate how transnational organized crime can serve as both a funding mechanism and an operational enabler for terrorist organizations.

Page Ref: 339

Objective: Explain what the crime–terror nexus is.

Level: Difficult

2) According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), wildlife trafficking, forestry, and other environmental crimes are already an approximately $9 billion-a-year business. Complete some additional research and find an example of

Answer: Answers will vary.

Page Ref: 343

Objective: Explain how transnational organized crime groups will leverage new and emerging technologies.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 10 Intelligence, Terrorism, and Homeland Security

10.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) A deficiency in the United States government that was quickly identified following the 9/11 attacks was:

A) a lack of funds

B) a lack of coordination and intelligence sharing between agencies

C) a lack of military response

D) a lack of community response

Answer: B

Page Ref: 371

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Intermediate

2) This Commission was created to assess the domestic response of federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies against terrorism between 1999 and 2003.

A) Gilmore Commission

B) Bush Commission

C) Anti-Terrorism Commission

D) Communication and Coordination Commission

Answer: A

Page Ref: 371

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Intermediate

3) In order to turn information into intelligence, it must be:

A) discussed

B) entered into the computer system

C) analyzed

D) processed

Answer: C

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Basic

4) Which of the following is NOT a typical source from which intelligence is collected?

A) Humans

B) Geospatial

C) Technical

D) Animals

Answer: D

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Intermediate

5) This agency funds the intelligence activities of the entire federal government:

A) National Intelligence Program

B) Office of the Director of National Intelligence

C) Department of Homeland Security

D) Department of Anti-Terrorism

Answer: A

Page Ref: 374

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

6) This center serves as the nation’s “hub” for intelligence activity both domestically and internationally, coordinating intelligence information derived by individual members of the intelligence community:

A) National Intelligence Program

B) Office of the Director of National Intelligence

C) Department of Homeland Security

D) National Counterterrorism Center

Answer: D

Page Ref: 375

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

7) The Central Intelligence Agency was established in 1947 to deal with the then-current enemies of the United States, which included Russia, North Korea, Iran, and:

A) Iraq

B) Europe

C) Japan

D) China

Answer: D

Page Ref: 375

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

8) This agency was given responsibility for domestic intelligence inside the United States, but now is the primary criminal investigative body on any terrorist attack against the U.S., both domestically and internationally.

A) FBI

B) CIA

C) U.S. Marshals

D) Department of Homeland Security

Answer: A

Page Ref: 376

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Basic

9) Investigations are reactive and intelligence is:

A) also reactive

B) proactive

C) preventative

D) informal

Answer: B

Page Ref: 378

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Basic

10) Which of the following aided in blurring the lines between the FBI's focus on crime within the U.S. and the CIA, which was to focus on foreign crime outside the U.S. borders?

A) The development of the National Clandestine Service

B) The development of homeland security

C) USA PATRIOT Act

D) The use of the Joint Terrorist Task Forces

Answer: C

Page Ref: 377

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

11) Teams from the FBI, CIA, and NSA work in a secure location known as:

A) the Covert Operation Location (COL)

B) the Remote Operation Center (ROC)

C) the Cyber Defense Center (CDC)

D) RAND

Answer: B

Page Ref: 380

Objective: Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

Level: Intermediate

12) The strategic integration of intelligence, with an emphasis on predictive analysis-derived real data, defines a new style of policing called:

A) problem-oriented policing

B) SARA

C) intelligence-led policing

D) community-oriented policing

Answer: C

Page Ref: 382

Objective: List and describe the other agencies within the intelligence community.

Level: Intermediate

13) Which of the following is part of the six steps of the intelligence cycle?

A) Requirements

B) Prevention

C) Gathering

D) Testing

Answer: A

Page Ref: 383

Objective: Describe the intelligence cycle.

Level: Basic

14) The USA PATRIOT Act has laws that not only address terrorism and intelligence issues but also:

A) money laundering, immigration processes, and fraud

B) created the Department of Homeland Security

C) petty theft

D) gang activities

Answer: A

Page Ref: 387

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

15) The definition of terrorism was expanded in the reauthorized PATRIOT Act in 2006. Which of the following was NOT added to the definition?

A) Inclusion of receiving military-type training from a foreign terrorist organization

B) Being engaged in narco-terrorism

C) Criminalization of the act of planning a terror attack specifically against a mass transit entity or system

D) Using air missiles against civilians

Answer: D

Page Ref: 388

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Difficult

16) This organization feels the USA PATRIOT Act has gone too far and violates individual rights and liberties.

A) National Liberation Organization

B) Christian Patriots

C) American Civil Liberties Union

D) Black Panthers

Answer: C

Page Ref: 389

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

17) When the Humanitarian Law Project worked to advise the Workers’ Party of Kurdistan, a designated terrorist group, on how to file human rights violations with the United States, this is a violation of:

A) treason against the United States

B) material support

C) charitable funds

D) trust

Answer: B

Page Ref: 390

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Difficult

18) The allowance of holding an alien for seven days because they are certified as a suspected terrorist without an initial charge appears to be a blatant violation of this Constitutional Amendment:

A) Fifth Amendment

B) Third Amendment

C) Fourth Amendment

D) First Amendment

Answer: A

Page Ref: 395

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Intermediate

19) The USA PATRIOT Act expanded the ability of the military to assist with domestic intelligence and security after 9/11 and thereby challenged the validity of:

A) Military Assistance Act

B) U.S. Terrorist Act

C) Posse Comitatus Act

D) Anti-Terrorist Act

Answer: C

Page Ref: 396

Objective: Explain the concept of posse comitatus and how the U.S. military might be called to supplement civilian policing functions.

Level: Intermediate

20) Edward Snowden’s leaks:

A) revealed war logs of combat engagements in Afghanistan and Iraq

B) revealed that nine Internet service companies were being forced to give the NSA broad access to audio and video, chats, photographs, emails, and documents of suspected foreign terrorists

C) revealed diplomatic communications

D) revealed Guantanamo documents

Answer: B

Page Ref: 380

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

10.2 True/False Questions

1) The failure to provide timely, accurate, and specific intelligence information to law enforcement agencies was one finding of the Gilmore Commission.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 371

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Basic

2) Information must be analyzed in order for it to become legitimate intelligence.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Basic

3) Applications of intelligence are always time-sensitive.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Basic

4) Pre-9/11, the Taliban ruled Afghanistan and had a substantial HUMINT collection capability of 20,000 spies and over 100,000 informants.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Intermediate

5) The creation of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence centralized all intelligence information gathered from many different intelligence agencies.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 374

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Difficult

6) The Joint Counterterrorism Assessment Team is composed of public safety personnel. Its role is to inform public safety personnel in an effort to better identify, respond to, mitigate, and prevent the next terrorist attack against the homeland.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 375

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Basic

7) The FBI, CIA, and NSA have overlapping missions of cyber defense and cyber offense activities.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 380

Objective: Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

Level: Intermediate

8) Dissemination is the first step in the intelligence cycle and involves the distribution of raw or finished intelligence.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 383

Objective: Describe the intelligence cycle.

Level: Basic

9) Cyberterrorism can include severe economic loss.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 381

Objective: Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

Level: Intermediate

10) The USA PATRIOT Act made it easier for law enforcement and intelligence agencies to monitor Web surfing.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 388

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

11) The USA PATRIOT Act was reauthorized in 2006, and wiretap provisions were maintained, but greater oversight was added.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 388

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

12) In regard to intelligence collection on potential terrorists and investigation of individual terrorist groups and the USA PATRIOT Act, the First, Fourth, and Thirteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution are most often tested.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 389

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Intermediate

13) The freedom of religion clause within the First Amendment has been tested under the PATRIOT Act and allowed for large intelligence-gathering and investigative practices of surveillance or “fishing expeditions” of mosques.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 390

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Intermediate

14) Under the PATRIOT Act, the government does not have to show probable cause or even reasonable suspicion to obtain third-party records or conduct searches or wiretaps as long as the government asserts a request for such records related to an ongoing terrorism or foreign

intelligence operation.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 392

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: 392

15) The Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 set forth the provision that federal troops could not be used in a policing action within a State.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 396

Objective: Explain the concept of posse comitatus and how our military might be called to supplement civilian policing functions.

Level: Basic

16) The ACLU has recommended that drone usage be subject to several safeguards.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 397

Objective: Describe how drones are used both domestically and abroad for intelligence purposes and state the Constitutional issues that arise with each type of use.

Level: Intermediate

17) Those designated as enemy combatants are not entitled to the protections of the Fifth and Eighth Amendments.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 395

Objective: Explain the concept of posse comitatus and how our military might be called to supplement civilian policing functions.

Level: Intermediate

10.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) ________ is a product derived from systematic and thoughtful examination, placed in context, and provided to governmental executives and military leaders with facts and alternatives that can inform critical decisions.

Answer: Intelligence Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Intermediate

2) Intelligence is both a process and a ________.

Answer: product Page Ref: 372

Objective: Define intelligence and counterintelligence.

Level: Basic

3) The ________ Community is the 18 different intelligence-gathering agencies that report directly to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Answer: Intelligence Page Ref: 374

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

4) Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is the practice of collecting information from or otherwise publicly available sources.

Answer: published Page Ref: 373

Objective: Describe how Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) can inform counterterror investigations.

Level: Intermediate

5) The CIA has shifted focus from traditional counterterrorism activities to ________ intelligence and more offensive cyber operations.

Answer: cyber Page Ref: 376

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

6) The NSA’s role in protecting classified ________ data demands an eclectic mix of agents who specialize in a wide range of professional fields.

Answer: computer Page Ref: 379

Objective: Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

Level: Intermediate

7) ________ intelligence is derived from maps, imagery, charts, and satellite data and provides a foundation for the intelligence discipline.

Answer: Geospatial Page Ref: 381

Objective: List and describe the other agencies within the intelligence community.

Level: Basic

8) In order to protect the ________ liberties of all individuals, the intelligence process was developed with key evaluation points aimed at verifying source reliability and validity at the beginning of the collection cycle.

Answer: civil

Page Ref: 383

Objective: Describe the intelligence cycle.

Level: Intermediate

9) The USA PATRIOT Act substantially expanded the traditional tools of ________ used by law enforcement and intelligence agencies with significantly reduced checks and balances.

Answer: surveillance

Page Ref: 387

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, and its ongoing effects on counterterrorism efforts in the United States.

Level: Intermediate

10) ________ support as it relates to the PATRIOT Act is the training, expert advice or assistance, service, or personnel given to a terrorist organization.

Answer: Material

Page Ref: 390

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Intermediate

11) One of the most controversial challenges to the Bill of Rights by the USA PATRIOT Act is the power to arrest and hold any ________ “certified” by the Attorney General as a suspected terrorist without any initial charge for up to seven days.

Answer: alien

Page Ref: 395

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Intermediate

12) ________ rendition involves the detention and interrogation of foreign suspects without bringing them to the United States.

Answer: Extraordinary

Page Ref: 395

Objective: Discuss the conflicts between the PATRIOT Act and the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.

Level: Basic

13) Unmanned aerial vehicles that are used for the purposes of both commercial and governmental endeavors are called ________.

Answer: drones

Page Ref: 397

Objective: Describe how drones are used both domestically and abroad for intelligence purposes and state the constitutional issues that arise with each type of use.

Level: Basic

14) An ________ combatant can be detained indefinitely without being charged.

Answer: enemy

Page Ref: 395

Objective: Discuss the use of torture in intelligence functions in the United States and describe the constitutional issues involved.

Level: Basic

15) The assessment identifies and evaluates threats based on various factors, including vulnerability, criticality of the target, and potential actors.

Answer: threat

Page Ref: 385

Objective: Describe how threat assessments guide counterterrorism activities.

Level: Intermediate

10.4 Matching Questions

Match up the description of an agency in the left column to the agency in the right column.

A) Office of the Director of National Intelligence

B) National Security Agency

C) Federal Bureau of Investigation

D) National Clandestine Service

E) Central Intelligence Agency

F) National Intelligence Program

G) Joint Counterterrorism Assessment Team

H) Defense Intelligence Agency

I) Joint Terrorism Task Forces

J) National Counterterrorism Center

1) This agency centralized all intelligence information from many different agencies that gathered intelligence.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

2) This agency funds the intelligence activities of the entire federal government.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: List other agencies within the intelligence community.

Level: Intermediate

3) This agency is composed of public safety personnel, and its role is to inform public safety personnel in an effort to better identify, respond to, mitigate, and prevent the next terrorist attack against the homeland.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

4) This agency collects and analyzes information regarding national security in order to forewarn our government and develop foreign intelligence outside the country.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

5) This center serves as the nation’s “hub” for intelligence activity both domestically and internationally, coordinating intelligence information derived by individual members of the intelligence community.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

6) This agency was given responsibility for domestic intelligence inside the United States, but now is the primary criminal investigative body on any terrorist attack against the U.S. both domestically and internationally.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

7) This agency is part of the CIA and is the operational wing that carries out covert paramilitary operations against terrorist groups and cells outside the U.S.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

8) These groups are the primary vehicle for the collection of intelligence information relating to potential terrorist attacks and specific intelligence on individual terrorist groups and are located throughout the United States.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Explain the differences between the CIA and the FBI relating to terrorism and intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

9) This agency bills itself as the nation’s preeminent “cryptologic organization.”

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: Discuss the role of the National Security Agency as an intelligence agency.

Level: Intermediate

10) This agency is the primary intelligence agency for the U.S. Department of Defense and focuses on preventing strategic surprise from a nation-state or an attack on U.S. military forces.

Page Ref: 373–380

Objective: List other agencies within the intelligence community.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) A 2) F 3) G 4) E 5) J 6) C 7) D 8) I 9) B 10) H

10.5 Essay Questions

1) Outline the six steps in the intelligence cycle.

Answer: The intelligence cycle is an important effort to bring varied pieces of information together in an effort to draw logical conclusions from a thorough and systematic process, yet protect the civil liberties of all individuals within the United States. It is an important process for analyzing intelligence presented by the FBI, with the goal of developing a universal process that attempts to integrate both law enforcement and national security intelligence agendas.

Requirements are identified information needs–what we must know to safeguard the nation. Intelligence requirements are established by the Director of National Intelligence according to guidance received from the president and the national and homeland security advisors. Requirements are developed based on critical information required to protect the United States from national security and criminal threats. The attorney general and the director of the FBI participate in the formulation of national intelligence requirements.

Planning and Direction is the management of the entire effort, from identifying the need for information to delivering an intelligence product to a consumer. It involves implementing plans to satisfy requirements levied on the FBI, as well as identifying specific collection requirements based on FBI needs. Planning and direction also are responsive to the end of the cycle, because current and finished intelligence, which supports decision making, generates new requirements. The executive assistant director for the National Security Branch leads intelligence planning and direction for the FBI.

Collection is the gathering of raw information based on requirements. Activities such as interviews, technical and physical surveillance, human source operation, searches, and liaison relationships result in the collection of intelligence.

Processing and Exploitation involves converting the vast amount of information collected into a form usable by analysts. This is done through a variety of methods, including decryption,

language translations, and data reduction. Processing includes the entering of raw data into databases, where it can be exploited for use in the analysis process.

Analysis and Production is the conversion of raw information into intelligence. It includes integrating, evaluating, and analyzing available data, and preparing intelligence products. The information's reliability, validity, and relevance are evaluated and weighed. The information is logically integrated, put in context, and used to produce intelligence. This includes both “raw” and finished intelligence. Raw intelligence is often referred to as “the dots” –individual pieces of information disseminated individually. Finished intelligence reports “connect the dots” by putting information in context and drawing conclusions about its implications.

Dissemination–the last step–is the distribution of raw or finished intelligence to the consumers whose needs initiated the intelligence requirements. The FBI disseminates information in three standard formats: Intelligence Information Reports (IIRs), FBI Intelligence Bulletins, and FBI Intelligence Assessments. FBI intelligence products are provided daily to the attorney general, the president, and customers throughout the FBI and in other agencies. These FBI intelligence customers make decisions–operational, strategic, and policy–based on the information. Decisions may lead to the levying of more requirements, thus continuing the FBI intelligence cycle.

Page Ref: 383–384

Objective: Describe the intelligence cycle.

Level: Intermediate

2) Discuss the different sources from which intelligence can be collected.

Answer: Information is collected and analyzed, and a finding is produced to meet the needs of a specific “customer”. Among the sources from which intelligence can be collected are humans (HUMINT), signals (SIGINT), geospatial (GEOINT), technical (TECHINT), imagery (IMINT), photographs (PHOINT), and open source (OSINT). Intelligence can be used for broad purposes, for example, shaping policy and doctrine. In those applications, intelligence is not time-sensitive, but in others it may be. Intelligence is usually proactive (before an event occurs); reports and sources are almost always closed and confidential, and arrests are rarely made.

Page Ref: 372

Objective: Provide a brief overview of the U.S. Intelligence Community and discuss the role of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.

Level: Intermediate

3) Outline the key points of the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent amendments.

Answer: The USA PATRIOT Act was authorized after the 9/11 attacks and addressed not only terrorism and intelligence issues but also focused on more traditional money laundering, computer abuse and crime, immigration processes, and fraud. However, the most substantial part of the act is that it expanded traditional tools of surveillance used by law enforcement and intelligence agencies with significantly reduced checks and balances. With the PATRIOT Act, law enforcement and intelligence agencies can now easily monitor Web surfing and communication of individuals using the Internet, conduct nationwide roving wiretaps, and can force Internet Service Providers to voluntarily hand over information on customer profiles and Web-Surfing habits without a warrant or court order. The reauthorization in 2006 maintained the roving wiretaps but added greater oversights like judicial review and approval by the director of the FBI or the NSA. Electronic monitoring of electronic communications through a library was kept, but library records were removed. Sneak-and-peek searches were considered too extreme, so a time limit was set, but lone wolf surveillance was increased. The definition of terrorism was increased to include those receiving military-type training from a foreign terrorist organization, those engaging in narco-terrorism, and criminalizing the act of planning a terror attack against a mass transit system. The reauthorization of the PATRIOT Act in 2011 extended access to business records and other tangible evidence. Lone wolf provisions were again expanded to include non-U.S. persons. On June 2, 2015, President Barack Obama signed the USA Freedom Act into law, in order to address three expiring provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act: Section 215 (which was amended regarding bulk phone and Internet metadata), roving wiretaps, and lone-actor surveillance authority. Notably, the Freedom Act dissolved the provisions of Section 215 that allowed the NSA to collect bulk data on individual American telephone records and Internet metadata. The law limited the government’s ability to collect data on American citizens to “the greatest extent reasonably practical. ” Despite the fact that the PATRIOT Act expired in March 2020 without being reauthorized, federal law enforcement agencies have largely retained the authorities granted by the act.

Page Ref: 387–396

Objective: Summarize the USA PATRIOT Act and its subsequent reauthorizations.

Level: Intermediate

4) What are drones and how are they being used in a military setting? What is the newest technology being applied to drones and what are some of the concerns with using drones?

Answer: Domestically, drones are used for a variety of functions, from commercial land surveys to law enforcement surveillance and border patrol. Drones can now be equipped with 1.8gigapixel cameras and listening devices. They can be equipped to fire missiles or crash into objects and detonate a bomb. The use of these types of drones is increasing with the approach of open-air space provisions to be set into place in 2015, and constitutional scholars are concerned about their impact on protections against unlawful searches and broad surveillance. Since this is relatively new technology and the advancement of drones is happening at a quick pace, regulations have not been established, but safeguards, like usage limits, data retention, policies for civilians, police, and government, abuse prevention and accountability, and use as a weapon, all need to be addressed. Drones on foreign soil have been militarized and “weaponized,”

sometimes employed for the purposes of killing American terrorists. This is a direct conflict with protections found in the Fifth Amendment that guarantee due process of law.

Page Ref: 397–398

Objective: Describe how drones are used both domestically and abroad for intelligence purposes and state the Constitutional issues that arise with each type of use.

Level: Intermediate

10.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) AI represents a real paradigm shift and revolution in the way that intelligence can be processed. Complete some outside research and provide two examples of how AI is being used for homeland security.

Answer: Answers will vary.

Page Ref: 384–385

Objective: Expand on the ways that AI and other emerging technologies will affect counterterrorism.

Level: Difficult

2) Discuss what is needed to assemble a threat assessment.

Answer: The threat assessment process should include local, state, and federal law enforcement; fusion centers or other intelligence centers; transportation infrastructure representatives; community stakeholders; event officials (if applicable); local, state, or foreign governments as applicable; and technology infrastructure/advisors, where appropriate. Homeland security professionals should first have a broad understanding of the threat landscape. Homeland security and intelligence professionals also produce behavioral threat assessments (BTAM), which focus on preventing pathways to violence at the individual level. Information Link: For an example of a threat assessment, visit the Department of Homeland Security for its most recent Homeland Security Threat Assessment.

Page Ref: 385

Objective: Describe how threat assessments guide counterterrorism activities.

Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 11

Homeland Security

11.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Leading the unified national effort to protect America by deterring terrorist attacks and protecting against and responding to threats and hazards to the nation is the mission of this agency:

A) FBI

B) CIA

C) Department of Homeland Security

D) NSA

Answer: C

Page Ref: 408

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

2) After 9/11, the United States was fighting a non-state enemy on two fronts and the countries involved were:

A) Iran and Iraq

B) Iraq and Afghanistan

C) Iran and Afghanistan

D) Iraq and Kuwait

Answer: B

Page Ref: 409

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

3) Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge was appointed as the first director of:

A) the Office of Homeland Security

B) the new FBI with the priority of terrorism

C) the Anti-Terrorism Unit

D) Joint Terrorism Task Force

Answer: A

Page Ref: 410

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

4) What is the primary purpose of fusion centers?

A) To replace local police departments

B) To act as clearinghouses for homeland security information

C) To conduct only cyber investigations

D) To manage military operations

Answer: B

Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

5) The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and Customs and Border Protection all came from this one agency that existed before the creation of the Department of Homeland Security.

A) Immigration and Naturalization Service

B) U.S. Customs Service

C) Transportation Security Administration

D) Federal Emergency Management Agency

Answer: A

Page Ref: 410

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

6) Which of the following is NOT one of the five missions of the DHS?

A) Stopping terrorism and enhancing security

B) Securing and managing our borders

C) Developing weapons

D) Enforcing and administering our immigration laws

Answer: C

Page Ref: 418

Objective: Identify the five DHS core missions.

Level: Intermediate

7) What regulation governs the collection and dissemination of intelligence by fusion centers?

A) Patriot Act

B) Homeland Security Act

C) 28 CFR Part 23

D) Freedom of Information Act

Answer: C

Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

8) The purpose of this agency is to prevent harmful individuals and substances, including terrorists, criminal, illegal immigrants, drugs, weapons, harmful pests and diseases, and other contraband, from entering the United States:

A) Immigration and Naturalization Services

B) Immigration and Customs Enforcement

C) Department of Homeland Security

D) Customs and Border Protection

Answer: D

Page Ref: 423

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

9) What action can the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) take if an agency fails to meet performance goals for three consecutive years?

A) Increase the agency’s funding

B) Transfer authority to state governments

C) Recommend defunding the activities involved

D) Eliminate the agency entirely

Answer: C

Page Ref: 420

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Intermediate

10) The two largest legacy agencies that came over to Customs and Border Protection were:

A) Immigration and Naturalization Services and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

B) U.S. Customs and the Border Patrol

C) Department of the Treasury and Department of Justice

D) Border Patrol and U.S. Marshals Service

Answer: B

Page Ref: 423

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

11) During the early 1900s, the Army and this group patrolled the borders along Mexico:

A) U.S. Coast Guard

B) Navy

C) Texas Rangers

D) National Guard

Answer: C

Page Ref: 423

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

12) What does the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) require of federal agencies?

A) To eliminate all annual reporting requirements

B) To create strategic plans aligned with presidential terms

C) To focus only on short-term goals

D) To report only to Congress every ten years

Answer: B

Page Ref: 420

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Difficult

13) Customs and Border Protection uses technology of drones, radiation screening, remote video surveillance, and:

A) missiles

B) satellites

C) unattended ground guard sensors

D) fingerprint screening

Answer: C

Page Ref: 427

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Difficult

14) Which of the following is NOT one of the three wars being waged along America’s southern border?

A) Drugs

B) Sex crimes

C) Immigration

D) Homeland security

Answer: B

Page Ref: 427

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

15) This agency’s mission can be summarized as supporting our citizens and emergency first responders to ensure that the country can work together to build, sustain, and improve the capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards, including terrorist attacks.

A) DHS

B) ICE

C) FEMA

D) FBI

Answer: C

Page Ref: 428

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Basic

16) The president is authorized by this Act to issue emergency and fire management declarations, which enable federal agencies to provide assistance to state and local units of government overwhelmed by catastrophes.

A) Emergency Response Act

B) USA PATRIOT Act

C) Stafford Act

D) Bush Act

Answer: C

Page Ref: 429

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

17) Which of the following is listed as a key driver of risk in the QHSR?

A) Decrease in global trade

B) Elimination of cyber threats

C) Growth of transnational criminal organizations

D) Reduction in natural disasters

Answer: C

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Intermediate

18) What is one major reason SLTT agencies are effective in gathering HUMINT?

A) They rely on international intelligence networks

B) They operate primarily online.

C) They are present in communities 24/7

D) They focus only on federal-level investigations.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

19) Which of the following is NOT one of the U.S. Coast Guard’s security missions?

A) Protect the ports, waterways, and coast from terrorist attack

B) Drug interdiction

C) Migrant interdiction

D) Intelligence gathering

Answer: D

Page Ref: 432

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

20) This president ordered the creation of armed sky marshals to thwart airplanes from being hijacked:

A) President George W. Bush

B) President Reagan

C) President Clinton

D) President Kennedy

Answer: D

Page Ref: 433

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Basic

21) Creating a homeland that is safe, secure, and resilient against terrorism and other hazards, where American interests, aspirations, and way of life can thrive is the vision statement of this agency:

A) FBI

B) CIA

C) Department of Homeland Security

D) NSA

Answer: C

Page Ref: 413

Objective: State the vision statement of DHS.

Level: Basic

11.2 True/False Questions

1) Prior to the 9/11 attacks, President Bush's national security leadership met 100 times, but terrorism was only a topic of discussion at two of those meetings.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 408

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

2) Fusion centers use both vertical and horizontal information sharing approaches.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

3) The creation of the DHS and inclusion of 22 different pre-existing federal agencies was the largest reorganization of the federal bureaucracy since the National Security Act of 1947.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 410

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

4) Fusion centers are only found at the federal level.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

5) The DHS has five main missions, and they include administering our immigration law and safeguarding our cyberspace.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 418

Objective: Identify the five DHS core missions.

Level: Intermediate

6) FEMA was successful in responding to Hurricane Katrina.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 411

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Basic

7) The QHSR only focuses on domestic terrorism and ignores international threats.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Intermediate

8) The U.S. Customs Service is the oldest federal agency. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 424

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

9) The QHSR is produced every four years by the Department of Homeland Security.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Basic

10) Tunnels from Mexico into the United States are fairly prevalent and allow for the smuggling of people and drugs into our country, and some tunnels are very sophisticated, having light, ventilation, and rail systems.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 426

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

11) Major disasters cover any natural catastrophes, and emergencies are non-specific and can include any occasion or instance as determined by the President.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 428

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

12) DHS must provide performance updates to OMB at least annually.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 420

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Intermediate

13) Senator Tom Coburn concluded that DHS performs perfectly with no need for improvement. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 421

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Intermediate

14) FEMA prepares states, tribes, and local communities by providing technical assistance, conducting residential and online training, and offers courses onsite because preparedness is a

continuous process.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 421

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

15) The U.S. Coast Guard is one of five U.S. armed services that is not housed in the Department of Defense; it was in the Department of Transportation, but in 2003 it was transferred to DHS.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 431

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

16) The U. S. Coast Guard made the largest cocaine drug interdiction in American history and seized 42,845 pounds of cocaine.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 433

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

17) The Federal Air Marshal Service is part of the Transportation Security Administration. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 433

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Basic

18) TSA only has responsibility for screening airports.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 433

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Basic

19) DHS uses the QHSR as a guide for the execution of its collective responsibilities and continued integration across its strategic priorities.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Intermediate

20) The Quadrennial Homeland Security Review is an integrated system that links the department’s missions through a series of steps that begins with missions and goals, concluding with the determination of what level of performance results were achieved.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Intermediate

11.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) DHS protects our national borders while welcoming lawful immigrants, visitors, and ________.

Answer: trade

Page Ref: 418

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

2) Extraordinary ________ is the transferring of captured terrorists to countries where harsh interrogation methods could be used.

Answer: rendition

Page Ref: 409

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

3) Customs and Border Protection is also responsible for regulating international trade, collecting import ________, and protecting U.S. businesses from counterfeit goods.

Answer: duties

Page Ref: 423

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

4) Fusion centers act as a centralized host for ______ information and analysis. Answer: intelligence Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Basic

5) Agencies that existed prior to the formation of the DHS and “came over” to it, in part or in whole, are called “________ agencies.”

Answer: legacy

Page Ref: 425

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

6) The QHSR identifies ______ change as a major risk factor impacting homeland security.

Answer: climate

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Basic

7) Cyber threats target government agencies, infrastructure, and private ______.

Answer: citizens

Page Ref: 415

Objective: Explain the purpose of the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.

Level: Intermediate

8) ________ Threat Alert, put out by the National Terrorism Advisory System, means there is a credible, specific, and impending terrorist threat made against the United States.

Answer: Imminent

Page Ref: 428

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

9) DHS performance evaluation is considered ______ rather than entirely good or poor.

Answer: mixed

Page Ref: 421

Objective: Name the steps in the DHS performance management framework.

Level: Intermediate

10) SLTT agencies excel in gathering ______ intelligence (HUMINT).

Answer: human Page Ref: 441

Objective: Define and describe the four goals of a fusion center.

Level: Intermediate

11) The Secret Service not only provides security to the president, but also investigates thefts and ________.

Answer: fraud

Page Ref: 436

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

12) __________________ is the most active threat domain in the world and DHS must adapt to prevent nation-states, their proxies, transnational criminal organizations, and cybercriminals from undermining critical infrastructure, stealing intellectual property, committing espionage, or threatening democratic institutions.

Answer: Cyberspace

Page Ref: 418

Objective: Identify the five DHS core missions.

Level: Difficult

13) ________ (use government agency acronym) maintains a Counterterrorism and Criminal Exploitation Unit, a Firearms and Explosives Smuggling Unit, a Visa Security Unit, a National Security Division, and a Human Rights Violators and War Crimes Center.

Answer: ICE

Page Ref: 439

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

14) An organization’s ______ statement explains what it hopes to be or achieve.

Answer: vision

Page Ref: 413

Objective: State the vision statement of DHS.

Level: Basic

15) Units like Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and TSA are considered ______ units because they carry out the agency’s primary work.

Answer: line

Page Ref: 414

Objective: State the vision statement of DHS.

Level: Intermediate

11.4 Matching Questions

Match up the terminology in the left column to the definitions in the right column.

A) Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO)

B) U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services

C) U.S. Coast Guard

D) ICE

E) Homeland Security Investigations (HSI)

F) CBP

G) U.S. Secret Service

H) FEMA

I) DHS

J) TSA

1) This agency’s mission is to maximize transportation security in response to evolving threats while protecting passengers’ privacy and facilitating the flow of legal commerce.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

2) This agency’s mission is to protect the President of the United States.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

3) This agency’s mission is to protect the public, the environment, and U.S. economic interests in the nation’s ports and waterways, along the coast, on international waters, or in any maritime region as required to support national security.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

4) This agency’s mission can be summarized as supporting our citizens and emergency first responders to ensure that the country can work together to build, sustain, and improve the capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards, including terrorist attacks.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

5) This agency apprehends and removes (from the United States) criminals and other removable aliens from the United States and dismantles terrorist and transnational criminal organizations (TCOs) that exploit our borders by (1) preventing terrorism and enhancing security, (2) securing and managing our borders, and (3) enforcing and administering American immigration laws.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

6) This agency carries out transnational criminal investigations to protect the United States against terrorist and other criminal organizations that threaten public safety and national security and to bring to justice those seeking to exploit our customs and immigration laws worldwide.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

7) This agency identifies and apprehends removable aliens, detains them when necessary, and removes them from the United States.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

8) This agency’s mission is to prevent harmful individuals and substances from entering the United States and includes terrorists, criminals, illegal immigrants and drugs, weapons, and other contraband, as well as harmful pests and diseases.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

9) This agency’s mission is to stop terrorism and enhance security, secure and manage our borders, enforce and administer our immigration law, safeguard cyberspace, and ensure resilience to disasters.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

10) This agency is responsible for the delivery of information on citizenship and immigration benefits to applicants in a timely, accurate, consistent, courteous, and professional manner, while also safeguarding our national security.

Page Ref: 410–442

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) J 2) G 3) C 4) H 5) D 6) E 7) A 8) F 9) I 10) B

11.5 Essay Questions

1) Discuss why the DHS was created, what problems it faced, and the six main security missions of DHS.

Answer: DHS was created on November 25, 2002, and it became operational, or “opened its doors,” on March 1, 2003. All or parts of twenty-two existing federal agencies became part of DHS. The six security missions are (1) stopping terrorism and enhancing security, (2) securing and managing our borders, (3) securing cyberspace and critical infrastructure, (4) preserve and uphold the nation’s prosperity and economic security, (5) ensuring resilience to disasters, and (6) championing the DHS workforce and strengthening the department. DHS had the enormous task of taking twenty-two different agencies and building one effective agency that communicates and has a united culture and mission. Several mistakes were made along the way. For example, FEMA didn’t get mail for a time period because the fee for a post office box wasn’t paid. The response to Hurricane Katrina was poorly managed and the agency seemed ill-equipped. At one point DHS had nineteen different financial centers, twenty-two human resource offices, and twenty-seven different bank card programs. Many of the critical hurdles have been handled, but DHS is still a relatively new agency and is adapting as the needs of the country change.

Page Ref: 410–419

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created. Level: Intermediate

2) Discuss the history of Customs and Border Protection and the mission of CBP, and how it came to be under DHS.

Answer: Broadly, the purpose of CBP is to prevent harmful individuals and substances from entering the United States. This includes terrorists, criminals, illegal immigrants, and drugs, weapons, and other contraband, as well as harmful pests and diseases. A major CBP responsibility is regulating international trade, collecting import duties, enforcing trade laws, and protecting U.S. businesses from counterfeit goods and the theft of intellectual property, such as software. CBP also works to prevent and intercept the illegal export of U.S. currency and other monetary instruments, stolen goods, and strategically sensitive technologies, such as advanced radar. CBP has responsibility for approximately 6,000 miles of border with Canada and Mexico, and 2,000 miles of coastal waters around Florida and Puerto Rico. Watching for illegal land crossings is not sufficient; agents have to find and monitor tunnels, some of which stretch from Mexico 2,000 feet long and across the U.S. border into residences and warehouses. Some tunnels are sophisticated, with electricity, ventilation, and rail systems, and they may connect to other tunnels.

CBP began as a legal entity on March 1, 2003. The original USCS was created in 1789 by the First Congress and is the oldest federal agency. The U.S. was on the brink of bankruptcy, and

within six days of becoming operational it began collecting duties from imported cargo. Within the first year, USCS collected approximately $2 million in duties and taxes.

Page Ref: 423–426

Objective: State the broad purpose of Customs and Border Protection (CBP).

Level: Intermediate

3) Summarize the mission and duties of the Secret Service.

Answer: The primary mission of the Secret Service is to protect the President and Vice President of the United States, other visiting heads of state and government, and any National Special Security Events (NSSEs). An NSSE is any national or international meeting deemed by DHS as a potential target for terrorism or other criminal activity, such as a specific summit of world leaders (e.g., World Trade Organization–WTO Conference) or any other meetings of foreign leaders in the United States. The Secret Service safeguards the nation's financial infrastructure and payment systems to preserve the integrity of the economy, investigates cyber/electronic crimes, and protects the White House and other designated buildings within the Washington, D.C., area. To meet its responsibilities, the Secret Service has an annual budget of $3.2 billion, 8,300 employees, and operates 116 domestic and 20 foreign investigative offices. The investigative responsibility of the Secret Service is broad and includes thefts and frauds involving ATMs, debit cards, identity theft, credit cards, computers, passwords, and financial deposits.

Page Ref: 435–436

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

11.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Visit FEMA’s online training website at http://www.training.fema.gov/ . Go into the catalog and open some of the pages on this website. Write a brief summary of what was learned. Questions that can be answered: What stood out, what is your opinion of the training offered, who should take these courses, and how are these trainings offered?

Answer: Answers will vary. Instructor could also require students to actually take an online training, as they are free, and upon completion, the student, if they pass the test, will become certified in that program.

Page Ref: 428–431

Objective: Identify the five DHS core missions.

Level: Difficult

2) Most people recognize the Transportation Security Administration as only being responsible for airport security. Discuss what other responsibilities TSA is responsible for. Go to the TSA website at www.tsa.gov and find additional information not provided in the textbook.

Answer: Its mission is to maximize transportation security in response to evolving threats while protecting passengers' privacy and facilitating the flow of legal commerce. These responsibilities are (1) ensuring effective and efficient screening of all air passengers, baggage, and cargo on

passenger planes; (2) deploying federal air marshals internationally and domestically to detect, deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting air carriers, airports, passengers, and crews; (3) managing security risks of the surface transportation systems by working with stakeholders, providing support and program direction, and conducting on-site inspections; and (4) developing and implementing more efficient, reliable, integrated, and cost-effective screening programs. In addition to airports, the TSA is responsible for railways, bus systems, mass transit trains, pipelines, highways, and port systems. Findings from the TSA website will vary.

Page Ref: 433–435

Objective: Briefly state why and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created.

Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 12 America’s Vulnerability to Terrorism

12.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) A song played over the radio uses this sector:

A) Communication Sector

B) Commercial Facilities Sector

C) Critical Manufacturing Sector

D) Transportation Sector

Answer: A

Page Ref: 445

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Basic

2) The focus of the National Strategy for Counterterrorism in 2011 was:

A) securing the homeland borders

B) the dismantling of the al-Qaeda network

C) developing counterterrorism technology

D) improving intelligence-gathering techniques

Answer: B

Page Ref: 456

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

3) The USA PATRIOT Act and this other document defined the concept of critical infrastructure and developed the specific critical infrastructure plans, as well as set forth the roles and duties for federal agencies before and during a potential disaster.

A) The Stafford Act Report

B) The Gilmore Commission Report

C) National Strategy for Counterterrorism

D) The Critical Infrastructure Report

Answer: C

Page Ref: 456

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

4) Which of the following is NOT an example of a natural disaster?

A) Hurricane

B) Intentional forest fire

C) Flood

D) Earthquake

Answer: B

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Basic

5) Techniques for safeguarding the general population from disease and dangers stemming from a major earthquake may be similar to those that are undertaken after a significant bombing. This is an example:

A) of a FEMA model

B) of counterterrorism planning

C) of the all-hazards model

D) of the preparedness model

Answer: C

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

6) Actual disaster response by federal agencies to acts of terrorism is divided into two distinct responsibilities: crisis management and:

A) secondary responder management

B) preventive management

C) aftermath management

D) consequence management

Answer: D

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

7) Crisis management is handled by law enforcement, principally the:

A) CIA

B) DHS

C) FEMA

D) FBI

Answer: D

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

8) Which of the following is NOT one of the major programs the FBI manages that detect, investigate, and prevent terrorist strikes?

A) Counterterrorism Information and Operations Center

B) National Counterterrorism Center and the Public Internet Tip Line

C) The Counterterrorism Fly Team

D) The Most Wanted Terrorist List

Answer: A

Page Ref: 458

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Difficult

9) This is one of the major programs that the FBI manages that is a state-of-the-art fusion center in Washington, D.C., that acts as a clearinghouse: collecting, processing, and disseminating intelligence information about terrorist threats and incidents:

A) National Counterterrorism Center and the Public Internet Tip Line

B) Strategic Information and Operations Center

C) The Counterterrorism Fly Team

D) The Most Wanted Terrorist List

Answer: B

Page Ref: 458

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) Consequence management is managed by:

A) FBI

B) CIA

C) CBP

D) FEMA

Answer: D

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Basic

11) What is the primary role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency?

A) To regulate international trade

B) To serve as the operational lead for federal cybersecurity and infrastructure protection

C) To oversee military operations abroad

D) To manage immigration courts

Answer: B

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) What is the function of the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center (NCCIC)?

A) To enforce immigration laws

B) To manage disaster relief funding

C) To serve as a hub for real-time cyber threat sharing and incident response

D) To conduct foreign intelligence operations

Answer: C

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Basic

13) This was the first infrastructure to be identified as critical:

A) Chemical Sector

B) Telecommunications Sector

C) Information Technology Sector

D) Banking and Finance Sector

Answer: B

Page Ref: 461

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

14) The Environment Protection Agency is the Sector-Specific Agency for this sector:

A) Defense Industrial Base Sector

B) Food and Agriculture Sector

C) Chemical Sector

D) Commercial Facilities Sector

Answer: C

Page Ref: 466

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

15) The first example of the use of a secondary bomb in the United States was:

A) the Unabomber

B) the Oklahoma City bombing

C) the bombing of the Pentagon

D) the Olympic Park bombing

Answer: D

Page Ref: 462

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

16) The Energy Sector has three subsectors: Electricity, Petroleum, and:

A) Natural Gas

B) Wind Energy

C) Solar Energy

D) Oil

Answer: A

Page Ref: 463

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

17) This sector contributes to a major portion of the economy in the United States and employs over a million people:

A) Water Sector

B) Commercial Facilities

C) Chemical Sector

D) Transportation Sector

Answer: C

Page Ref: 466

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

18) Which of the following is NOT one of the five main segments of the Chemical Sector?

A) Manufactured synthetic street drugs

B) Specialty chemicals

C) Agricultural chemicals

D) Pharmaceuticals

Answer: A

Page Ref: 466

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

19) This sector is large, produces a large percentage of the economy, and has a significant role in response, mitigation, and recovery during natural disasters or terrorist events:

A) Commercial Facilities Sector

B) Healthcare and Public Health Sector

C) Chemical Sector

D) Information Technology Sector

Answer: B

Page Ref: 468

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

20) What is the primary goal of information warfare (IW)?

A) To increase international trade agreements

B) To gain tactical or strategic advantage using information technology

C) To eliminate all physical military operations

D) To focus only on financial transactions

Answer: B

Page Ref: 472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

21) Aviation, Highway, Maritime, Mass Transit, Pipeline Transmission, and Rail are all subsectors of this sector:

A) Energy Sector

B) Commercial Facilities Sector

C) Transportation Sector

D) Critical Manufacturing Sector

Answer: C

Page Ref: 470

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

22) Google, Raytheon, Citibank, Microsoft are all private partners related to this sector:

A) Defense Industrial Base Sector

B) Information Technology Sector

C) Banking and Finance Sector

D) Government Facilities Sector

Answer: B

Page Ref: 471

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

12.2 True/False Questions

1) As our society becomes more advanced and complex, the more we rely on critical infrastructures to support our lifestyle and existence.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 455

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Basic

2) Critical infrastructures rely on each other and a failure in one sector could lead to a cascading failure in others.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 455

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

3) According to the all-hazards model, the aspects of planning and responding to different catastrophes require unique strategies for every instance.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

4) Crisis management is handled principally by the CIA.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

5) The FBI is the primary federal agency responsible for investigating crimes committed by terrorist organizations.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) There is no such thing as the Most Wanted Terrorist List.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 458

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Basic

7) Consequence management is managed by FEMA.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Basic

8) Responses to public health issues like open sewage lines, biological agents, or even radiation may be more appropriately handled by the Center for Disease Control or the Environmental Protection Agency.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Difficult

9) CISA was established in 2018 to address growing cybersecurity threats. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

10) Terrorist groups only target physical infrastructure and not digital systems.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) A blackout is a drop in voltage to a specific power grid, limiting electrical use and causing lights to glow much dimmer due to the sag in power.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 463

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

12) There is a complete list of dams and levees in the Dam Sector.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 464

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

13) Nuclear power provides approximately 20 percent of the electricity in the United States.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 465

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

14) There are eight subsectors in the Commercial Facilities Sector.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 467

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

15) One-fifth of the economy in the United States and about one-fifth of agriculture are exported to foreign countries, which fall under the Food and Agriculture Sector.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 469

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

16) The 9/11 attacks were the first cases of skyjacking.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 470

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

17) Under the Government Facilities Sector, the federal facilities alone cover more than 3 billion

square feet.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 470

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

18) The Oklahoma City bombing was an attack against the Banking and Finance Sector. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 470

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

19) The IT Sector can include virtual systems and networks, as well as physical assets.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 471

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

20) Google, Raytheon, Citibank, and Microsoft are all private partners that fall under the IT Sector.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

12.3

Fill in the Blank Questions

1) ________ infrastructure are those systems and assets, whether physical or virtual, so vital to the U.S. that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on national security, national economic security, or national public health or safety.

Answer: Critical Page Ref: 455

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Intermediate

2) ________ model recognizes that there are aspects of planning and response that are common in many kinds of catastrophes and disasters regardless of causation.

Answer: All-hazards Page Ref: 457

Objective: Explain the all-hazards model in planning for critical infrastructure protection.

Level: Basic

3) Crisis management is handled by law enforcement, principally the ________ (use agency acronym).

Answer: FBI

Page Ref: 457

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Basic

4) ________ management is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Answer: Consequence Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Basic

5) The effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of a terrorist attack or natural disaster is known as ________.

Answer: mitigation

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

6) CI/KRs stands for critical infrastructures and key ________ that are listed in the National Infrastructure Protection Plan.

Answer: resources

Page Ref: 460

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

7) ________ bombs are hidden and set to detonate when first responders arrive. Answer: Secondary Page Ref: 462

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

8) CISA collaborates with public and ______ sector partners to protect infrastructure. Answer: private Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

9) ________ materials are substances that are solid, liquid, or gas that are dangerous to people, other living organisms, or the environment.

Answer: Hazardous Page Ref: 466

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

10) Information warfare includes tactics such as propaganda, disinformation, and ______. Answer: deception Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) relating to critical infrastructure and terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

11) The USA ______ Act expanded the government’s authority to prevent terrorism.

Answer: PATRIOT Page Ref: 456

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) The Defense Industrial Base Sector supports operations directly. Answer: military Page Ref: 471

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

13) Critical infrastructures are ________ and rely on one another for functionality, effectiveness, and efficiency, and nowhere is this more evident than within the Information Technology Sector.

Answer: interconnected Page Ref: 471

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

14) ________ warfare is the concept of using information technology to gain tactical or strategic advantage over an opponent during a conflict.

Answer: Information Page Ref: 472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Basic

15) The IT Sector includes physical assets as well as ________ systems and networks. Answer: virtual Page Ref: 472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical

infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

12.4 Matching Questions

Match up the sector in the left column to the description or the federal agency that serves as the sector-specific agency for that sector in the right column.

A) Includes the farming, breeding, production, processing, and delivery of food and livestock.

B) The primary metal manufacturing, machinery manufacturing, electrical manufacturing, and transportation equipment manufacturing.

C) The means for people and goods to move across the country.

D) Includes buildings and structures that are owned by federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments.

E) Department of Treasury

F) Department of Defense

G) Environment Protection Agency

H) Department of Commerce

I) Very interconnected with all the other sectors and is relied upon to provide data, coordination, and communication during a natural disaster or terrorist event.

J) Office of Infrastructure Protection

1) Communications Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

2) Dams Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

3) Chemical Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

4) Banking and Finance Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

5) Defense Industrial Base Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

6) Government Facilities Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

7) Information Technology Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

8) Transportation Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

9) Critical Manufacturing Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

10) Food and Agriculture Sector

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

12.5 Essay Questions

1) Provide eight examples from the sixteen critical infrastructures that relates to your everyday life. Be sure to include which critical infrastructure your example belongs to and why.

Answer: Critical infrastructure is the systems and assets so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of these systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on national security, national economic security, national public health, or any combination of these

matters. As individuals, we rarely think of the importance of critical infrastructure in our country. However, almost every aspect of life in the United States is dependent on a critical infrastructure sector. From the clean air, water, and food that sustains life, to the variety of physical and virtual systems that allow us to share our lives with one another, to the jobs and recreation we enjoy, the amenities of daily life in the United States is dependent upon a wellfunctioning, coordinated, and efficient infrastructure. The loss or disruption of all or part of any of these critical infrastructure sectors would have a devastating impact on this country. The simple fact of the matter is that, as our society becomes more advanced and complex, the more we rely on critical infrastructure to support our lifestyle and existence. Answers regarding the eight examples will vary, but they should be unique and not taken from the textbook. They should also be valid and show a direct link to the specific critical infrastructure sector.

Page Ref: 460–472

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Intermediate

2) Discuss the role of the FBI and critical infrastructures as it relates to a terrorist event.

Answer: The FBI is the primary agency responsible for crisis management during a terrorist event. The FBI is responsible for developing, coordinating, and managing a response to terrorism, as well as conducting and coordinating all aspects of an investigation involving a terrorist event (e.g., crime scene security, interviewing witnesses and victims, collecting evidence, arresting suspects). The FBI works closely with state and local law enforcement agencies and hosts a variety of programs aimed at coordinating investigations and preventing future terrorist strikes. These include the management of the Joint Terrorism Task Forces, the National Counterterrorism Center, the Public Internet Tip Line, the Counterterrorism Fly Team, and the Ten Most Wanted Terrorist List.

Page Ref: 457–458

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

3) Discuss the role of FEMA and critical infrastructures as it relates to terrorism and natural disasters.

Answer: The role of FEMA during a terrorist event is consequence management. That is, FEMA is responsible for the emergency management of a major event such as a natural disaster or a terrorist strike. This includes mitigation, or the effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of the event. Some of the duties of FEMA during a catastrophe include search and rescue, sheltering and caring for affected persons, managing debris removal, and maintaining safeguards for the general public. FEMA has been in place since 1970; its role has been dramatically increased since the 9/11 attacks. FEMA works to protect essential resources and facilities through a systematic plan of identifying, providing a vulnerability assessment, and developing security preparedness.

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Visit the Department of Homeland Security website and specifically go to the critical infrastructure page at www.dhs.gov/critical-infrastructure. What additional information was provided?

Answer: Answers will vary, but should include unique and recent information. This information may be useful to share among students. Instead of a paper, students could design a PowerPoint to be presented in class or posted online, or students may select one or two unique findings to post on a discussion thread.

Objective: Describe the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) relating to terrorism.

Level: Difficult

2) Summarize the Information Technology Sector and discuss why it is one of the most important sectors. Find a recent incident involving the Information Technology Sector. The example could be from a natural disaster, a terrorist event, or a change in protocol as a preventive measure.

Answer: The Information Technology (IT) Sector includes the physical and virtual systems and networks that allow all other sectors to coordinate efforts and effectively function both independently and jointly. The IT Sector is, quite literally, the “tie that binds” all other critical infrastructure sectors together. As such, it may be the “most critical” of the critical infrastructure sectors as it confronts an evolving set of physical as well as cyber-based threats from terrorists, hackers, social activists, criminals, internationally organized cartels, and state-supported intelligence services. Some of the most significant threats to the IT Sector stem from sophisticated criminal cartels based in Russia and information warfare practices stemming from China.

Examples will vary.

Page Ref: 471

Objective: Discuss the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) and list the critical infrastructure sectors that make up the plan.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 13 Emergency Management

13.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which of the following was a major issue that negatively impacted disaster relief?

A) Early American belief in self-reliance

B) Federal government insistence that local governments respond to disasters

C) Lack of standardized language, approaches, and capabilities

D) Strong coordination between agencies

Answer: C

Page Ref: 480

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Basic

2) The goal of emergency management is to:

A) capitalize on federal resources

B) save lives, prevent injuries, and protect property and the environment

C) prevent all attacks

D) reduce damage from natural disasters

Answer: B

Page Ref: 480

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Intermediate

3) The COVID-19 outbreak in the United States is an example of this category of threats/hazards:

A) Technical

B) Accidental

C) Terrorist

D) Natural

Answer: D

Page Ref: 480

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Intermediate

4) What is the primary goal of the “Response” mission area?

A) To rebuild infrastructure over time

B) To reduce long-term disaster risks

C) To respond quickly to save lives and protect property

D) To prevent all future disasters

Answer: C

Page Ref: 490

Objective: State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/hazards.

Level: Intermediate

5) The number of deaths and injuries, the number of people displaced and evacuated, the number of homes and businesses that are damaged, and the financial losses and expenditures are all:

A) occurrences when there is a natural disaster

B) the goals of terrorist acts

C) ways to gauge the severity of an incident

D) the framework problems that emergency management addresses

Answer: C

Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

6) The severity continuum is:

A) a front-end tool

B) a back-end tool

C) an inefficient tool

D) a tool that measures costs

Answer: A

Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

7) The highest severity level on the severity continuum is:

A) emergency

B) disaster

C) catastrophe

D) extinction event

Answer: D

Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Basic

8) On the severity continuum, a major earthquake that kills hundreds of thousands of people, leaves millions homeless, and requires national and international responses and aid is considered this level on the severity continuum:

A) emergency

B) disaster

C) catastrophe

D) extinction event

Answer: C

Page Ref: 488

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Difficult

9) Which of the following is one of the five mission areas identified in the National Preparedness Goal?

A) Investigation

B) Prevention

C) Expansion

D) Enforcement

Answer: B

Page Ref: 490

Objective: State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/ hazards.

Level: Intermediate

10) From a national perspective, emergency management ultimately grew out of:

A) World War I

B) World War II

C) The Great Depression

D) 9/11 attacks

Answer: A

Page Ref: 493

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

11) The 1930s stock market crash and the severe drought led to President Roosevelt creating:

A) the American Red Cross

B) Federal Emergency Relief Act

C) New Deal Programs

D) the Civil Defense Assistance

Answer: C

Page Ref: 495

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

12) The Office of Civilian Defense, which coordinated the protection of civilians during air raids, stemmed from this war:

A) World War I

B) World War II

C) American Revolution

D) Vietnam War

Answer: B

Page Ref: 496

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

13) This Act was the first major attempt by the federal government to emphasize hazard mitigation as a priority to reduce the impact of future disasters:

A) FEMA Act

B) USA PATRIOT Act

C) National Flood Insurance Act

D) Disaster Relief Act

Answer: D

Page Ref: 496

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

14) What is the first step in the National Preparedness System?

A) Building and sustaining capabilities

B) Reviewing and updating plans

C) Identifying and assessing risk

D) Validating capabilities

Answer: C

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

15) What is the primary purpose of an Emergency Operations Center (EOC)?

A) To replace the incident commander

B) To provide support to the incident commander

C) To manage only federal-level disasters

D) To oversee military operations

Answer: B

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

16) After Hurricane Katrina, which of the following changes occurred?

A) FEMA remained a stand-alone agency outside of DHS.

B) FEMA was given control over less emergency resources.

C) FEMA’s top official became the president’s principal advisor on emergencies

D) FEMA was removed from all federal oversight.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 499

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

17) FEMA’s Center for Domestic Preparedness is responsible for:

A) training state and local agencies on WMD and is the nation's premier all-hazards training facility

B) training federal agents in tactical weaponry

C) providing the online manual of FEMA’s preparedness plan

D) providing training for natural disasters

Answer: A

Page Ref: 501

Objective: Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies

responsible for dealing with these threats.

Level: Intermediate

18) The “C” in CBRNE stands for:

A) costly

B) creative

C) constant

D) chemical Answer: D

Page Ref: 501

Objective: Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies responsible for dealing with these threats.

Level: Intermediate

19) This U.S. Department maintains a highly trained CBRNE rapid response team that uses various specialists from all branches of the military:

A) Department of Justice

B) Department of Defense

C) Department of State

D) Department of Homeland Security

Answer: B

Page Ref: 502

Objective: Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies responsible for dealing with these threats.

Level: Intermediate

20) FEMA’s template of best all-hazards incident management practices is called:

A) National Preparedness Plan

B) The FEMA Plan

C) National Incident Management System

D) Template for Incident Response

Answer: C

Page Ref: 504

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

21) This is a vital part of NIMS and represents a standardized, on-scene, all-hazards incident management approach that allows for the integration of facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure:

A) Center for Disease Control

B) Emergency Operations Center

C) National Integration Center

D) Incident Command System

Answer: D

Page Ref: 506

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

13.2 True/False Questions

1) The three major categories of threats/hazards are: natural, technological and accidental, and terrorist/human-caused.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 483

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Basic

2) Disaster recovery is a linear process that follows a fixed sequence of steps.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 491

Objective: State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/hazards.

Level: Intermediate

3) The number of deaths and injuries is the only way to measure the severity of an incident.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Basic

4) FEMA came up with the idea of the “Waffle House Index” as a measure of severity of an incident. For example, if a Waffle House is up and running, then the disaster is green.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

5) The severity continuum answers the question of “How hard did we get hit?”

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

6) An emergency causes a serious disruption of the functioning of an entity and produces widespread losses that exceed the ability of a community to cope with it using only its own resources.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 486

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

7) Federal assistance during a disaster is intended to substitute for state, local, and private assistance so as to not drain the reserves.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 486

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

8) There is no effective emergency response to an extinction event.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 488

Objective: State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/hazards.

Level: Basic

9) Community lifelines include services such as energy, transportation, and communications.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 492

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

10) Civil defense in the early 1900s had a dual use: it was part of the national security effort and responded to natural disasters.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 494

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

11) The primary purpose of an Emergency Operations Center (EOC) is to support the incident commander.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

12) The EPA carries out large, multi-agency and whole community simulations in an effort to prepare for large-scale events.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 501

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

13) The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention aids in responding to CBRNE attacks and dealing with pandemics.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 502

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

14) The National Incident Management System is both standardized and flexible.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 504

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

15) NIMS is a response plan that is only used during large-scale incidents.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 504

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

16) The command and management component of NIMS is responsible for providing effective and efficient incident management and coordination and includes the Incident Command System, the Multi-Agency Coordination group, and Public Information.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 504

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

17) EOCs are always fully staffed and operational at all times.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

18) The National Preparedness Goal requires the whole community to be prepared for all types of disasters and emergencies.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

19) The National Preparedness System is a six-step process that is continually changing and evolving to address current and future needs.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

20) The Incident Command System was developed following a series of wildfires in California during the 1970s.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 508

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

13.3

Fill

in the Blank Questions

1) ________ management is the managerial function that creates the framework within which communities reduce their vulnerability to hazards and cope with incidents and disasters.

Answer: Emergency Page Ref: 480

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Basic

2) The first step in the National Preparedness System is identifying and assessing ______. Answer: risk Page Ref: 510

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

3) FEMA came up with the idea of the ________ House Index that measures the severity of an incident.

Answer: Waffle Page Ref: 484

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

4) An ________ is a condition of actual danger to the lives of persons or safety of property that requires a response.

Answer: emergency Page Ref: 485

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Basic

5) Under the ________ aid agreement, a disaster-stricken community can receive significant assistance from neighboring local governments, and state and federal assistance may be needed as well.

Answer: mutual Page Ref: 486

Objective: Summarize the severity continuum.

Level: Intermediate

6) The American Red Cross was given a ________ charter, giving it legal status as a “federal instrumentality.”

Answer: Congressional Page Ref: 493

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

7) A ________ is a slang word to describe those individuals who are preparing for major apocalyptic events in the future.

Answer: prepper Page Ref: 497

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

8) The McKinney-Vento Act of 1987 authorized FEMA to help the ________ through the Emergency Food and Shelter Program.

Answer: homeless Page Ref: 498

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

9) HAZMAT responses require first responders to wear personal ________ equipment.

Answer: protective Page Ref: 501

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

10) EOCs may have an alternate or backup ______ in case the primary site is damaged.

Answer: location Page Ref: 510

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

11) An ___________ event could result in the loss of all human life on the planet.

Answer: extinction Page Ref: 488

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Intermediate

12) The National Guard CBRNE response units have ______________exercises simulating large-scale attacks.

Answer: increased Page Ref: 510

Objective: Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies responsible for dealing with these threats.

Level: Intermediate

13) The first arriving emergency responder automatically becomes the incident commander, but the Incident Command System establishes the ________ command, which combines all the incident commanders under one umbrella.

Answer: unified Page Ref: 509

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

14) The National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) focuses on protecting against _________ threats.

Answer: biological Page Ref: 504

Objective: Discuss the threats posed by WMD and CBRNE attacks and identify the agencies responsible for dealing with these threats.

Level: Basic

15) The Disaster Recovery Lifecycle emphasizes that recovery is a ______ process.

Answer: cyclical Page Ref: 491

Objective: State the five missions communities must plan for when considering threats/hazards.

Level: Intermediate

13.4 Matching Questions

Match the component in the left column to the system it belongs to in the right column. Answers will be used more than once.

A) Five components of NIMS

B) Mission components of the National Preparedness System

1) Ongoing Management and Maintenance

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

2) Identifying and assessing risk

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

3) Command and Management

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

4) Estimating capability requirements

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

5) Resource Management

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

6) Building and sustaining capabilities

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

7) Communications and Information Management

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

8) Preparedness

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

9) Planning to deliver capabilities

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

10) Validating capabilities

Page Ref: 505–511

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) A 2) B 3) A 4) B 5) A 6) B 7) A 8) A 9) B 10) B

13.5 Essay Questions

1) Write an example for each of the three major categories of threats or hazards. Decide which category it belongs in on the severity continuum, and explain why your example belongs to each of the threat/hazards and severity continuum.

Answer: The three major categories of threat or hazards are: (1) natural, which include weather conditions as well as animal and human diseases; (2) technological and accidental, examples of which are dam failures and the accidental/unintended release of hazardous materials into the environment; and (3) terrorist and human-caused, in which events are intentional and intended to disrupt systems, destroy property, and/or kill people. The severity continuum is a guide to categorizing events so that important distinctions can be made between them. It is composed of four points: (1) an “ emergency ” is marked by actual danger to the lives of persons and/or the safety of property that requires a response (emergencies ordinarily are handled locally); (2) a “disaster” is more severe than an emergency because it causes a serious disruption of the functioning of an entity, such as a community, and produces widespread human, material, economic, and/or environmental losses that exceed the ability of a community to cope with it using just its own resources; (3) a “catastrophe” is an incident that directly or indirectly affects

large portions or all of an entire country and requires national and sometimes international responses; and (4) an “extinction event” is the final event in human history, resulting in the loss of all human life on the planet. The probability of a human extinction event is presently very slight. Examples will vary, but they should include enough detail that it is easily explained why they belong in that particular thread/hazards category and why they belong in a particular severity continuum category.

Page Ref: 480–488

Objective: Identify the major categories of threats/hazards and give three examples of each.

Level: Intermediate

2) Explain why FEMA was initially created and what role it serves today.

Answer: Building on the federal National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 that recognized taking steps in advance to reduce the impact of a disaster, Congress passed the Disaster Relief Act of 1970, setting forth the first major attempt by the federal government to emphasize hazard mitigation as a priority to reduce the impact of future disasters. By 1975, nearly 100 federal agencies had some aspect of disaster assistance. Frustrated with governmental fragmentation, the National Governors Association (NGA) pushed for a single agency to have jurisdiction over natural and environmental disasters. In 1978, President Jimmy Carter responded by issuing Executive Order 12127, creating the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The bombing of Oklahoma City's Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in 1995 by Timothy McVeigh and his co-conspirators elevated America's awareness of terrorism. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 required the Department of Justice (DOJ) and FEMA to train metropolitan firefighters in responding to events caused by weapons of mass destruction. Three years later, the Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act required training state and local first responders on handling threats and actual weapons of mass destruction incidents. In 2001, FEMA supported Pennsylvania, Virginia, and New York in responding to the 9/11 attacks with thousands of staff and mobile communications gear. In 2003, FEMA was officially moved to the Department of Homeland Security, where it remains today, as the primary agency over disaster relief and mitigation.

Further, FEMA’s top official is the president’s principal advisor on emergencies and disasters, regardless of causation, natural or man-made. FEMA remained a stand-alone agency within the Department of Homeland Security. FEMA was given control over more emergency resources and designated as the primary agency responsible for disaster relief and mitigation, and FEMA’s top official became the president's principal advisor on emergencies and disasters regardless of causation.

The increasing intersectionality of national security and homeland security requires FEMA to consider new approaches to emergency management. This is most exemplified in FEMA’s role in addressing climate change. FEMA must work to ensure that it is able to build and deliver resources and capabilities in light of the increasingly severe and cascading impacts of climate change. Additionally, debates over defunding or cutting FEMA have resurfaced, with most of these debates arguing that disaster response should be more decentralized and left to the states. Nevertheless, FEMA remains the apex of emergency management in the United States.

Page Ref: 497–500

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Basic

3) What is emergency management and why did it take over 130 years to develop a unified federal emergency plan to aid local and state governments and communities within the United States?

Answer: Emergency management (EM) is the managerial function that creates the framework within which communities reduce their vulnerability to hazards and cope with incidents and disasters. The goals of emergency management are to (1) save lives, (2) prevent injuries, and (3) protect property and the environment. The movement toward relief generally was hindered by early American beliefs that were commonly held in colonial times and beyond. Individualism, self-reliance, and the tenets of the Protestant ethic–meaning people should work hard, have selfdiscipline, and be thrifty with what they earned or produced–greatly impacted the idea of giving aid to others, even during an emergency. Many people thought that any kind of aid, even in limited quantities, would make people dependent and would therefore be counterproductive. For nearly 130 years, the federal government insisted that local government was the appropriate responder to disasters and gave it little or no assistance. Once established, civil defense had substantial value to the federal government primarily because one of its missions was supporting and protecting the country from foreign enemies by mobilizing public support. However, civil defense had little regard for providing aid and relief. As it emerged, emergency management (EM) as a whole did not speak the same “language.” The definitions of terms and concepts varied widely from one state to another as well as from one community to another. Until emergency management achieved some standardization of language, approaches, equipment, and capabilities, it had difficulty communicating and operating in a multi-agency environment, which often caused confusion during responses.

Page Ref: 492–500

Objective: Summarize why FEMA was created and what its performance has been.

Level: Intermediate

13.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Discuss the role of NIMS and ICS within FEMA. Why are they an important part to the whole community, and not just large-scale, government incidents?

Answer: The National Incident Management System is the federal government's template of best all-hazards incident management practices for local, state, tribal, and federal governments, nongovernmental organizations, volunteer organizations, and the private sector. The approach is standardized using NIMS doctrine, concepts, principles, terminology, and organizational processes, and is flexible for all types, sizes, and severity of emergencies and/or disasters. NIMS can be applied to any incident (large or small), allowing different jurisdictions that also use it to quickly work together in a predictable, efficient, and coordinated manner. The NIMS template consists of five components that work together to create a systematic, all-hazards approach to any event or incident: (1) Preparedness, (2) Communications and Information Management, (3) Resource Management, (4) Command and Management, and (5) Ongoing Management and Maintenance.

The Incident Command System (ICS) is a vital part of NIMS and represents a standardized, on-

scene, all-hazards incident management approach that allows for the integration of facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure. ICS also enables a coordinated response among various jurisdictions, both public and private, and establishes a common process for planning and managing diverse resources from multiple venues. The ICS includes the use of a temporary organizational structure in the field that is established as close as safety permits to the scene of an incident–the Incident Command Center (ICC). The Incident Command System can be used with any type or size of event. More specifically, ICS is a standardized, on-scene, all-hazards management structure and process that (1) allows for integration of facilities, equipment, personnel, and operational procedures within a single organizational structure and the sharing of common terminology; (2) enables a coordinated response among the various responders to incidents; (3) establishes common processes for planning and managing resources; and (4) communicates and coordinates with all agencies responding to the incident via an incident commander and an Emergency Operations Center.

Page Ref: 504–512

Objective: Briefly describe NIMS and identify its five missions.

Level: Intermediate

2) The National Preparedness Report is an annual assessment of national progress toward delivering the core capabilities outlined in the National Preparedness Goal. Go to the newest National Preparedness Report found online at http://www.fema.gov/national-preparedness-report and write a summary of the assessment.

Answer: Answers will vary. The website has the whole report and a summary report from which students can draw individual comparisons. Some notable conclusions from the new report include: Cybercrime is noted as still needed to be improved and the recent COVID-19 outbreak has highlighted challenges in coordination of response and recovery. Businesses and publicprivate partnerships are increasingly incorporating emergency preparedness into technology platforms, such as Internet and social media tools and services. Perspectives from states and territories on their current levels of preparedness were similar to previous years.

Page Ref: 512

Objective: Explain how the National Preparedness System works within our communities.

Level: Difficult

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 14 Counterterrorism Strategies and Organizations

14.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which of the following best describes a key limitation of traditional force-based counterterrorism strategies?

A) They eliminate all terrorist threats permanently

B) They reduce the need for intelligence gathering.

C) They can fuel radicalization and perpetuate violence

D) They eliminate the need for community involvement.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Basic

2) What shift does the text suggest is necessary for effective counterterrorism?

A) Increased reliance on military force

B) Complete withdrawal from global alliances

C) Prioritizing prevention and addressing root causes

D) Eliminating intelligence agencies

Answer: C

Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

3) Which of the following is identified as a root cause of extremism?

A) Military alliances

B) Socioeconomic inequalities

C) Strong intelligence systems

D) Advanced technology

Answer: B

Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies

Level: Intermediate

4) What is the primary difference between national security policy and strategy?

A) Policy focuses on military action; strategy focuses on law enforcement.

B) Policy defines goals; strategy outlines actions to achieve them.

C) Strategy defines goals; policy outlines actions.

D) They are identical concepts

Answer: B

Page Ref: 525

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

5) What is the role of the National Security Council (NSC)?

A) Conduct military operations abroad

B) Enforce domestic laws

C) Advise the president on national security and foreign policy

D) Prosecute terrorism cases

Answer: C

Page Ref: 525

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

6) Which of the following is one of the four core U.S. national interests?

A) Expanding military bases worldwide

B) Physical security of the homeland

C) Eliminating all foreign governments

D) Controlling global markets

Answer: B

Page Ref: 525

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

7) What does “national power” refer to in counterterrorism strategy?

A) Only military strength

B) Use of economic, diplomatic, intelligence, law enforcement, and military tools

C) Political campaigns

D) Local policing efforts only

Answer: B

Page Ref: 526

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

8) Which agency primarily leads counterterrorism efforts within U.S. borders?

A) U.S. Army

B) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

C) Law enforcement agencies such as the FBI

D) United Nations

Answer: C

Page Ref: 528

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

9) What law restricts the U.S. military from performing domestic law enforcement?

A) Patriot Act

B) Insurrection Act

C) Posse Comitatus Act

D) Homeland Security Act

Answer: C

Page Ref: 528

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

10) What is the role of U.S. Attorney’s Offices in counterterrorism?

A) Conduct military strikes

B) Develop foreign policy

C) Prosecute terrorism-related federal offenses

D) Train foreign governments

Answer: C

Page Ref: 530

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

11) Why is interagency cooperation critical in counterterrorism?

A) It reduces the need for intelligence

B) It allows agencies to operate independently.

C) It enables real-time intelligence sharing and coordinated responses

D) It limits international involvement.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 531

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

12) Which organization primarily leads domestic counterterrorism intelligence efforts in the U.S.?

A) Department of Defense

B) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

C) United Nations

D) INTERPOL

Answer: B

Page Ref: 532

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

13) What is a key legal principle in counterterrorism operations?

A) Unlimited detention powers

B) Elimination of due process

C) Protection of human rights and rule of law

D) Use of torture when necessary

Answer: C

Page Ref: 530

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Intermediate

14) Which international agreement prohibits torture in counterterrorism?

A) NATO Treaty

B) UN Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)

C) Geneva Trade Agreement

D) Paris Climate Accord

Answer: B

Page Ref: 430

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Basic

15) What was a major failure identified in the 9/11 Commission Report?

A) Lack of military funding

B) Failure of international alliances

C) Intelligence silos and poor information sharing

D) Overuse of technology

Answer: C

Page Ref: 533

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

16) Which phase of counterterrorism involves arrests and raids?

A) Investigative phase

B) Judicial phase

C) Tactical phase

D) Intelligence phase

Answer: C

Page Ref: 534

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Basic

17) What is the purpose of Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs)?

A) Replace local law enforcement

B) Provide military training

C) Enhance interagency cooperation and intelligence sharing

D) Conduct international diplomacy

Answer: C

Page Ref: 532

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

18) Why are human rights violations counterproductive in counterterrorism?

A) They reduce military efficiency.

B) They increase operational costs.

C) They fuel radicalization and undermine trust.

D) They slow down investigations

Answer: C

Page Ref: 530

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Intermediate

19) Which of the following is a primary objective of military engagement in counterterrorism?

A) Expanding territorial borders

B) Eliminating high-value targets

C) Increasing civilian populations

D) Promoting tourism

Answer: B

Page Ref: 560

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Intermediate

20) What is the main goal of open warfare in counterterrorism?

A) Increase diplomatic relations

B) Secure territory and dismantle terrorist networks

C) Promote humanitarian aid

D) Reduce military spending

Answer: B

Page Ref: 560

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Intermediate

21) What is a key characteristic of preemptive military action?

A) Responding after an attack occurs

B) Avoiding all military engagement

C) Striking before an anticipated attack

D) Negotiating peace agreements

Answer: C

Page Ref: 562

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Difficult

22) What is one major concern associated with drone strikes?

A) High financial cost

B) Civilian casualties and backlash

C) Lack of mobility

D) Inability to reach targets

Answer: B

Page Ref: 564

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Basic

14.2 True/False Questions

1) Traditional counterterrorism strategies relying on military force have always reduced

radicalization.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 391

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Basic

2) The U.S. experience in Afghanistan demonstrates the high financial and human costs of counterterrorism efforts.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

3) Modern counterterrorism strategies emphasize prevention and addressing root causes of extremism.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

4) National security strategy defines goals, while policy outlines how to achieve them.

Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 525

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

5) The National Security Council is the president’s main forum for national security decisionmaking.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 525

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

6) The U.S. military is primarily responsible for domestic counterterrorism operations. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 528

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

7) U.S. Attorney’s Offices play a role in prosecuting terrorism-related offenses.

Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 530

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

8) Effective counterterrorism requires cooperation between domestic and international agencies.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 531

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

9) The FBI works alone in counterterrorism operations without support from other agencies. Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 533

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

10) Counterterrorism operations must balance security with civil liberties. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 530

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Intermediate

11) The judicial phase of counterterrorism focuses on prosecution and incarceration. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 535

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

12) Intelligence-sharing failures contributed to the success of the 9/11 attacks. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 533

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Basic

13) Military counterterrorism operations often include coordination with intelligence and law enforcement agencies. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 560

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Intermediate

14) Military success alone is usually sufficient to prevent the return of terrorist groups. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 560

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Basic

15) Open warfare is only used against nation-states, not terrorist organizations. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 561

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Intermediate

16) The 75th Ranger Regiment has a strong counterterrorism mission. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 572

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism. Level: Intermediate

17) Preemptive strikes are conducted after an attack has already occurred. Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 562

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism. Level: Basic

18) Drone strikes can reduce risk to military personnel but may still create ethical concerns. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 564

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Intermediate

19) Terrorist groups are deterred by mutually assured destruction (MAD). Answer: FALSE Page Ref: 562

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics. Level: Intermediate

20) Precision kinetic weapons are designed to minimize collateral damage. Answer: TRUE Page Ref: 564

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Intermediate

14.3

Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Counterterrorism strategies are shifting toward a focus on ________ rather than reaction. Answer: prevention Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Basic

2) The elimination of Osama bin Laden did not stop the spread of ________ networks. Answer: extremist Page Ref: 524

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies. Level: Intermediate

3) National security ________ defines the goals the United States intends to accomplish. Answer: policy Page Ref: 525

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

4) The ________ Security Council advises the president on national security matters. Answer: National Page Ref: 525

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Basic

5) The Posse ________ Act limits military involvement in domestic law enforcement. Answer: Comitatus Page Ref: 528

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Basic

6) Interagency ________ enhances coordination between counterterrorism agencies. Answer: cooperation Page Ref: 531

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

7) The FBI leads domestic ________ efforts against terrorism. Answer: intelligence Page Ref: 532

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Basic

8) Joint Terrorism Task Forces improve ____________ sharing. Answer: intelligence Page Ref: 532

Objective: Analyze the importance of interagency cooperation in counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

9) The ________ phase includes raids and arrests in counterterrorism operations. Answer: tactical Page Ref: 534

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

10) Respect for human ________ is essential in counterterrorism efforts. Answer: rights Page Ref: 530

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Intermediate

11) Military operations often aim to eliminate high-value ______.

Answer: targets

Page Ref: 560

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Intermediate

12) Overreliance on force may increase ______ among populations. Answer: radicalization Page Ref: 560

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Intermediate

13) Open warfare is used to secure ______ from terrorist control.

Answer: territory Page Ref: 561

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Basic

14) Preemptive action occurs before an ______ attack.

Answer: anticipated Page Ref: 562

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Basic

15) Raids are used to gather ______.

Answer: intelligence Page Ref: 562

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Basic

16) Precision strikes aim to reduce ______ damage.

Answer: collateral Page Ref: 564

Objective: Assess the impact of emerging terrorist threats and evolving tactics.

Level: Basic

14.4 Matching Questions

Match up the definitions in the left column to the terminology in the right column.

A) Joint Special Operations Command

B) 75th Ranger Regiment

C) U.S. Special Operations Command

D) Customs and Border Protection

E) NORTHCOM

F) Transportation Security Administration

G) U.S. Marine Corps

H) U.S. Attorney's Office

I) U.S. Navy SEALs

1) This agency is responsible for securing the United States includes land, air, and sea approaches to the 48 contiguous states, Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, and Mexico.

Page Ref: 566

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

2) This agency has an alliance with the FBI and has allowed the FBI to move deeper into counterterrorism in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other countries

Page Ref: 569

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

3) This agency is responsible for many counterterrorism actions by the military.

Page Ref: 567

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

4) DHS oversees this agency and is one of the primary agencies responsible for securing the U.S. borders against terrorist threats.

Page Ref: 554

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

5) This department has anti-terrorism units called the Chemical, Biological, Immediate Response Force (CBIRF), and a battalion-sized unit (usually over 500 soldiers) that can be deployed to a terrorist incident anywhere in the world within 24 hours.

Page Ref: 567

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

6) This office seeks to deter, detect, and prevent future attacks within the United States by creating partnerships that (1) coordinate antiterrorism initiatives, (2) initiate and support anti-terror training programs, and (3) facilitate information sharing across all levels of government.

Page Ref: 530

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

7) This agency’s enforcement arm is the federal air marshals, responsible for primarily securing

aviation transportation assets (e.g., commercial airliners) domestically and internationally.

Page Ref: 554

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

8) This agency’s mission is to provide fully capable Special Operations Forces to defend the United States and its interests and to synchronize global military operations against terrorist networks.

Page Ref: 567

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

9) This unit’s missions include (1) direct warfare action, (2) special reconnaissance, (3) unconventional warfare (i.e., training, leading, and equipping guerrilla forces behind enemy lines), (4) foreign defense strengthening (i.e., training and advising military, paramilitary, and law enforcement personnel of allied nations, normally in a non-combat environment), and (5) counterterrorism operations.

Page Ref: 571

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

10) Some of the missions of this unit include (1) direct action: seize, destroy, or capture enemy facilities and materials; (2) airport seizure for use by follow-on forces; (3) special reconnaissance: locate hostile forces for future operations; (4) personnel recovery; (5) clandestine insertion to surprise the opponent, seize the initiative, and instill confusion in hostile forces; and (6) sensitive site exploitation: collect and analyze information gained on missions to conduct rapid follow-on operations.

Page Ref: 572

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Intermediate

Answers: 1) E 2) A 3) C 4) D 5) G 6) H 7) F 8) C 9) I 10) B

14.5 Essay Questions

1) Explain the difference between anti-terrorism and counterterrorism, and why it is important to know the difference.

Answer: A holistic approach to counterterrorism emphasizes intelligence-driven, law enforcement-led strategies that foster prevention, resilience, and civilian engagement within national borders. Yet terrorism remains a transnational phenomenon that, at times, requires international cooperation and, when deemed necessary under international law, the use of military force to neutralize external threats. Unlike anti-terrorism measures, which focus on defensive strategies and hardening targets, counterterrorism operations involve direct action, typically military or paramilitary interventions aimed at disrupting, degrading, or dismantling terrorist networks. In recent years, the term anti-terrorism has largely fallen out of use in

academic, military, and policy circles, as it was often associated with static, defensive postures rather than proactive efforts to combat terrorism. The global counterterrorism community, including the United Nations, NATO, and national security agencies, has largely adopted counterterrorism to reflect a broader, more dynamic set of tools encompassing intelligence operations, law enforcement actions, and, when necessary, military interventions. This shift recognizes that purely defensive measures cannot adequately address modern terrorist threats, which require preemptive and adaptive strategies to dismantle extremist networks before they strike.

Page Ref: 459

Objective: Explain the evolution and key components of counterterrorism strategies.

Level: Intermediate

2) Outline the five types of military action associated with counterterrorism, and provide an example of each.

Answer: The five types of military action associated with counterterrorism are: (1) open warfare, (2) raids, (3) preemptive strikes, (4) direct action, and (5) hostage rescue. Examples will vary.

Page Ref: 560–566

Objective: Identify the five forms of military action associated with counterterrorism.

Level: Basic

3) Strategy formulation requires a framework that requires specific terminology, adherence to certain principles, and addresses variables. What are the elements of the strategy formulation framework discussed in this chapter?

Answer: Elements in the model are described as: 1. The National Purpose: The enduring values and beliefs embodied in our national purpose represent the legal, philosophical, and moral basis for our country. From the nation’s purpose, the United States derives its enduring core national interests. 2. Our Enduring National Interests: There are four generally agreed-upon core U.S. national interests: (a) physical security, defined as protection against attacks on the homeland and people of the United States to ensure survival with our fundamental values and institutions intact; (b) promotion of our values on the world stage; (c) stable international order; and (d) economic prosperity. These interests have changed little over the course of U.S. history. 3. Our Strategic Vision: At the highest strategic level, the ways and means to achieve U.S. core national interests are based on the national leadership’s strategic vision of what America’s role in the world should be to safeguard these national interests. Presidents establish different strategic visions of America’s role in the world, often causing them to emphasize certain national interests over others. These views have ranged from isolationism, a non-interventionist stance, to global engagement. Since 9/11, combating terrorism has been part of our strategic vision. 4. National Policy, such as combating terrorism, is conveyed in many iterative and cumulative forms ranging from formal national security directives and pronouncements in presidential and cabinet-level speeches to presidential replies to press queries and cabinet-level appearances on current affairs television shows. Leaders must work constantly to understand, interpret, and infuse their agencies or institutions with national policy. 5. The Strategy Formulation Process is summarized in the lower portion of Figure 14–1 and consists of the following elements. 6. Feasibility and

Acceptability: Before a strategy can be articulated, it must pass the tests of being feasible and acceptable under the standards of our government. It must be acceptable within the framework of our system and suitable for accomplishing the objectives. 7. Risk Assessment: A strategy is not immutable to change; it must be constantly monitored for what it accomplishes or fails to achieve and is subject to modification to address shortcomings. Modifications represent changes in the risk assessment variable and may also drive strategy changes. For example, if terrorists deployed weapons of mass destruction in our homeland, our entire strategy may well dramatically change.

Page Ref: 525–527

Objective: Examine the legal frameworks governing counterterrorism operations.

Level: Intermediate

14.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Pick one of the five military special forces discussed in the textbook and go to that agency’s website or other outside sources and write a five-paragraph essay on the additional information discovered.

Answer: Answers will vary, but they can include discussion of U.S. Army Special Forces-Green Berets, U.S. Army-Delta Force, U.S. Navy SEALs, the 75th Ranger Regiment, or the CIASpecial Activities Division.

Objective: Identify the roles and responsibilities of key U.S. counterterrorism agencies.

Level: Difficult

2) NORTHCOM has a very important role in emergencies, disasters, and attacks. Summarize how NORTHCOM was established and discuss this agency's main missions.

Answer: The U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM) has a wide role in protecting the national security of the United States. It is responsible for directing the entire North American Aerospace Defense Command–securing land, air, and sea approaches to all 48 continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, and Mexico. In addition, NORTHCOM directs the U.S. Department of Defense's homeland security efforts and the planning, organizing, and execution of military support to civil authorities. During an emergency, disaster, or terrorist attack, NORTHCOM is responsible for accurately identifying and quickly deploying to civilian agencies the right mix of Department of Defense assets to address the specific incident, whether natural or manmade. Because these activities do not involve law enforcement duties, such assistance does not violate the Posse Comitatus Act.

Page Ref: 566–567

Objective: Explain the role of the FBI in domestic counterterrorism efforts.

Level: Intermediate

Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security, 3e (Taylor)

Chapter 15 Terrorism, Intelligence, and Homeland Security: The Future

15.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) DHS reports that this group(s) will continue to be influenced by “social drivers emphasize in popular discourse, particularly those related to current events, which are used to amplify existing narratives and justify violence.”

A) Transnational groups

B) Domestic Violent Extremists and Homegrown Violent Extremists

C) Narco terrorist groups

D) Christian nationalists

Answer: B

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

2) In the United States, it should also be noted that nearly all victims of terror attacks between 2015 and 2019 were killed in attacks involving:

A) bombs

B) firearms

C) knives

D) arson

Answer: B

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

3) Which of the following is NOT a target for REMT group for an attack?

A) A member of the LGBTQ+ community

B) A white male

C) A member of the Jewish community

D) An African American female

Answer: B

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

4) Once the “big bad” of global terror, al-Qaeda’s threat today is much:

A) more tactical

B) easier to assess than it was even five years ago

C) harder to assess than it was even five years ago

D) more based in infrastructure

Answer: C

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

5) This event created a new opportunity for al-Qaeda splinter groups to strengthen, allowing groups to establish footholds in new countries.

A) 9/11

B) Arab Spring

C) COVID-19

D) Earth Liberation Front

Answer: B

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

6) What is a primary goal of Tehreek-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP)?

A) Expanding global trade

B) Supporting Afghan governance

C) Overthrowing the Pakistani government

D) Promoting education reform

Answer: C

Page Ref: 589

Objective: Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

Level: Intermediate

7) What does the presence of Ayman al-Zawahiri in Kabul suggest?

A) The Taliban has no connection to terrorist groups.

B) Strong ties may still exist between the Taliban and al-Qaeda

C) Afghanistan is free of terrorism.

D) The Taliban supports U.S. counterterrorism efforts.

Answer: B

Page Ref: 589

Objective: Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

Level: Intermediate

8) According to terrorist trends, which of the following has been on the rise?

A) Number of attacks

B) Use of knives

C) Attacks perpetrated by individuals

D) Attacks perpetrated by left-wing groups

Answer: C

Page Ref: 591

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

9) Which country is identified as having the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons?

A) China

B) United States

C) Russia

D) North Korea

Answer: C

Page Ref: 603

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

10) What concern is raised about Iran’s nuclear program?

A) It already possesses nuclear weapons

B) It has no capability to produce fissile material.

C) It may be able to produce enough fissile material in months

D) It has dismantled all nuclear facilities.

Answer: C

Page Ref: 604

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

11) According to the text, what has mass data collection by intelligence agencies shown?

A) It has prevented most terrorist attacks.

B) It has had no discernible impact on preventing terrorism

C) It is more effective than traditional investigations.

D) It replaced law enforcement methods entirely

Answer: B

Page Ref: 604

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

12) The last few attacks that have occurred in the United States were carried out by:

A) al-Qaeda

B) ISIS

C) homegrown lone-actor terrorists

D) ELF

Answer: C

Page Ref: 591

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons

usage.

Level: Basic

13) This is a secret part of the World Wide Web, accessible through secure channels and anonymization tools:

A) Dark Web

B) Tor network

C) White Hat Browsing

D) Tangled Web

Answer: A

Page Ref: 595

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

14) What greatly led to the fractionalization of al-Qaeda?

A) Varied radicalized ideologies

B) Lack of funding

C) The death of the prominent leaders

D) Anti-terrorist applications

Answer: C

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

15) This has positively impacted the financing of terrorist organizations.

A) Fractionalization

B) Cryptocurrency

C) Kidnapping of girls in schools

D) Pressure cooker bombs

Answer: B

Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

16) This system is still relatively easy for terrorists to access:

A) aviation systems

B) ground systems

C) military systems

D) computer systems

Answer: B

Page Ref: 593

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

17) This is a military term to describe a non-defended or innocent target usually with innocent civilians.

A) Hard target

B) Covert target

C) Soft target

D) Civilian target

Answer: C

Page Ref: 600

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

18) An attack on this critical infrastructure could be the most critical and damaging:

A) transportation

B) agriculture

C) water

D) cyberattacks on any critical infrastructure

Answer: D

Page Ref: 602

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

19) The bombs used in the Boston Marathon attacks were:

A) very sophisticated

B) made of common pressure cookers

C) obtained from professional bomb makers connected to a terrorist group

D) were trackable because the materials were very specific

Answer: B

Page Ref: 597

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

20) When evaluating the effectiveness of gathering mass amounts of data, it was found that:

A) traditional law enforcement and investigative methods are more effective in foiling terror plots.

B) This is an effective way to begin the information-to-intelligence process.

C) U.S. citizens’ rights were being violated.

D) Terrorist groups do this against the United States as well.

Answer: A

Page Ref: 604

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage

Level: Intermediate

15.2 True/False Questions

1) Although policy, procedures, and responses to terrorism have changed, terrorists themselves have not.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 585

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

2) Radicalization is increasingly becoming an individual pursuit.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 585

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

3) The Department of Defense identified the People’s Republic of China as a major WMD threat actor.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 603

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

4) The United States currently recognizes the Taliban as the official government of Afghanistan.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 605

Objective: Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

Level: Intermediate

5) Overall, the data shows that the frequency of terror attacks in the United States have been trending upward.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 585

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

6) The United States currently maintains a strong military and diplomatic presence in Afghanistan.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 589

Objective: Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

Level: Intermediate

7) In 2024, authorities made public the disruption of 24 plots linked to IS or its affiliates, which included high-profile attempts at the Paris Olympics and a Taylor Swift concert

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 588

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

8) IS-K has shifted some focus toward conducting external attacks outside Afghanistan.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 589

Objective: Articulate what changes in Afghanistan and Pakistan might mean to global terrorist activity.

Level: Intermediate

9) Homegrown terrorists are citizens, not residents or aliens.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 591

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

10) Terror attacks in the past few years have utilized vehicles as weapons

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 597

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

11) Many homegrown terrorists fly under the radar because they don’t have a criminal record. Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 607

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

12) Terrorists are using more and more restricted materials that are hazardous or of biological materials to make their weapons for attacks.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 597

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

13) The events of the Arab Spring have also created a new opportunity for al-Qaeda splinter groups to strengthen.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

14) Al-Qaeda’s threat today is much harder to assess because it has become fractionalized and the command and control has been dismantled through the death of prominent leaders.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

15) The al-Qaeda cells that have emerged in the past few years have largely focused on domestic targets in the Middle East.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

16) Since 2001, much of the attention on the potential for terror attacks has focused on federal buildings.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 599

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage

Level: Intermediate

17) Toughened security standards in aviation around the globe have been largely successful, but ground transportation still remains a point of easy access for terrorists.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 599

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

18) Soft targets have not been utilized extensively by terrorists in the United States.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 600

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons

usage

Level: Intermediate

19) There is a one-size-fits-all approach to terrorism.

Answer: FALSE

Page Ref: 604

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

20) Terrorism would not exist without the media, because the large-scale terror could not be achieved.

Answer: TRUE

Page Ref: 605

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

15.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Terrorism often aims to create __________ among civilians to influence government policy.

Answer: fear

Page Ref: 606

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

2) The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others is called __________.

Answer: ethnocentrism

Page Ref: 606

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

3) The Sahel region of __________ is the most affected area by terrorism in 2024.

Answer: Africa

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

4) The deadliest terrorist group in 2024 was the ______________ State.

Answer: Islamic

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Basic

5) In the United States, 95 percent of terrorism-related deaths between 2015 and 2019 were caused by __________.

Answer: firearms

Page Ref: 586

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

6) Al-Qaeda has , and now maintains a presence in many different countries.

Answer: fractionalized Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

7) The events of ________ Spring also created new opportunities for al-Qaeda splinter groups to strengthen.

Answer: Arab Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

8) Since 2001, much of the attention on the potential for terror attacks has focused on ________ hubs.

Answer: transportation Page Ref: 599

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

9) Attacks on ________ targets appear to be a new methodology by terrorist individuals and organizations.

Answer: soft Page Ref: 600

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

10) ____________________coordination around intelligence gathering, hazardous materials tracking, training, communication, and threat mitigation is required to monitor and prevent the acquisition and deployment of WMDs by terrorist and extremist groups.

Answer: Global Page Ref: 604

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

11) _______________remains an acute threat to the United States, with the world’s largest stockpile of nuclear weaponry

Answer: Russia

Page Ref: 603

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

12) American counterterrorism policy should recognize that ________ usage should be overseen carefully, with a centralized program that can be independently evaluated regularly.

Answer: drone

Page Ref: 604

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

13) The term terrorist refers to extremists who are legal U.S. residents or citizens, and who are linked to or inspired by a specific, often intolerant ideology.

Answer: homegrown Page Ref: 591

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Basic

14) The United States should hold public ________ hearings that address counterterrorism strategies.

Answer: congressional Page Ref: 605

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Intermediate

15) Attacking and destroying the command, control, and functions of al-Qaeda have certainly stemmed their capability to implement a large-scale attack.

Answer: communications Page Ref: 604

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Intermediate

15.4 Matching Questions

Match up the definitions regarding terrorist use of the dark web in the left column to the terminology in the right column.

A) Internal communications and external propaganda

B) Recruitment and training

C) Financials

D) Weapons procurement

E) Drug trade

1) Trafficking for the purpose of funding terrorist activities on dark web platforms. Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

2) Ability to sell guns, ammunition, and chemical agents on dark web platforms. Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

3) Use of Bitcoin on dark web platforms. Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

4) Outreach to potential new terrorists. Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

5) Use of secure channels for communication. Page Ref: 595

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

Answers: 1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D 5) E

15.5 Essay Questions

1) What are some new trends in tactics used by IS?

Answer: Answers can include the following examples from the book. When the ISIS-K plot to bomb a Taylor Swift concert in Vienna in 2024 was disrupted, the plotters were extremely young: the three were nineteen, seventeen, and fifteen, respectively. For years, the digital capabilities of extremist groups have been a major concern in counterterrorism: the digital space is so large, it’s impossible to police all of the content that’s been generated. Experts warn that only about 18 percent of recorded plots in the United States have involved formal contact between plotters and known terrorist organizations.

Page Ref: 597

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Basic

2) What is changing in regard to homegrown and lone-actor terrorists?

Answer: Homegrown terrorists are American citizens or legal residents who have become radicalized either on their own or through some form of recruitment by al-Qaeda. Increasingly, they act as “lone wolves,” allowing them to operate under the radar. Such terrorists are more likely to use crude or easily obtained weaponry and may communicate with terrorist organizations online or simply view materials of interest that have been posted by terrorist cells. These individuals may receive ideological encouragement but not financial or material support, making them ancillary to the primary group and very difficult to detect by intelligence and law enforcement services. Muslim Americans believe that the American presence in Iraq and Afghanistan is an affront to Islam and a direct attack on Muslim nations and people. Muslim Americans and non-Muslim American have access to such groups via increased connectivity. The Internet and various social media platforms have allowed U.S. residents to reach out to or be recruited by extremists around the globe, gaining access to ideologies, philosophies, propaganda, and even their methods of violence. Access to training and operational support, although not as simple as a Google search, can be found online for those seeking it. In the United States, such homegrown terrorists have largely flown beneath the radar–many have no criminal records.

Page Ref: 591

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage.

Level: Intermediate

3) What are the three reasons drones are an attractive mode of attack?

Answer: First, they have a variety of applications that can be easily modified to fit a terrorist agenda Second, there have been leaps and bounds made in drone technology over just the past few years. Drones are now equipped with energy-efficient battery systems and high-efficiency motors. Third, while sophisticated air defense systems have been built to detect incoming missiles and larger drones, these small, commercial drones can sometimes evade detection at multiple points: their sales aren’t tracked the way conventional weapons sales are; they are small enough to avoid some radar detection systems; and their low-power radio frequencies can also go undetected. AI capabilities and optical sensors can offer facial and object recognition, allowing for real-time tracking capabilities. Many drones offer autopilot functionality, where the drone

operator can pre-program flight paths that continue even if primary communication with the drone is lost. Newer drone systems can also allow for the launch and coordination of multiple drones in swarms

Page Ref: 598

Objective: Elaborate on the rise of homegrown and lone-actor terrorists and their weapons usage

Level: Intermediate

15.6 Critical Thinking Questions

1) Since Usama bin Laden was killed, al-Qaeda has changed. Discuss what those changes are and what impact they might have on the future of this organization, the United States, and terrorism in general.

Answer: U.S. campaigns against al-Qaeda have been successful in killing much of the leadership; however, this has had the unintended effect of decentralizing the groups and allowing them to operate free of bureaucracy and, in some cases, free of any type of rigid operational codes or accountability. This has allowed militant groups to emerge in areas where conflict is rife and is also responsible for the expansion of the “lone wolf” phenomenon. The centralized and powerful al-Qaeda organization of old is no longer a single entity, but has diffused throughout the Middle East and beyond–maintaining a presence in at least sixteen countries. The goal of the U.S. military offensive against al-Qaeda has had the unintended consequence of allowing the organization to reformulate and still flourish as a decentralized, heavily networked, and transnational movement, freed from the bureaucracy of its earlier iterations and able to move more covertly as a result. The “brand” of al-Qaeda is an enduring one. Al-Zawahiri also introduced a relatively new terrorist tactic: kidnapping and extortion, particularly of Americans. Al-Zawahiri stated that this type of activity should be a primary focus of al-Qaeda affiliates, as they may be useful tools for obtaining money to further the jihadi philosophy and the release of jailed al-Qaeda members in the United States.

Page Ref: 587

Objective: Discuss how al-Qaeda has been splintered and what the effects of that phenomenon might be.

Level: Difficult

2) The Islamic State has seen significant changes. Complete some research and write a summary of your findings on recent occurrences regarding IS and what has been the response from the United States and other countries.

Answer: Answers will vary.

Page Ref: 587–589

Objective: Describe broad trends in terrorism, including general statistics about frequency, location, and targets of attacks.

Level: Difficult