Test Bank for Essentials of Psychology 2nd Edition by Clayton
ISBN: 9781071930755
Essentials of Psychology (2nd)
ISBN 9781071930755 | Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World
Total Questions: 150 Easy
Multiple Choice (42)
Q1. [Multiple Choice]
A forensic psychologist applies psychological knowledge and conducts research to address ______.
a) legal systems and issues ✓ correct
b) technological advancements
c) physical and mental wellness
d) education policy
Q2. [Multiple Choice]
A perspective in psychology focused on change over the lifespan is the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q3. [Multiple Choice]
A perspective in psychology that evaluates the dynamics of social interaction and its effects on groups and the individual is the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) developmental d) sociocultural ✓ correct
Q4. [Multiple Choice]
A school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior is ______.
a) behaviorism ✓ correct
b) structuralism
c) Gestalt psychology
d) humanistic psychology
Q5. [Multiple Choice]
Based on the text, which psychological specialization is probably the most prominent and visible?
a) behaviorism
b) clinical psychology ✓ correct
c) cognitive psychology
d) neuropsychology
Q6. [Multiple Choice]
Dunn and colleagues (2008) investigated a small sample of employees who received a financial bonus and found that those who allocated some of it to prosocial spending ______ than those who did not.
a) exhibited more self doubt
b) were less materialistic
c) experienced greater happiness ✓ correct
d) experienced greater regret
Q7. [Multiple Choice]
Educational psychologists study the scientific aspects of ______.
a) memory
b) learning ✓ correct
c) motivation
d) technology
Q8. [Multiple Choice]
Humanistic psychologists believe that humans seek a higher fulfillment, a state called ______.
a) hierarchical positivity
b) self actualization ✓ correct
c) mindfulness
d) cognitive clarity
Q9. [Multiple Choice]
Noam Chomsky was a strong proponent of the idea that human language ______.
a) is a sociocultural invention
b) follows the laws of learning
c) requires reinforcement
d) is innate ✓ correct
Q10. [Multiple Choice]
Psychology has its origins in which discipline?
a) epidemiology
b) philosophy ✓ correct
c) climatology
d) engineering
Q11. [Multiple Choice]
Psychology is the study of behavior, and it examines the mind. What is the third essential element of psychology?
a) Its goal is to help people.
b) It is a scientific enterprise. ✓ correct
c) It views humans as essentially good.
d) It is the study of conscious mental states.
Q12. [Multiple Choice]
School psychology aims to improve education and learning for children and adolescents by applying theories and research from educational psychology, clinical psychology, and ______ psychology.
a) sociocultural
b) health
c) counseling
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q13. [Multiple Choice]
Someone who views the body and mind as comprising one harmonious entity is adhering to which viewpoint?
a) monism ✓ correct
b) dualism
c) structuralism
d) introspection
Q14. [Multiple Choice]
Studying human flourishing and wellness is most closely associated with the ______ perspective.
a) social
b) clinical
c) sociocultural
d) positive psychological ✓ correct
Q15. [Multiple Choice]
The ______ psychological perspective focuses on the influence of other people on an individual.
a) social ✓ correct
b) cognitive
c) biological
d) developmental
Q16. [Multiple Choice]
The goals of a ______ psychologist are to improve education and learning.
a) health
b) school ✓ correct
c) clinical
d) counseling
Q17. [Multiple Choice]
The perspective that the entire human experience consists of physical processes that come from the brain is most closely associated with which viewpoint?
a) monism ✓ correct
b) dualism
c) behaviorism
d) structuralism
Q18. [Multiple Choice]
The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and our subjective sensations of those stimuli is called ______.
a) cognition
b) psychophysics ✓ correct
c) structuralism
d) Gestalt psychology
Q19. [Multiple Choice]
To learn about behavior, Edward Thorndike ran experiments with ______.
a) dogs presented with food
b) rats in mazes
c) monkeys placed in front of a mirror
d) cats in puzzle boxes ✓ correct
Q20. [Multiple Choice]
What is the name of Freud's theory of personality and method of psychotherapy that assumes our motives are largely unconscious?
a) cognition
b) behaviorism
c) structuralism
d) psychoanalysis ✓ correct
Q21. [Multiple Choice]
Which discipline studies the relationship between physical stimuli and our subjective sensations of those stimuli?
a) physiology
b) philosophy
c) psychology
d) psychophysics ✓ correct
Q22. [Multiple Choice]
Which is a quickly growing area that combines scientific knowledge from biology, physics, chemistry, and psychology?
a) neuroscience ✓ correct
b) health counselling
c) social work
d) psychophysics
Q23. [Multiple Choice]
Which is one of the events that inspired the cognitive perspective?
a) the discovery of the structure of DNA
b) the invention of the computer ✓ correct
c) World War II
d) the invention of the internet
Q24. [Multiple Choice]
Which perspective in psychology evaluates the physical basis of animal and human behaviors and includes topics such as the brain and the nervous system?
a) cognitive
b) biological ✓ correct
c) developmental
d) social psychological
Q25. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychologist experimented with animals and observable behavior in place of focusing on the elusive mind?
a) Freud
b) Wundt
c) Watson ✓ correct
d) Washburn
Q26. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychologist helped create the foundations for the humanistic perspective?
a) Richard Davidson
b) Noam Chomsky
c) Jean Piaget
d) Abraham Maslow ✓ correct
Q27. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychologist theorized that children from infancy through adolescence move through a series of cognitive stages?
a) Piaget ✓ correct
b) Freud
c) Watson
d) Skinner
Q28. [Multiple Choice]
Which refers to the assumption that the body and mind are separate, though interacting, entities?
a) monism
b) dualism ✓ correct
c) structuralism
d) introspection
Q29. [Multiple Choice]
Which term describes the scientific study of behavior, the mind, and its biological bases?
a) monism
b) dualism
c) physiology
d) psychology ✓ correct
Q30. [Multiple Choice]
Which term is used to refer to mental processes, including thinking, knowing, and remembering?
a) cognition ✓ correct
b) humanistic
c) behaviorism
d) introspection
Q31. [Multiple Choice]
Who created the first experimental psychology lab?
a) Aristotle
b) Plato
c) Wundt ✓ correct
d) Washburn
Q32. [Multiple Choice]
Who did German philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus use as his sample in his classic experiments on memory and forgetting?
a) his students
b) his children
c) chimpanzees
d) himself ✓ correct
Q33. [Multiple Choice]
Who gave psychological meaning to the term reinforcement?
a) B.F. Skinner ✓ correct
b) John Watson
c) Edward Thorndike
d) Charles Darwin
Q34. [Multiple Choice]
Who was among the first generation of scholars to call themselves psychologists?
a) Gustav Fechner
b) Jean Charcot
c) G. Stanley Hall ✓ correct
d) Sigmund Freud
Q35. [Multiple Choice]
Who was responsible for relating psychology to events of the civil rights movement?
a) G. Stanley Hall
b) Francis Summer
c) Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie P. Clark ✓ correct
d) Mary Whiton Calkins
Q36. [Multiple Choice]
Within The Interpretation of Dreams, the theory of ______ was introduced.
a) cognition
b) behaviorism
c) structuralism
d) psychoanalysis ✓ correct
Q37. [Multiple Choice]
Wundt’s ______ technique was important in laying the foundations for today’s psychology experiments.
a) humanism
b) introspection ✓ correct
c) mindfulness
d) psychoanalysis
Q38. [Multiple Choice] ______ of today’s psychologists identify themselves as strict behaviorists.
a) Few ✓ correct
b) Many
c) Most
d) All
Q39. [Multiple Choice] ______ psychology addresses issues related to individuals and groups in workplace settings.
a) Forensic
b) Human factors
c) Corporate
d) Industrial/organizational ✓ correct
Q40. [Multiple Choice] ______ psychology investigates the connections and interactions between humans and the planet.
a) Environmental ✓ correct
b) Conservational
c) Ecological
d) Biological
Q41. [Multiple Choice]
______ referred to the human brain as an “interpreter of consciousness” and was the first to differentiate among psychological disorders.
a) Aristotle
b) Socrates
c) Hippocrates ✓ correct
d) Plato
Q42. [Multiple Choice]
______ refers to a willingness to continuously learn, improve, and be open to new ideas.
a) Haughtiness
b) Underconfidence
c) Self importance
d) Intellectual humility ✓ correct
True/False (5)
Q43. [True/False]
Imposter syndrome is a recognized psychological disorder.
a) True
b) False ✓ correct
Correct answer: False
Q44. [True/False]
Psychology has a role to play in dealing with climate change.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Q45. [True/False]
Psychology is a dynamic discipline.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Q46. [True/False]
The demand for psychological services related to mental health among youth has declined in recent years.
a) True
b) False ✓ correct
Correct answer: False
Q47. [True/False]
The early practice of medicine contributed to psychology’s origins.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True Medium
Multiple Choice (62)
Q48. [Multiple Choice]
A ______ researcher studies the way mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and problem solving are related to behavior.
a) developmental
b) biological
c) cognitive ✓ correct
d) neuroscience
Q49. [Multiple Choice]
A body of studies designed to recognize the multiple contributions to a person’s identity and perspectives, such as race, language, religion, and traditions describes ______.
a) social justice
b) equity distribution
c) multicultural research ✓ correct
d) cross cultural research
Q50. [Multiple Choice]
A geropsychologist is most interested in the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q51. [Multiple Choice]
A health psychologist who studies how to maintain health at different ages is most interested in which psychological perspective?
a) social
b) clinical
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q52. [Multiple Choice]
A person who seeks to evaluate the nature and treatment of dysfunction in human behavior is referred to as a ______ psychologist.
a) clinical ✓ correct
b) cognitive
c) counseling
d) behavioral
Q53. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist believes that perception is different from the sum of isolated sensations. This belief is most closely associated with ______.
a) behaviorism
b) structuralism
c) psychoanalysis
d) Gestalt psychology ✓ correct
Q54. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist is most interested in how our memories impact our responses to current events. Which psychological perspective does this explore?
a) cognitive ✓ correct
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental
Q55. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist who studies the physical basis for behavior, such as the immune system, nervous system, and genetics, holds the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) biological ✓ correct
c) developmental
d) social psychological
Q56. [Multiple Choice]
According to Freud, why is the human mind like an iceberg?
a) It is vast and unknowable.
b) It exists in various shapes and sizes.
c) Most of it exists below the surface. ✓ correct
d) It poses a danger to others.
Q57. [Multiple Choice]
According to monism, the mind and the body are ______.
a) part of one harmonious entity ✓ correct
b) separate but always working together
c) constantly conflicting
d) scientifically unknowable
Q58. [Multiple Choice]
Applying psychology to the real world is ______.
a) complex because there is no consensus on basic research
b) complex because the policy implications of findings can be complicated and controversial ✓ correct
c) simple because psychology has very few applications
d) simple because the only goal is adhering to truth
Q59. [Multiple Choice]
Because licensed clinical psychologists combine science and practice to facilitate human development and functioning across the lifespan, they are also considered to be ______.
a) biological psychologists
b) health service psychologists ✓ correct
c) social workers
d) positive psychologists
Q60. [Multiple Choice]
Changing a stimulus and observing an organism’s response are the two research goals most closely associated with ______.
a) dualism
b) behaviorism ✓ correct
c) introspection
d) structuralism
Q61. [Multiple Choice]
Complex cognitive abilities and problem solving skills make an organism more likely to survive and reproduce. These traits have evolved in the human brain through ______.
a) humanism
b) fitness
c) speciation
d) natural selection ✓ correct
Q62. [Multiple Choice]
Descartes believed the mind and the brain interact only through a tiny structure in the brain. This position is known as ______.
a) psychophysics
b) dualism ✓ correct
c) functionalism
d) monism
Q63. [Multiple Choice]
Geropsychology is a growing specialization because ______.
a) we are learning more about genetic determinants of behavior
b) the population is aging ✓ correct
c) the residents of most countries are becoming heterogeneous and diverse
d) there is a greater demand for mental health services
Q64. [Multiple Choice]
Geropsychology is a subfield of ______ psychology.
a) health
b) educational
c) developmental ✓ correct
d) industrial/organizational
Q65. [Multiple Choice]
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought based on the idea that what people perceive ______.
a) is different from the sum of their isolated sensations ✓ correct
b) determines their thoughts and feelings
c) is systematically different from reality
d) is different for each individual
Q66. [Multiple Choice]
Hoffman and colleagues (2016) argued that ______ between White and Black patients help to explain why doctors systematically undertreat pain in Black Americans.
a) different rates of follow up
b) systematic differences in pain reporting
c) biological differences
d) false beliefs about biological differences ✓ correct
Q67. [Multiple Choice]
How did James’ approach to psychology differ from Wundt’s?
a) James focused on the mind’s purpose and Wundt focused on its structure. ✓ correct
b) James was interested in animal learning and Wundt studied humans.
c) James viewed psychology as a science and Wundt viewed it as an art.
d) James’s approach was philosophical and Wundt’s was biological.
Q68. [Multiple Choice]
How do neuroimaging and brain interfaces offer a unique understanding of the brain and behavior?
a) They examine cognitive processes in isolation.
b) They clearly separate the brain and the mind.
c) They allow for a holistic perspective. ✓ correct
d) They focus primarily on biology.
Q69. [Multiple Choice]
How do psychologists study the mind?
a) by using psychoanalysis
b) by using introspection
c) by measuring it directly from behavior
d) by inferring from observable behavior ✓ correct
Q70. [Multiple Choice]
How does knowledge from the field of psychology relate to the problems of today?
a) Its applications are largely restricted to issues of mental health.
b) It has far reaching and diverse applications. ✓ correct
c) Although academically interesting, it doesn’t apply to real life.
d) Potential applications are promising but few specifics have been developed.
Q71. [Multiple Choice]
Humans are very complex and difficult to study. The approach researchers employ to meet the challenge is to record physiological states using ______.
a) a few very simple assessments
b) a meta test that incorporates all human components
c) a wide range of assessments, tasks, scans, and so on ✓ correct
d) applied procedures
Q72. [Multiple Choice]
In which area of psychology is the “nature nurture” debate most relevant?
a) health
b) developmental ✓ correct
c) industrial organizational
d) human factors
Q73. [Multiple Choice]
Kenneth B. and Mamie P. Clark's research was significant in showing that ______ in schools made Black schoolchildren feel inferior.
a) cultural activism
b) political activism
c) segregation ✓ correct
d) integration
Q74. [Multiple Choice]
Mary Whiton Calkins, a student of James, was a successful psychologist and ______.
a) devised the first significant intelligence test
b) established a journal and training program in a new profession she called “clinical psychology”
c) the first female granted a PhD
d) the first female president of the American Psychological Association ✓ correct
Q75. [Multiple Choice]
One of the assumptions of psychoanalysis is that ______.
a) physical stimuli determine subjective sensations
b) human traits evolve through natural selection
c) the mind can be understood through introspection
d) our motives are mainly unconscious ✓ correct
Q76. [Multiple Choice]
Overconfidence bias demonstrates the difference between ______.
a) self doubt and success
b) "book smarts” and “street smarts”
c) progress and achievement
d) confidence and competence ✓ correct
Q77. [Multiple Choice]
Piaget theorized that children’s cognitive development ______.
a) proceeds through stages that involve different ways of reasoning ✓ correct
b) changed gradually and steadily
c) is dependent on language skills
d) is hard wired into the human brain as a product of evolution
Q78. [Multiple Choice]
Psychological research that aims to solve practical human problems is ______ research.
a) basic
b) applied ✓ correct
c) primary
d) cognitive
Q79. [Multiple Choice]
Psychologists who purport that people's behaviors are motivated by the achievement of self actualization are likely considered ______.
a) humanists ✓ correct
b) behaviorists
c) structuralists
d) Gestalt psychologists
Q80. [Multiple Choice]
Psychologists with a ______ perspective take a positive approach to understanding human behavior, thinking, and emotions that center on self actualization.
a) humanistic ✓ correct
b) cognitive
c) sociocultural
d) behaviorist
Q81. [Multiple Choice]
Someone who specializes in legal systems and issues is what type of psychologist?
a) clinical
b) counseling
c) forensic ✓ correct
d) industrial/organizational
Q82. [Multiple Choice]
Studying the role of self esteem, intelligence, trust, and resilience on human behavior most closely aligns with which perspective?
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q83. [Multiple Choice]
The current demand for psychological services related to mental health is at an all time high among youth. To help address this, funding provided by the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 is being utilized to ______.
a) train teachers to act as educational psychologists
b) develop mental health services that incorporate artificial intelligence
c) promote remote learning
d) strengthen mental health services for children in the classroom ✓ correct
Q84. [Multiple Choice]
The difference between an intuition and psychology is that psychology ______.
a) focuses on demonstrating monism
b) rejects the tenants of dualism
c) relies on personal, subjective experiences
d) employs systematic methods of observation ✓ correct
Q85. [Multiple Choice]
The evolutionary perspective has been under scrutiny for its inability to ______.
a) provide explanations that can be tested with the scientific method ✓ correct
b) make connections between adaptations in humans and other animals
c) explain genetic shifts over time
d) apply principles of natural selection to social and emotional traits
Q86. [Multiple Choice]
The goal of behaviorism can be summed up by which directive?
a) observe the physical; infer the mental
b) study animals; extrapolate to humans
c) manipulate environment; gage survival
d) vary stimulus; observe response ✓ correct
Q87. [Multiple Choice]
The legacy of behaviorism can be most accurately described as ______.
a) nonexistent
b) short lived
c) vast and problematic
d) lasting and mostly positive ✓ correct
Q88. [Multiple Choice]
The “nature versus nurture” debate is most closely associated with which perspective?
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q89. [Multiple Choice]
What is the main difference between a positive psychologist and a traditional clinical psychologist?
a) A positive psychologist focuses on wellness rather than disorder. ✓ correct
b) A positive psychologist believes that human nature is universal.
c) A traditional clinical psychologist focuses on biological processes.
d) A traditional clinical psychologist believes that humans are driven by rewards.
Q90. [Multiple Choice]
What kind of research would be most likely to focus on racial and religious contributions to identity?
a) cognitive
b) human factors
c) educational
d) multicultural ✓ correct
Q91. [Multiple Choice]
What reaction of dogs was key to Pavlov’s discovery of a fundamental form of learning?
a) barking in response to other dogs
b) salivation in anticipation of food ✓ correct
c) barking in response to humans
d) salivation in the presence of food
Q92. [Multiple Choice]
Which is a perspective in psychology that focuses on how mental processes are related to behavior?
a) cognitive ✓ correct
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental
Q93. [Multiple Choice]
Which is most likely to be a concern of a health psychologist?
a) employee motivation
b) nervous system dysregulation
c) access to green space ✓ correct
d) classroom sizes
Q94. [Multiple Choice]
Which is most likely to be studied by a psychologist with a sociocultural perspective?
a) attraction ✓ correct
b) consciousness
c) self actualization
d) general health and well being
Q95. [Multiple Choice]
Which is true regarding the study of conscious and unconscious states?
a) We can make inferences about these states through observation of behavior. ✓ correct
b) We cannot study these states accurately since they cannot be seen.
c) The best way to study these states is by surveying participants.
d) The best way to determine these states is by relying on our intuition.
Q96. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychological perspective is focused on evaluating the nature and treatment of dysfunction in human behavior?
a) social
b) clinical ✓ correct
c) biological
d) developmental
Q97. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychological perspective might evaluate the impact of social discrimination on human behavior?
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural ✓ correct
d) developmental
Q98. [Multiple Choice]
Which psychological perspective would be most directly related to educational psychology?
a) cognitive ✓ correct
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) humanistic
Q99. [Multiple Choice]
Which quote is most aligned with John Watson’s behaviorism?
a) “The brain is the ultimate machine.”
b) “Research should focus on adaptive behaviors.”
c) “Behavior is always indicative of unconscious drives.”
d) “If it can’t be seen, it shouldn’t be studied.” ✓ correct
Q100. [Multiple Choice]
Which researcher is most likely to have a participant pool of 5 year olds?
a) a cognitive psychologist
b) a cross cultural psychologist
c) a geropsychologist
d) a developmental psychologist ✓ correct
Q101. [Multiple Choice]
Which statement most accurately describes Freud’s legacy among today’s psychologists?
a) Although psychology veered away from Freud’s theories for some time, they are now more influential than ever.
b) Freud's theories are historical artifacts, nothing more.
c) Freud's theories are at the core of most current psychological theories.
d) Much of what Freud said is controversial, but his theories are still influential. ✓ correct
Q102. [Multiple Choice]
Which statement would most likely come from a researcher committed to conducting basic research?
a) “The purpose of science is to solve problems.”
b) “True science can only take place in the laboratory.”
c) “It’s critical to test theories in real world settings.”
d) “A factual foundation of knowledge should be the goal of any science.” ✓ correct
Q103. [Multiple Choice]
Which type of psychologist focuses on the motivation of employees within a corporation?
a) clinical
b) counseling
c) forensic
d) industrial/organizational ✓ correct
Q104. [Multiple Choice]
Which type of psychologist utilizes the cognitive, clinical, cultural, and developmental perspectives to increase people’s health and wellness?
a) forensic
b) school
c) clinical
d) counseling ✓ correct
Q105. [Multiple Choice]
Who are advances in geropsychology most likely to benefit?
a) Maya, a high school student with an anxiety disorder
b) Max, a kindergartener with ADHD
c) Jennifer, a single mom working two jobs
d) Jerry, an 80 year old widower who lives alone ✓ correct
Q106. [Multiple Choice]
Who is most likely to design machines?
a) a health psychologist
b) a forensic psychologist
c) a human factors psychologist ✓ correct
d) an industrial/organizational psychologist
Q107. [Multiple Choice]
Why is it a problem when psychological data is drawn only from ‘WEIRD’ samples?
a) The data is not representative of all people. ✓ correct
b) Responses are not likely to be truthful.
c) Sample sizes will be small.
d) The cost is likely to be prohibitive.
Q108. [Multiple Choice]
Why is it so challenging to track the evolutionary course of a species like humans?
a) Evolution is not a major driving force in determining human characteristics.
b) Other organisms, even primates, offer no clues about humans.
c) Researchers cannot closely observe the evolutionary course. ✓ correct
d) Most evolutionary outcomes are not observable.
Q109. [Multiple Choice]
______ psychology plays a central role in assessing the effects of the growing use of robotics and artificial intelligence in the workplace.
a) Biological
b) Developmental
c) Industrial/organizational ✓ correct
d) Sociocultural
True/False (5)
Q110. [True/False]
Modern psychology includes a broad range of perspectives from contributors who are more diverse in cultural, racial, and gender identities ever before.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Q111. [True/False]
Natural selection can explain physical, but not psychological, traits.
a) True
b) False ✓ correct
Correct answer: False
Q112. [True/False]
Psychology is known to be a science that is responsive to current events.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Q113. [True/False]
Psychology is, by definition, a scientific enterprise.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Q114. [True/False]
The first time the U.S. Supreme Court cited psychological research in a ruling was during the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.
a) True ✓ correct
b) False
Correct answer: True
Essay (6)
Q115. [Essay]
How did Wilhelm Wundt lay the foundations for today’s psychology experiments?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Wilhelm Wundt created the first experimental psychology lab in 1879. Wundt’s approach to the study of the mind was structured, systematic, and scientific, using objective measurement and control. Among the methods he developed was intensive introspection, in which trained observers reported on their moment-to-moment reactions to tones, visual displays, and other stimuli. In this way, Wundt and his colleagues studied such topics as attention span, reaction time, color vision, and time perception. In one study, for example, Wundt had an observer look at a block of 12 letters for a fraction of a second and immediately repeat as many as the observer could remember. Six letters seemed to be the upper limit. What would happen if the number of letters in the array were varied? How would others do if given the same task? By recruiting people to serve as participants, varying stimulus conditions, and demanding that all observations be repeated to verify results, Wundt was laying the foundations for today’s psychology experiments.
Q116. [Essay]
How does intersectionality contribute to racial disparities in medical treatment?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Intersectionality is a perspective in sociology that recognizes the way multiple forms of discrimination interconnect and cannot be separated. Racial disparities in medical treatment can be exacerbated by other biases that occur at the same time.
Q117. [Essay]
How is the study of psychology related to climate change?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Environmental psychology is a rapidly growing field that investigates the connections and interactions between humans and the planet. While we may not think of psychology in the context of nature, climate change has negatively affected mental wellness. A recent survey of more than 10,000 respondents ages 16 to 25 across ten countries showed that over 50% experienced sadness, anxiety, anger, powerlessness, helplessness, and guilt about climate change. Higher temperatures are associated with an increased risk of suicide and increased mental health-related hospital admissions. Psychology is also relevant to the question of how to encourage and reinforce reductions in harmful carbon emissions by individuals and multi-billion-dollar corporations. Environmental psychologists are aiming to answer such questions and are seeking ways to and promote positive mental health in the face of the growing threat to our planet.
Q118. [Essay]
What does it mean to say that psychology is a responsive discipline?
Suggested answer: Sample response: The discipline of psychology tackles problems posed by world events in such areas as health, education, race relations, and law.
Q119. [Essay]
What is the key difference between dualism and monism?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Dualism views the mind and the body as separate and monism views them as part of one harmonious entity.
Q120. [Essay]
Why is geropsychology expected to be a growth area in psychology?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Within the next few decades, the number of Americans older than 65 is expected to increase greatly. Psychologists are joining forces with other researchers and practitioners to identify and address the increased demands of caring for older populations.
Q121. [Multiple Choice]
A group of researchers begins a project focused on studying the relationships that exist between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. They are likely ______.
a) clinical psychologists
b) neuroscientists ✓ correct
c) developmental psychologists
d) industrial/organizational psychologists
Q122. [Multiple Choice]
A philosopher makes the following statement: “Bodies can be studied scientifically but minds cannot; minds are directed by the soul, an unknowable entity.” It sounds like this philosopher is a proponent of ______.
a) monism
b) existentialism
c) empiricism
d) dualism ✓ correct
Q123. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist consults with manufacturing businesses to improve the productivity of its employees. Which type of psychologist is this practitioner?
a) clinical
b) forensic
c) counseling
d) industrial/organizational ✓ correct
Q124. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist focused on studying how genetics influence our behavior is interested in which psychological perspective?
a) cognitive
b) biological ✓ correct
c) sociocultural
d) developmental
Q125. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist focused on studying what motivates adult learners to acquire new knowledge within the classroom is a(n) ______ psychologist.
a) health
b) clinical
c) counseling
d) educational ✓ correct
Q126. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist focused on the role of rationality in perception of the world is utilizing the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive ✓ correct
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental
Q127. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist focuses on assessing and diagnosing student learning problems. This practitioner is a ______ psychologist.
a) health
b) school ✓ correct c) clinical d) counseling
Q128. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist just received funding to travel to three other countries to study how happiness is quantified differently in each population. They are engaging in ______ research.
a) survey
b) behavioral
c) experimental
d) cross cultural ✓ correct
Q129. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist most interested in studying the impact of walkable communities is a(n) ______ psychologist.
a) health service ✓ correct
b) school
c) counseling
d) educational
Q130. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist states, “The ultimate goal of psychologists should be to solve people’s real world problems.” It sounds like this psychologist is a(n) ______ researcher.
a) humanistic
b) psychodynamic
c) basic
d) applied ✓ correct
Q131. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist studies how stereotypes in a certain country impact hiring practices in certain job sectors. Which perspective best describes this research?
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural ✓ correct
d) developmental
Q132. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist who creates research to study the differences and similarities of bonding strategies among children is utilizing the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q133. [Multiple Choice]
A psychologist who spends their time studying the impact of forgetfulness is utilizing the ______ perspective.
a) cognitive ✓ correct
b) biological
c) sociocultural
d) developmental
Q134. [Multiple Choice]
A researcher compares aggressive behavior in children who have witnessed an adult roughly throw a doll across the room to children who have witnessed an adult gently carry the doll. This researcher has a(n) ______ perspective.
a) humanistic
b) evolutionary
c) sociocultural ✓ correct
d) cognitive
Q135. [Multiple Choice]
A researcher examines differences between Easterners and Westerners in the expression of complex emotions such as pride and shame. This researcher is a ______ psychologist.
a) developmental
b) cross cultural ✓ correct
c) positive
d) humanistic
Q136. [Multiple Choice]
A researcher studies how emotions influence immune system functioning. The researcher is utilizing a(n) ______ perspective.
a) cognitive
b) humanistic
c) evolutionary
d) biological ✓ correct
Q137. [Multiple Choice]
A team is working on creating spaces in their city that are designed to help people recover from stress. These include gardens and quiet areas. Which psychologist would be the most natural fit to the team?
a) an environmental psychologist ✓ correct
b) an industrial/organizational psychologist
c) a forensic psychologist
d) a geropsychologist
Q138. [Multiple Choice]
An educational psychologist conducts studies to determine differences between how toddlers and adolescents learn. Which psychological perspective is this researcher studying?
a) social
b) clinical
c) sociocultural
d) developmental ✓ correct
Q139. [Multiple Choice]
An observer is specially trained to report their own very frequent reactions to stimuli, such as visual displays to study the mind. What method is being used?
a) cognition
b) behaviorism
c) introspection ✓ correct
d) psychoanalysis
Q140. [Multiple Choice]
George started graduate school a few months ago. Although he’s excited about the field he has chosen, he is considering quitting. He tells his mother, “I’m surrounded by intellectuals, I don’t think I’ll ever fit in.” It sounds like George is experiencing ______.
a) perfectionism
b) imposter syndrome ✓ correct
c) self sabotaging
d) external validation
Q141. [Multiple Choice]
Jamie is a positive psychologist. Which is their most likely focus?
a) investigating causes of insomnia
b) implementing treatments for depression and anxiety
c) developing preventative measures to maintain mental health and wellness ✓ correct
d) developing treatments for eating disorders
Q142. [Multiple Choice]
Jeff is a counseling psychologist. Which would be his most likely specialty?
a) consulting on education policy for school boards
b) training workplace human resources staff
c) helping children deal with the loss of a parent ✓ correct
d) creating diet and exercise programs for older adults
Q143. [Multiple Choice]
Jennifer is the only Black woman at her workplace. She overhears one of her coworkers (a White woman) talking about how she has never experienced sexism in her job. Jennifer thinks, ‘Well, I sure have; things must be different for me.’ Jennifer’s experience demonstrates the importance of ______.
a) dualism
b) interconnectivity
c) intersectionality ✓ correct
d) the humanistic perspective
Q144. [Multiple Choice]
Jordan works for a large company developing policies for improving employee motivation. Jordan is most likely a(n) ______ psychologist.
a) human factors
b) health
c) I/O ✓ correct
d) cognitive
Q145. [Multiple Choice]
Keith is a computer programmer working on a new search bar for a popular search engine. The goal is to make the search bar prominent and easy to use. Keith’s job is a part of human factors psychology called ______.
a) design modeling
b) organizational effectiveness
c) forensics
d) user experience ✓ correct
Q146. [Multiple Choice]
Lucie knows that money is tight for her friend so when they go out for lunch, Lucie quietly picks up the tab. This is an example of ______ spending.
a) affective
b) positive
c) self actualized
d) prosocial ✓ correct
Essay (4)
Q147. [Essay]
Describe an example and setting in which an industrial/organizational psychologist might work.
Suggested answer: Sample response: An industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologist is one interested in workplace issues as well as the global impacts of business. One example of a setting an I/O psychologist may work in would be to consult with human resource departments to create policies that maximize employee motivation.
Q148. [Essay]
How can imposter syndrome be harnessed to facilitate growth, progress, and achievement?
Suggested answer: Sample response: First, knowing what imposter syndrome is, recognizing how it can adversely affect you, and discussing strategies to manage it have been demonstrated to create feelings of empowerment and liberation among clinical nurse specialists. Second, it may be helpful to remember that every situation presents a learning opportunity for yourself or someone else. There will be times when you are the expert and times when you are the learner. It is also important to keep in mind that a confident person isn’t necessarily a competent person. Overconfidence bias, a tendency to overestimate our abilities and knowledge, has led to many disastrous outcomes. Doubt can be an excellent motivator to continuously learn, improve, and be more open to new ideas, known as intellectual humility. A third way to combat imposter syndrome is to recognize what you do well and focus on what’s going right. Finally, it’s helpful to become aware of the not just the successes, but the failures of your role models. Everyone makes mistakes. If we can reframe mistakes as opportunities to move forward and applaud them as such, then we might be less afraid of them.
Q149. [Essay]
Jay and his girlfriend were together for several years. Jay thought he would be devastated if they ever broke up but a few weeks after she ended the relationship, he is finding that much of the sadness has already faded. What type of error does this illustrate?
Suggested answer: Sample response: This is an example of the affective forecasting error, the tendency for people to falsely predict how they will feel in the future as a result of an imaginary event.
Q150. [Essay]
Provide an example of a setting an educational psychologist might work in. What tasks might this role perform?
Suggested answer: Sample response: Educational psychologists focus on human learning for different age groups. One example might be a psychologist who screens students for learning challenges and disabilities. They might administer tests to diagnose learning problems as well help create individual learning plans to support these students.
Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the
World Activities for Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World
Application
To the Instructor: Students often have a narrow understanding of the careers available to psychologists. Dr. Krisstal Clayton specifically designed this application activity to provide students with an opportunity to creatively address a real-world problem while familiarizing themselves with psychological specializations The scenario for this activity requires students to consider the increasing population of persons aged 65 and older in the U.S.
For this activity, Dr. Clayton divides students into teams and assigns readings before class so they come prepared to develop a feasible solution Furthermore, Dr. Clayton encourages students to conduct a web search to learn more about the topic and use their personal experiences and observations to guide their thinking.
To motivate students to arrive prepared for the activity, Dr. Clayton requires each student to submit a sheet of handwritten notes that they developed while completing the preparation reading(s). Students who do not submit a sheet of notes lose points or earn a zero. One example of a preparation reading is the Harvard University Joint Center for Housing Studies website, which offers a blueprint for intergenerational living. This activity is based on Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World, Multidimensional Perspectives, data from Figure 1.1, and Specializations and Careers. Thus, students in Dr. Clayton’s class are also required to read Chapter 1 before participating in the activity. This application assignment gives students an opportunity to exercise their application skills and consider social responsibility issues that psychologists can address.
Grading: Instructor, if desired, choose or adapt the Suggested Grading Rubric provided below.
APA IPISTUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES ADDRESSED:
• Psychology Content 1.3, and Key Themes B, D, and F
APA SKILLFUL PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT WORKPLACE SKILLS:
• Analytical Thinking, Information Management, Creativity, Collaboration
Intergenerational Campus Communities
Overview: Review the data from Chapter 1, Figure 1.1. Cities recognize this trend, and are encouraging innovative solutions, including the possibility of housing older adults on college campuses. Typically, college campuses have everything necessary for daily wellness,
Privitera/
of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027 walkable grounds, food halls, libraries, and gyms, and a heightened sense of community due to the many people present at any given time.
The Problem: Imagine you and your team have been hired to design an intergenerational community on your campus that will provide shared apartment housing for 1,000 older adults and 500 students by the year 2035. The goal is to employ the student residents by pairing them with two older adults whom they will visit daily, run weekend errands for, and assist with basic household chores three times per week. Using what you know about specializations in psychology and multidimensional perspectives, address the items below to brainstorm a proposal for your blended community.
1. Discuss why it is imperative to start thinking about older populations now rather than in 15-20 years.
2. List some concerns and stressors for Americans who are 65 years of age and older.
3. List some concerns and stressors for Americans who are college students between the ages of 18 and 24.
4. Compare and contrast the concerns and stressors listed in #2 and #3. What concerns and stressors might an intergenerational community help to mitigate amongst college students and older Americans? For example, housing costs might be significantly less for residents.
5. Your intergenerational community must include a team of psychologists who can serve as experts on intergenerational living. For each specialist provided below, briefly define each and describe how they could contribute important knowledge and problem-solving skills to the team. Give an example of a probable problem each specialist could address to help residents thrive. For example, a clinical psychologist could address negative thoughts and behaviors to help residents adapt to their new living conditions and, in turn, prevent declines in mental health.
a. Geropsychologist:
b. Developmental Psychologist:
c. Health Service Psychologist:
d. Clinical Psychologist:
e. Positive Psychologist:
f. Multicultural Psychologist:
6. Your supervisor has told you that you can only afford to hire three specialists. Choose three from the list in #6 and provide an explanation for why each of these three specializations is the most promising to ensure the community’s success.
Suggested Grading Rubric
Social Responsibility
The content includes a deep consideration of the scenario Diverse generational perspectives and their individual differences are expressed, compared, and contrasted.
The content includes a consideration of the scenario Diverse generational perspectives and their individual differences are touched on, but somewhat lack contrast and comparison.
The content includes a surface-level consideration of the scenario. Diverse generational perspectives and their individual differences are glazed over, with no logical comparison or contrast.
The content inadequately considers the scenario Diverse generational perspectives and their individual differences are misleading or confusing to the reader, with no logical comparison or contrast.
The content is unfinished or completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
Application
The content demonstrates high-level and real-world engagement with the problem. Specialists are accurately defined and described, with excellent examples of how each would contribute to the team.
The content demonstrates real-world engagement with the problem. Specialists are described and defined accurately, with good examples of how each would contribute to the team.
Discussion Topics
The content somewhat demonstrates real-world engagement with the problem. At least half of the specialists are accurately described and defined. There are a few questionable examples of how each would contribute to the team.
The content struggles to demonstrate real-world engagement with the problem. Less than half of the specialists are described and defined accurately. Most examples of how each would contribute to the team are questionable.
The content is unfinished or completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
To the Instructor: These discussion topics are designed to engage students in conversation about the current chapter's content. The discussions may take place in a classroom or on the course's online platform. The scenario is designed to provide structure for the discussion, so that students may focus on their understanding of the links among the major topics in the chapter. Students are encouraged to engage and share anything they think may be important, even if it may need to be corrected for accuracy. In the classroom, you may wish to divide students into breakout groups and have them discuss the topic before bringing them together for a larger-group discussion. Alternatively, you may assign the discussion activity before class, so that students come to class prepared to discuss. On the online platform, students should comment on the main thread and reply to at least two other posts. Should you decide
Clayton/ Privitera/ Kassin, Essentials of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027 to make this part of the grade, a simple and flexible grading rubric has been provided for you, and half points are possible to assign where you see fit.
Grading: Instructor, if desired, choose or adapt a Grading Rubric from the Instructor’s Manual Appendix.
APA IPISTUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES ADDRESSED:
• Psychology Content 1.1, Scientific Thinking 2.3, and Key Themes B, C, E, F, and G
APA SKILLFUL PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT WORKPLACE SKILLS:
• Analytical Thinking, Written/Oral Communication, Information Management, Critical Thinking
Discussion Activity: AI Psychosis and The Mind/Body Connection
Overview: The following is a discussion topic for you to consider after studying the current chapter. The purpose of this discussion is for you to share your ideas about methods in psychology. The discussion activity is designed for interaction between you and your classmates so you may help each other better understand the chapter. In this activity, it is important for you to engage with your classmates’ ideas. Sharing your ideas is encouraged, even if you are not so sure about the accuracy of the content. Indeed, the conversation should help you tune into the subject matter that you may need to go over again. In your discussion, you may also pose questions to your classmates and instructor to better understand their comments. You will be graded according to the rubric provided.
Topic 1
Explain why some people turn to AI chatbots for emotional support and connection. Revisit the information in Chapter 1, 1.4 Psychology and You, the section titled SelfDoubt and Success. Connect overconfidence bias with a typical chatbot conversation. Describe how a chatbot could feed into a person’s overconfidence, and in turn, decrease that user’s desire to find out for themselves if they are actually wrong. Next, do a web search on your own about AI psychosis, also known as chatbot psychosis. How is it defined, and is it a recognized clinical diagnosis? What risks come with AI psychosis? What people do you believe are the most vulnerable to AI psychosis, and why? Determine whether you believe AI companies, such as OpenAI, have an ethical responsibility to teach the public about AI psychosis and how to avoid it.
Topic 2
Psychology’s roots are in philosophy, physiology, and medicine. In addition, research has demonstrated that the mind and body are connected. What does that connection mean in the context of the saying, “You are what you eat?” Conduct a brief web search on the connection between nutrition and mental health. Discuss what your identified sources say about the importance of food to the gut microbiome, immune system, learning, and mental health. Based on what you learned, are you really what you eat? If so, what might you change about your current diet to improve your
Clayton/ Privitera/ Kassin, Essentials of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027
wellness? Develop a list of five suggestions that you could share with your friends to help them improve their wellness through changing what they eat.
Critical Thinking Activities: Argue for a Point of View
To the Instructor: For this exercise, students will apply their knowledge of the chapter to defend an argument on real-world issues. The students are required to find at least one relevant article using the library system that informs their argument. This assessment may be graded for full points upon completion and participation as an in-class discussion.
Grading: Instructor, if desired, choose or adapt a Grading Rubric from the Instructor’s Manual Appendix.
APA IPISTUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES ADDRESSED:
• Scientific Thinking 2.4 and Key Themes D, E, and F
APA SKILLFUL PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT WORKPLACE SKILLS:
• Analytical Thinking, Oral Communication, Information Management, Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking Activities: Healthcare Disparities and Misinformation
For this activity, you are asked to carefully consider an event in the real world and use your knowledge from the assigned readings to argue for a point of view. If you do not have an opinion about the issue yourself, you may list evidence in support of different points of view.
1. Research in Chapter 1, Figure 1.3, demonstrates that certain ethnic and racial groups have more access to health care than others. Which three racial and ethnic groups have the highest uninsured rates in the U.S.A.? Many people who experience health disparities live in rural areas, far from a medical provider or hospital. Discuss how insurance isn’t helpful when people reside in areas that have little to no access to healthcare. Conduct some brief research on the topic of American Indian health disparities. What did you find? Develop an argument for why understanding cultural perspectives about medicine, wellness, and healing would be important when trying to address the lack of healthcare access amongst American Indian populations.
2. Why should we study psychology? Is a scientific understanding of human behavior more important than the methods of common sense, intuition, persuasion of social media influencers, and personal experience? Why or why not? Review your responses to the What’s Your Prediction: Thinking Like a Psychologist activity that opens Chapter 1. How many of these statements did you believe were correct, only to discover that they were not? In a time of widespread misinformation, discuss an example of when you (or someone you know) were misled by someone, such as a friend or social media. Create an argument for why it is important to cultivate reading comprehension and information literacy skills.
To the Instructor: The provided essay activities are designed to give students an opportunity to practice their written communication skills by writing a paper that is not as comprehensive as a research paper. In three or so pages, students should discuss one of the topics provided below.
Grading: Instructor, choose or adapt a Grading Rubric from the Instructor’s Manual Appendix.
APA IPISTUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES ADDRESSED:
• Psychology Content 1.1 and 1.3 and Key Themes A and F
APA SKILLFUL PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT WORKPLACE SKILLS:
• Analytical Thinking, Written Communication, Information Management Essay Topics
1. Explore the history of psychology, starting with philosophy. Descartes and Hobbes disagreed about the mind/body connection. Briefly describe their positions dualism versus monism and determine whose position you agree with more.
a. Explain why you chose that position, and give an example from your own observations that supports it.
b. How did psychology transition from philosophy, physiology, and medicine to become the science that it is today?
2. Explore the different careers in the field of psychology. What career within psychology did you not know existed until you read the chapter?
a. What are the different credentials psychologists have?
b. How long does training take, and what kinds of activities do psychologists with different training engage in at the workplace?
3. Choose a famous psychologist in the history of psychology and write about this person’s life and contributions to the field.
a. What about this person inspired you to choose them as your topic?
b. Discuss their important contributions and what lessons we still use today from their historical work.
4. Explore the similarities and differences between the following theoretical approaches in psychology: evolutionary, cognitive, neuroscience, behavioral genetics, social–cultural, behavioral, and psychodynamic.
a. Choose two perspectives and describe them.
b. Apply them to one problem that you care about, such as excessive social media exposure, climate change, health care disparities, or misinformation. Be sure to define the problem for your audience.
c. How would each perspective address the problem you care about? Compare and contrast these two perspectives to demonstrate how these distinct ways of thinking can lead to diverse solutions and perspectives.
Career Activity
To the Instructor: The following activity has been designed to help make the content of the current chapter relevant to students’ career readiness. Students should identify their career pathway and answer the related prompt. This activity may be done individually or in a group of 2-4 students. If this activity is graded, it could be graded Pass/Fail upon completion. The content students will need to accurately apply is from Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World, 1.4 Psychology and You, the “Self-Doubt and Success” section.
APA IPISTUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES ADDRESSED:
• Psychology Content 1.1 and 1.3
• Key Themes A and F
APA SKILLFUL PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT WORKPLACE SKILLS:
• Analytical Thinking, Written Communication, Information Management
Career Readiness: Intrapersonal Skills
Overview: This activity will encourage you to consider how intrapersonal skills are applied to a job interview. Read the scenario below, review the corresponding content in Chapter 1, then respond to the prompts that follow.
1. What career are you interested in pursuing?
2. Imagine you are a top applicant for a job in that field. The job is online, which allows the employee to work from home. Therefore, the employer must hire someone who is self-aware, self-motivated, and able to self-regulate their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These traits are referred to as intrapersonal skills. During your interview, you are asked to describe how a psychology course contributed to your intrapersonal skills. You immediately think about what you learned regarding self-doubt and success from Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World.
a. In your own terms, describe imposter syndrome and how it can help decrease overconfidence bias while increasing intellectual humility.
b. Explain how imposter syndrome can be harnessed to help a new employee, such as yourself, be successful.
Concept Highlights for Chapter 1: Psychology’s Place in the World
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists use the scientific method to collect empirical (i.e., observational) data via systematic observation. Because we hold many biases, it is difficult to step away from the way our brains work so that we may study others and ourselves. Therefore, the use of the scientific method is a more objective way to study people than is the use of common sense, intuition, folk wisdom, and personal experience.
A Brief History of Psychology
How did psychology become the science that it is today? Before modern psychology was established, philosophers and physiologists were asking similar questions about human behavior that psychologists currently investigate. These questions included the role of experience in learning and how the body works. For example, René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed the idea of the reflex (an involuntary reaction to environmental stimuli) and of dualism (the idea that the mind and the body are separate entities). Reflexes have been supported in current psychology, but dualism is not accepted by mainstream psychology. The current consensus is that brain activity is the mind.
Thomas Hobbes disagreed with Descartes (1588–1679), and proposed that the human experience including thoughts, feelings, and behaviors consists of physical processes originating from the brain. Thus, Hobbes believed the human experience could be studied, and studied it was. The first official psychology experiment was conducted in 1979 by Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) in Leipzig, Germany, and measured the reaction time between participants’ hearing a sound and reacting to it. Wundt’s focus was to discover the structural elements of the mind by asking people to introspect on their feelings and experiences.
On the other hand, William James (1842–1919) was mainly concerned about the purpose, or function, of our behaviors, mental processes, and experience. This perspective was inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
Later, behaviorism took a completely different approach to data collection, focusing on recording observable behaviors rather than introspective accounts. Behaviorism was coined by John B. Watson (1878–1958) who contributed to the literature on fear conditioning. Another famous behaviorist was B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who was a pioneer of operant conditioning.
While behaviorism was popular in North America, Sigmund Freud’s (1856–1939) psychoanalysis was very influential in Europe. During psychoanalysis, the psychoanalyst works with clients one-on-one to tap into their unconscious minds, of which they are unaware. The purpose of this therapy is for clients to gain insight into the origins of their psychological problems so they may resolve them.
Humanistic psychology took a different approach to therapy. From this perspective, people do have self-awareness and can make choices about their personal growth. Key figures in this movement were Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who developed person-centered therapy, and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), who proposed the pyramid of needs.
In the 1950’s, the cognitive revolution focused on the study of cognitive processes such as memory, learning, understanding, and communicating. Neuroscience tools have led to cognitive neuroscience, which has identified brain-specificity for certain cognitive tasks. Neuroscience has also uncovered information about brain chemistry.
The Many Ways to be a Psychologist
There are many approaches psychologists may take to understand behavior and mental processes. They may employ and combine many perspectives, including evolutionary, developmental, neuroscience, behavioral, social–cultural, cognitive, and psychodynamic perspectives. Different perspectives inform the psychologist with different hypotheses and theories.
With so many perspectives, there are many ways to be a psychologist, and some psychologists do not conduct research. However, even those who do not conduct studies themselves use research to solve problems and increase people’s quality of life. For example, clinical psychologists help clients with psychological disorders. Counseling psychologists often work with people dealing with life problems, such as administering marriage and family therapy, or helping students cope with their overwhelming schedules and responsibilities. Other ways to be a psychologist include industrial/organizational psychologist, school psychologist, forensic psychologist, geropsychologist, health psychologist, human factors psychologist, developmental psychologist, cognitive psychologist, neuropsychologist, neuroscientist, educational psychologist, social psychologist, and many more.
Applications and Solutions
Using psychology to solve problems and improve people’s quality of life brings with it ethical considerations. Imagine that a psychologist is asked to testify in court as an expert on memory and forgetting. What might be the consequences of their testimony? Could it lead to a guilty verdict? Should psychologists involve themselves in politics and legislation, such as students’ cell phone access while attending public schools, and the ramifications of online bullying?
Psychologists have a long history of activism, which reflects the mission of the American Psychological Association: to use psychological science to benefit humanity. A current issue worth noting is healthcare disparities. Millions of Americans struggle to get the medical and mental health care they need due to cost and availability. In addition, today’s schoolchildren need counselors and social-emotional support. Hence, cities, counties, and states are passing legislation and redirecting funds to support student wellness.
You can also use psychology to help yourself and understand the things you care about better. Take the old saying that “money can’t buy happiness.” Is that true? Dunn and colleagues (2011) would disagree. Their findings demonstrate that when we spend our money in a prosocial manner, we experience happiness, and that happiness can have a more significant impact on our well-being than when we spend it on ourselves.
While psychological research teaches us many valuable lessons, the research process is complex. Many mistakes have been made along the way. It is important to acknowledge mistakes, as they are unavoidable lessons in themselves. Much of what we know about psychology came from researchers who never gave up, even when their work was tedious, ignored, expensive, or failed to produce the results they were hoping for.
Instructions and Grading Rubrics for Instructor Usage
DISCUSSION QUESTION INSTRUCTIONS AND GRADING RUBRICS
To the Instructor: These discussion topics are designed to engage students in conversation about the content of the current chapter. The discussions may take place in a classroom or on the online platform of the course. The scenario is designed to offer structure to the
Privitera/ Kassin, Essentials of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027 discussion, so that students may focus on their understanding of the links between the major topics in the chapter. Students are encouraged to engage and share anything they think may be important, even if it may need to be corrected for accuracy. In the classroom, you may wish to divide students into breakout groups and let them discuss the topic before bringing them all together into a discussion as a larger group. Alternatively, you may assign the discussion activity before class so that students come to class prepared to discuss. On the online platform, students should comment on the main thread and reply to at least two other posts. Should you decide to make this part of the grade, a simple and flexible grading rubric has been provided for you at the bottom, and half points are possible to assign where you see fit.
Rubrics for Online Discussion
The main post and response will each be worth up to 5 points as per rubric below. Instructor should provide feedback to students on how to revise and repost so as to improve the quality of the submission. Each discussion activity is out of 10.
Main post
The post includes a thoughtful consideration of the scenario based on the readings.
APA reference(s) and in-text citation(s) provided where necessary.
The post demonstrates a good understanding of the content but needs to be revised or completed according to instructor’s feedback.
The post includes a good idea but needs to be worked through and corrected. Post could improve significantly as per instructor’s feedback.
The post does not show critical thinking about the scenario. Substantial improvement needs to be made based on instructor’s feedback.
Response Posts
The student has provided at least TWO responses to other students’ posts. Responses provide a thoughtful, relevant and/or creative addition to the discussion.
APA reference(s) and in-text citation(s) provided where necessary.
Two or less responses that provide an adequate addition to the discussion. Responses could improve as per instructor’s feedback.
Response does not add much to the discussion or is incorrect. Simply commenting “Good post” is inadequate.
Response adds virtually nothing to the discussion and/or is incorrect and/or completely irrelevant.
Student did not participate OR The post is completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
Student did not provide an answer, OR Response demonstrates extreme misunderstanding (or extremely inadequate understanding) of the content.
Rubric for In-Class Discussion
9–10
Engagement in discussion
8–9
The student has engaged and cooperated in the activity and provided a relevant, thoughtful and/or creative consideration of the scenario based on the content of the chapter.
The student engaged and showed an understanding of the content but could have engaged more or could improve as per instructor’s feedback.
7–8
The student has somewhat engaged. Engagement could improve significantly as per instructor’s feedback.
6–7
The student did not engage much. Substantial improvement needs to be made based on instructor’s feedback.
or Unacceptable Answer
0–6
Student did not participate OR the response was completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
ESSAY AND RESEARCH PAPER INSTRUCTIONS AND GRADING RUBRICS
Research Paper Instructions
To the Instructor: The provided activities have been designed to allow for students to explore some research topics they will likely find interesting. Students will conduct comprehensive literature searches and write a research paper on the current state of the question. The purpose of this writing assessment is for students to show that they are able to find proper peer-reviewed papers and disseminate the findings in a coherent manner in APA format. The process has been divided into three parts to help students break down the tasks, stay motivated and not feel overwhelmed. In grading this assignment, it is suggested that you conduct two checkpoints for students. At Checkpoint #1, students should show you at least seven relevant peer-reviewed journal articles. At Checkpoint #2, they should show you an outline of the assignment, which will include any subheadings they plan to use and a summary of the content of each section. These checkpoints will provide an opportunity for students to flesh out their ideas and receive feedback with suggestions for improvement. They will also minimize last-minute assignments. A simple, adjustable rubric has been provided below, and the checkpoints are worth 40% in the process.
Checkpoint #1
Checkpoint #2
Student has: Shown seven peer-reviewed articles highlighted the important parts, provided summaries of the articles, and produced a Reference page in APA style
Student has: Created a plan to move forward, come up with points to be made and planned to use the articles in specific sections as in-text citations
The paper shows a clear, coherent understanding of the state of the question, and brings up important points and supports arguments.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper could improve the flow of the content, and/or the clarify segments and better explain points with better support.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs significant improvement to the flow of the content, and/or explanation of points needs to be significantly revised.
The paper is severely incomplete and/or does not show any understanding of the literature whatsoever. Student must see instructor.
The paper contains excellent mechanics, is of appropriate length, and is in APA style with use of proper in-text citations, references and/or other important formatting features.
Essay Rubric
The paper needs to improve mechanics, length, and/or APA style according to instructor’s feedback.
The paper does not use APA style and/or the mechanics are not working. Student must see instructor.
To the Instructor: The provided essay activities have been designed to offer students an opportunity to write a paper that is not as comprehensive as a research paper. In three or so pages, students should discuss the topic.
The paper shows a clear, coherent consideration of the topic, brings up important points and supports arguments.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper could improve the flow of the content, and/or clarify segments.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs significant improvement to the content.
The paper is severely incomplete, and/or shows little understanding of the assignment. Student must see instructor.
The paper contains excellent mechanics, is of appropriate length, and is in APA style.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs to improve mechanics, length, and/or APA style according to instructor’s feedback.
The paper does not use APA style and/or the mechanics are not working. Student must see instructor.
Instructions and Grading Rubrics for Student Distribution
DISCUSSION QUESTION INSTRUCTIONS AND GRADING RUBRICS
Rubrics for Online Discussion
The main post and response will each be worth up to 5 points as per rubric below. Instructor should provide feedback to students on how to revise and repost so as to improve the quality of the submission. Each discussion activity is out of 10.
Main post
The post includes a thoughtful consideration of the scenario based on the readings. APA reference(s) and in-text citation(s) provided where necessary.
The post demonstrates a good understanding of the content but needs to be revised or completed according to instructor’s feedback.
The post includes a good idea but needs to be worked through and corrected. Post could improve significantly as per instructor’s feedback.
The post does not show critical thinking about the scenario. Substantial improvement needs to be made based on instructor’s feedback.
Student did not participate OR The post is completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
Response Posts
The student has provided at least TWO responses to other students’ posts.
Responses provide a thoughtful, relevant and/or creative addition to the discussion.
APA reference(s) and in-text citation(s) provided where necessary.
Rubric for In Class Discussion
Two or less responses that provide an adequate addition to the discussion. Responses could improve as per instructor’s feedback.
Response does not add much to the discussion or is incorrect. Simply commenting “Good post” is inadequate.
Response adds virtually nothing to the discussion and/or is incorrect and/or completely irrelevant.
Student did not provide an answer, OR Response demonstrates extreme misunderstanding (or extremely inadequate understanding) of the content.
Engagement in discussion
The student has engaged and cooperated in the activity, and provided a relevant, thoughtful and/or creative consideration of the scenario based on the content of the chapter.
The student engaged and showed an understanding of the content but could have engaged more or improve as per instructor’s feedback.
The student has somewhat engaged. Engagement could improve significantly as per instructor’s feedback.
The student did not engage much.
Substantial improvement needs to be made based on instructor’s feedback.
ESSAY AND RESEARCH PAPER INSTRUCTIONS AND GRADING RUBRICS
Research Paper Instructions
Student did not participate OR the response was completely irrelevant and/or unrelated to the activity.
To the Student: For this activity, you are asked to choose a topic and write a research paper. The steps to write this paper have been divided into three parts. After the first two parts, the instructor will conduct a checkpoint and provide you with feedback so you may move onto the next part. The grading rubric for this assignment has been provided below.
PART 1
First, you will conduct a comprehensive literature search to find the best, most relevant and/or current information on the topic. You may need to meet with a librarian to get help with this step. All your sources need to be peer-reviewed journal articles from the library system. You will need at least seven peer-reviewed journal articles. Next, you should read the papers, highlight the important parts, and write a short summary of each. Then, put the
Clayton/ Privitera/ Kassin, Essentials of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027 articles into an APA-style References section. At this point, there will be a checkpoint and this step is worth 3 points.
PART 2
Second, you will critically think about what these papers suggest regarding the research topic as a whole. Once you understand the state of the question, based on your resources, you will create an outline of the paper. In this outline, you will plan for the points you intend to make in your paper. You may consider breaking down the points into different sections and use different subheadings for the different points. For each point to be made, show which articles you will include in the section as support in the form of in-text citations. You should also plan for an introduction paragraph and a conclusion paragraph.
PART 3
Write the full research paper according to your plan. You should aim for five to eight pages or 1,250–2,000 words, double-spaced in APA format. Every point that you are making should have support in the form of in-text citations of the references you have found. You may visit www.APAstyle.org to look at the proper APA format for research papers. Proofreading your work at the writing center is a good idea.
Checkpoint #1
Checkpoint #2
Student has: Shown seven peer-reviewed articles highlighted the important parts, provided summaries of the articles, and produced a Reference page in APA style
Student has: Created a plan to move forward, come up with points to be made and planned to use the articles in specific sections as in-text citations
The paper shows a clear, coherent understanding of the state of the question, and brings up important points and supports arguments.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper could improve the flow of the content, and/or the clarify segments and better explain points with better support.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs significant improvement to the flow of the content, and/or explanation of points needs to be significantly revised.
The paper is severely incomplete, and/or does not show any understanding of the literature whatsoever. Student must see instructor.
APA format and paper mechanics
The paper contains excellent mechanics, is of appropriate length, and is in APA style with use of proper in-text citations, references and/or other important formatting features.
The paper needs to improve mechanics, length, and/or APA style according to instructor’s feedback.
The paper does not use APA style and/or the mechanics are not working. Student must see instructor.
Essay Instructions
To the Student: For this activity, you are asked to choose a topic and write a three-page essay. Your essay should include an introduction, body, and conclusion. You will need to find at least two peer-reviewed journal articles and two other sources. You will need to cite in-text in APA style and provide a Reference section with your sources.
The paper shows a clear, coherent consideration of the topic, brings up important points and supports arguments.
APA format and paper mechanics
The paper contains excellent mechanics, is of appropriate length, and is in APA style.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper could improve the flow of the content, and/or clarify segments.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs significant improvement to the content.
As per instructor’s feedback, the paper needs to improve mechanics, length, and/or APA style according to instructor’s feedback.
The paper is severely incomplete, and/or shows little understanding of the assignment. Student must see instructor.
The paper does not use APA style and/or the mechanics are not working. Student must see instructor.
Clayton/ Privitera/ Kassin, Essentials of Psychology, 2e SAGE Publishing ©2027