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NICKEL

T HE M AG A ZINE DE VOT ED TO NICK EL A ND I T S A PPLIC ATIONS NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

Nickel leading the charge Nickel in rechargeable aviation batteries

Battery chat with Dr. Stanley Whittingham

Commercially pure nickel: outstanding corrosion resistance

MODJESKI AND MASTERS

CASE STUDY 29 IOWA-ILLINOIS MEMORIAL BRIDGE

ISSDA

It is one of the largest investments ever made by the two states Iowa and Illinois. Key priorities for the $1 billion USD project? Building a bridge designed for a 100-year lifespan as well as creating an iconic landmark that would transform and beautify the riverfront in the Quad Cities.

The arches are made from a combination of nickel-containing ASTM A709 HPS7OW and ASTM A709 HPS50W steel coated with a fluoropolymer coating system. The anchor and coupling nuts are made of Type 2507 (UNS S32750) duplex stainless steel with 116-ksi yield strength to reduce maintenance needs and extend the service life of the arches. Uncoated weathering steel was used in the floor system. Stainless steel was also used for the rebar in the bridge deck.

NICKEL, VOL. VOL. 38, 38, Nº Nº 3, 3, 2023 2023 22 || NICKEL,

The original twinned bridges were no longer capable of efficiently handling ever-increasing traffic loads in the bustling region. The first was built in the 1930s and then twinned in 1959. There were no shoulders and lane widths were substandard by modern day codes. Working together, the team of the Iowa and Illinois Departments of Transportation, engineering and infrastructure design firms Alfred Benesch and Company, and Modjeski and Masters developed a steel true arch “basket-handle” design with minimal bracing. General contractor Lunda Construction Co. began construction in 2017 and the bridge opened in late 2021. The need to keep traffic flowing between both states required complex staging

and unique building methods. To facilitate construction while sandwiched between two bridges, Lunda brought in two of the tallest free-standing tower cranes (400 ft tall) ever used to build a bridge in the Midwest. Constructing a bridge with 245 ft tall basket-handle arches required high-quality materials and emerging technology. To assemble them, fabricator Industrial Steel Construction created 30 welded steel box sections for each of the two spans at its Gary, Indiana facility. The arch sections were loaded onto barges and trucks and delivered to the Quad Cities. The two spans incorporate more than 35,000 tons of structural steel in total. This transformational project won top honors at the America’s Transportation Awards.

EDITORIAL: NICKEL LEADING THE CHARGE Victor Hugo once said, “There is nothing more powerful than an idea whose time has come”. And battery technology — particularly its role in the transition to an electric future — is such an idea. This is how Dr. Parvin Adeli, the Nickel Institute’s battery expert opened the Nickel Institute Battery Day in July 2023. You can read more about that event on page five. Battery Day was a rich source for the latest information on nickelcontaining batteries and inspiration for this edition of Nickel. Nickelcontaining batteries are shaping the future of energy storage and trans-

JOHN B. GOODENOUGH

AKIRA YOSHINO

portation, and the charge towards a greener and more connected world is propelled by nickel batteries. Nickel-based chemistries account for almost twothirds of the battery capacity for the electric vehicle sector, and new EVIATION ILLUSTRATION

applications for transport

STANLEY WHITTINGHAM

are continually under development. The sky’s the limit. Literally! At around 12% of transport-related emissions, aviation is in the spotlight. Could battery powered aircraft be common in the future? In this issue we weigh up the advances and challenges in the quest to electrify aviation.

Dr. John Goodenough, Dr. Akira Yoshino, and Dr. Stanley Whittingham were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize for chemistry, for their work in developing lithium-ion batteries.

Dr. Stanley Whittingham tells us about his own battery journey from the 1970s and the breakthroughs that led to his Nobel Prize for chemistry in 2019 for the development of lithium-ion batteries. His work and that of his co-laureates, Dr. John Goodenough and Dr. Akira Yoshino, is the basis for much of the battery technology in place today. And in our explainer series, Why Nickel? the topic is of course, batteries! While the focus of this issue of Nickel may be on batteries, we are not forgetting some of the other applications for nickel-containing materials. Turn to the back page to learn about the stunning Salmon Eye, a project commissioned to inspire and inform on how to provide the world with sustainable food from the sea. Another idea whose time has come. Clare Richardson Editor, Nickel

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 3

Case study no. 29 Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge

Editorial Nickel leading the charge

Nickel notables

Electric aviation

NICKEL

NOTABLES

CONTENTS

Approaching take-oﬀ speed?

Solid state batteries in EVs

Battery chat Dr. Stanley Whittingham

Hydrogen cell helper

Nickel alloys

Itʼs an important step towards making hydrogen fuel cells cleaner,

Commercially pure nickel

more cost-effective, and more efficient. A research team from the

Interview with

13 14

Technical Q&A

Why nickel?

UNS details

Salmon Eye Floating installation

University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) has developed a nickel-based anion-exchange membrane fuel cell (AEMFC) anode catalyst with high resistance to ammonia (NH 3) toxicity. Platinum on carbon (Pt/C) catalysts have demonstrated susceptibility to ammonia poisoning which causes performance degradation. The team was able to tackle this problem by enriching electrons around nickel sites and doping chromium into the efficient hydrogen oxidation catalyst molybdenum-nickel alloy (MoNi4), greatly weakening the ammonia adsorption. Findings were published in the Journal of the American

Nickel magazine is published by Nickel Institute

Chemical Society.

www.nickelinstitute.org Dr. Hudson Bates, President Clare Richardson, Editor communications@nickelinstitute.org

Design: Constructive Communications Material has been prepared for the general information of the reader and should not be used or relied upon for specific applications without first securing competent advice. While the material is believed to be technically correct, Nickel Institute, its members, staff and consultants do not represent or warrant its suitability for any general or specific use and assume no liability or responsibility of any kind in connection with the information herein. ISSN 0829-8351 Printed in Canada on recycled paper by Hayes Print Group Stock image credits: Cover: iStock©Just_Super pg 13. Shutterstock©Lakeview Images

4 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY (2023). DOI: 10.1021/JACS.3C06903

Contributors: Parvin Adeli, Gary Coates, Richard Matheson, Colin Mackay, Geir Moe, Kim Oakes, Odette Ziezold

THE DAILY SCIENCE

Physicists from the Vienna University of Technology have discovered excellent thermoelectric properties of nickel-gold alloys that can be used to eﬃciently convert heat into electrical energy. Outperforming conventional semiconductors, the unique combination of these metals enables high electrical conductivity and a significant Seebeck coeﬃcient. By mixing the magnetic metal nickel with the noble metal gold, they were able to radically change the electronic properties. As soon as the yellowish colour of gold disappears when about 10% nickel is added, the thermoelectric performance increases rapidly. Because of particular electronic properties of the nickel atoms, positive charges are scattered more strongly than negative charges, which resulted in the desired imbalance to create a high thermoelectric voltage. Explains Fabian Garmroudi, first author of the study, “With the same geometry and fixed temperature gradient, many times more electrical power could be generated than in any other known material.” The high-power density may enable everyday applications in the large-scale sector in the future, opening doors for other promising, cost-effective metallic alloys for thermoelectric use.

UNSPLASH+

A golden discovery A good dose of vitamin C Whatʼs good for human health has proven to be an eﬀective ingredient for EV battery recycling. Researchers at the University of Birmingham have developed a method to separate out higher value materials using ascorbic acid. To test the concept, Nissan Leaf battery cells with at least 40,000 miles were treated with organic acids, such as ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), as the leaching agents. The results, published in ChemRxiv, demonstrated that ascorbic acid selectively leaches low-value electrode material (lithium manganese oxide) and leaves the higher-value nickel and cobalt-based material in a solid state, from which it can be directly recycled. Their now patented process is less energy-intensive and uses less hazardous chemicals than current recycling methods.

Power presentation In July 2023, the Nickel Institute brought together some of the brightest minds in the battery world to share their insights and expertise on advances in nickel-containing battery technologies. Eight expert speakers, including Nobel Prize winner for chemistry, Professor Stanley Whittingham and Dr. Jeff Dahn, Principal Investigator NSERC/Tesla Canada Alliance Grant at Dalhousie University, explored nickel-containing battery technologies, discussed emerging applications and examined the role of recycling. The Battery Day summary report is now available from the Nickel Institute website. The next NI Battery Day is scheduled for June 6, 2024. www.nickelinstitute.org

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 5

ELECTRIC AVIATION: APPROACHING TAKE-OFF SPEED?

In the battle to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, virtually all modes of transport are exploring and deploying alternatives to fossil-fuel powered vehicles. Battery power is playing a major role in this, particularly in roadbased applications. Until now, the aviation sector has been relatively resistant to such change. However, it is already responsible for some 12% of transportrelated emissions. Demand for air transport, both passenger and freight, is growing rapidly again following the pandemic. Without mitigation measures, this level of emissions seems likely to increase. It is therefore understandable that aviation is under increasing pressure to reduce its environmental impact through alternative energy sources. Radical redesigns required

challenging given that, unlike jet

So far, the sector has preferred to

fuel, their weight doesn’t decrease

explore the potential of options

as the power is used. It is, however,

such as hydrogen power and

worth noting that this is somewhat

sustainable aviation fuels. To an

of a misrepresentation; electrical

extent, this reflects existing market

power can lead to weight savings

inertia; the airline industry is well

in a number of other aspects of

established; original equipment

aviation.

manufacturers produce airframes

Providing proof of concept

compatible with conventional jet fuel-powered aeroengines, while aeroengine manufacturers make PIPISTREL

power plants compatible with modern airframes. Switching to elecThe Pipistrel Velis Electro, the first type certification worldwide of a fully electric aircraft and an important milestone in the quest for environmentally sustainable aviation. — European Union Aviation Safety Agency

6 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

trical power plants would require the radical redesign of commercial airframes, which would be both costly and time consuming.

So, is there a role for battery power in aviation? Clearly, the answer is: yes. Indeed, in the area of light aircraft, electrical power is already a reality; the Pipistrel Velis Electro – a single-engine, two-seater light aircraft – has been certified for operation in Europe since 2020. Looking almost indistinguishable

The other element is that batteries

from a conventional light aircraft,

have been perceived as lacking

its two high-performance batteries

sufficient energy density to

make it capable of flying for up to

compensate for their weight. This

50 minutes (and it can operate on

aspect is seen as particularly

one battery in the event of failure).

While the certification of the first

high nickel chemistries to achieve

true electric aircraft may not alone

high-specific energy. In high-

be a gamechanger, it represents an

specific energy batteries, the nickel

important proof of concept. It has

is usually used in combination

made it inarguable that battery

with cobalt and either manganese,

powered aircraft can, and do, work.

‘NCM’, or with aluminium, ‘NCA’.

This is acting as a stimulus to new

When these metals are distrib-

developments.

uted throughout the transition

increase the energy density of batteries; enlarge this, and range and performance will be extended as a result. It is here that nickel is likely to play an increasing role. At the moment, nickel has a number of applications in conventional

metal layer in a cathode, they act together to enhance performance. Manufacturers have realised that increasing the level of nickel enhances the storage capacity of a battery without significantly increasing weight, improving the overall energy density. Now that

aircraft, particularly in jet turbines,

battery power for aircraft has been

with superalloys providing excep-

proven viable, this development

tional high-temperature strength,

will provide a further significant

corrosion resistance, and thermal

boost.

stability. In the aviation of the

The question of safety of batter-

future, it will be nickel’s capacity to boost battery energy density that will become its dominant role.

ies in aviation is fundamental. The early days of Boeing’s 787 ‘Dreamliner’, albeit a convention-

A significant boost

ally powered aircraft, were marked

Nearly all batteries deployed in

by fires caused by thermal runaway

electric aircraft already in service

issues in the lithium batteries they

and in development, make use of

used for onboard power. This is

Joby JAS4-1 Specifications Aircraft type: Tiltrotor eVTOL Seats: Pilot + 4 pax Max takeoff weight: 4,800 lb Length: 21 ft Wingspan: 39 ft Max cruising altitude: 15,000 ft Max cruise speed: 170 kt (200 mph) Range: Up to 150 sm (130 nm) Propulsion: Six electric motors, four on the wings and two on the V-tail. Motors include dual redundant inverters, variable prop control, nacelle tilting and cooling, and dual windings. Power/energy storage: Four lithium-ion battery packs –jobyaviation.com

©JOBY AVIATION

The ideal next step would be to

In the future, it will be nickel’s capacity to boost battery energy density that will become its dominant role.

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 7

likelihood of them being phased out in the foreseeable future; electric batteries cannot offer alternatives yet. In other settings, however, they can. Electric engines are lighter, quieter, more reliable with fewer moving parts and offer a relatively constant power-to-weight ratio irrespective of their size. As a result, more, MAEVE AEROSPACE B.V. © 2023

rather than larger, engines are an option, with far fewer limits on their location on the airframe. This means that electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft are a serious problem on the ground, and a considerably greater one when in the air. The industry has recognised these concerns, and batteries certified for aircraft use must be shown to be resistant to thermal runaway. In the event that fire does happen, it is contained and does not spread across other batteries or even the aircraft. Furthermore, any potential risks need to be weighed against the risk posed by carrying large quantities of highly flammable aviation fuel.

Maeve 01 is the world’s first-ever electric aircraft with a capacity of 44+, setting a new standard for sustainable and eco-friendly air travel. With a recharge time of only 35 minutes, the Maeve electric aircraft enables rapid and streamlined flight operations. – Maeve Aerospace B.V.

8 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

becoming a reality. The near-silent operation of their engines opens up a range of potential applications, including air taxis, delivery services and emergency services. As well as interest from existing players such as Airbus and Boeing, many startup manufacturers are seeking to reach the market. These include Maeve (44–50 passengers) and Eviation (nine passengers), which are seeking to produce regional airliners with ranges of 250–330 nautical miles. These will use around 30 tons and 9 tons of

Lighter, quieter, and more reliable

nickel respectively throughout

In terms of market potential for

their lifetime. In addition, US-based

aircraft batteries and nickel use,

Joby Aviation and Archer Aviation,

it’s important not to view this

as well German manufacturer

opportunity solely through the

Lilium, are developing air taxis as

prism of existing aviation appli-

is Velis, maker of the Pipistrel.

cations. Conventional airliners

Estimates for the full market poten-

have immense design restrictions

tial for batteries depends on a range

imposed on them by their reliance

of variables, most significantly the

on (usually) two increasingly large,

numbers of aircraft and batteries.

heavy, and noisy power plants,

However, with the growing pressure

which goes a long way to determine

on meeting emissions targets and

their deployment, requiring sig-

the increasing demand for air-based

nificant infrastructure in terms of

transport, the opportunities for

airports. Despite this, there is no

nickel are likely to be significant.

THE RACE TOWARDS SOLID-STATE BATTERIES IN EVS Solid-state batteries (SSB) that have nickel-rich cathodes have captured a tremendous amount of attention in recent years and this interest keeps growing. The most significant distinction between the conventional Li-ion batteries and all-SSBs is the move from a liquid electrolyte to a solid one. Safety is the key selling point of solid-state batteries which employ solid electrolytes in lieu of their flammable organic liquid counterparts. Additionally, a solid-state battery offers higher energy density by enabling a lithium metal anode, which has specific energy ten times higher than the graphite one used in lithium-ion batteries.

Li metal is very reactive and if it were incorporated with a liquid electrolyte, extreme safety issues would result. Contrary to lithiumion batteries, all-solid-state batteries provide a platform for Li metal to be integrated because the liquid electrolyte (+ separator) is replaced with a solid layer. This rigid layer hinders leakage and reduces the formation of unwanted structures. Furthermore, solid electrolytes have a higher thermal stability compared to liquid electrolyte. This means SSBs can offer a wider

range of applications and enhanced safety. Solid state batteries also have the advantage of eliminating expensive cell production steps such as electrolyte filling. In both battery types, cathode consists of cathode active material plus a conductive agent (e.g., car-

Electrode material selection has a direct impact on the energy density of automotive battery cells. In a conventional Li-ion battery (LIB), the common components are lithium metal oxide cathode, organic liquid electrolyte and the typical anode material is graphite. However, in terms of theoretical energy density, the most desired anode material is Li metal. Metallic lithium has the advantage of being lightweight and possessing the lowest potential among all elements, meaning more energy can be stored.

Several companies are racing to place a practical solid-state battery in electric vehicles and have made bold announcements. Several motor manufacturers including Toyota, NIO, General Motors (GM), Nissan, Ford, BMW, have solid-state aspirations, and are teaming up with battery manufacturers.

bon additive) and possibly a binder (polymer-based). Therefore, in a SSB, incorporating a Li metal anode in combination with a Ni-rich cathode offers high practical capacities. High-capacity Ni-rich cathodes complement solid-state batteries. And higher safety means that ultra-Ni-rich cathodes can be implemented to provide a battery with very high energy density. While there is excitement and advantages of solid-state batteries,

A prototype of Toyota Motor Corp.’s forthcoming electric vehicle batteries, unveiled at a media event preceding the Japan Mobility Show in October 2023.

technical challenges still need to be overcome. SSB-based EVs have a way to go before they can be adopted widely by the market, but there is everything to play for. Nickel-rich solid-state batteries have the potential to eliminate range anxiety and ease the transition to electric vehicles.

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 9

BATTERY CHAT — AN INTERVIEW WITH DR. STANLEY WHITTINGHAM

Dr. Stanley Whittingham is a SUNY distinguished professor of chemistry and the 2019 Chemistry Nobel Laureate for pioneering research leading to the de velopment of the lithium-ion batteries. The Nickel Institute’s battery specialist, Dr. Parvin Adeli caught up with him to talk about his long career in battery

SEBASTIAN GOLLNOW, AP IMAGES

research and what’s next. Q: Tell us about your battery research

cells for some applications. The

journey. What made you embark on a

price went down, and Exxon lost

career on batteries and carry on?

interest and licensed to Sony. Sony

Back in the 1970s the interest

then developed the lithium-ion

was electric vehicles, electronic gadgets, backup storage for applications like telephones, but not for large grid storage. I was working for Exxon at the time, and their interest was that they wanted to be the energy company not the oil

Dr. Stanley Whittingham is a Chemistry Nobel laureate with more than 200 publications in leading scholarly journals and 16 patents. He has earned a national and international reputation as a prolific scientist.

most systems are 80% nickel, 10% manganese, 10% cobalt. Q: Do you think a Nobel Prize was overdue?

company. They wanted to explore

People have commented on it. John

EVs as well as continue with ICE.

Goodenough was the oldest person to receive a Nobel Prize. We were

Q: When did you realise the signifi-

happy that he lived long enough to

cance to the energy landscape of

accept it.

your discovery of the intercalation (housing) of lithium ions in a host material? Early on. Because our first paper was published in Science and that

10 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

rechargeable battery for all the electronic gadgets. Right now,

Q: What were the key challenges you faced during the process of developing the lithium-ion battery? The biggest challenge is that we

is not easy to get into. The particu-

made all the inventions. All the

lar material that we worked on

battery intellectual property

was titanium disulphide which,

is American or British but then

at a molecular level, has spaces

everything got moved to Asia

that can house – intercalate –

because Europeans and Americans

lithium ions. Exxon made small

did not want to invest the money

in learning how to manufacture.

Q: What are the next steps for this

The huge issue we face now is that

research?

for materials, trained people or manufacturing facilities. We just received $113 million USD from the federal government of

The next step is to study behaviour at different temperatures and see if we can get to 800-1000 cycles. This means building bigger cells for EVs. The theoretical energy density possible for high-nickel

New York State to build a prototyp-

cathodes should be 1000 Wh/kg. In

ing facility in an old IBM building

reality the cell is at 250 Wh/kg, so

and $12 million USD to train the

we are only getting 25%. The goal

workforce. That is what is missing

is to get up to 500 Wh/kg to double

in North America. Q: You are currently working on the impact of Nb coating/substitution in Ni-rich cathode materials. How does

the energy density. We are also doing some research funded by the US army to see how well the Nb-coated NMC behaves at higher and lower temperatures.

the modification with Nb affect the

Q: Do you have the infrastructure to

overall battery performance?

achieve this at Binghamton?

We know that 60% nickel is stable

We have one of the few dry rooms

in the air and works well. However, once the nickel content reaches 80%, stability in the air becomes compromised. This means we have to control the atmosphere more

and pouch cells manufacturing facilities in the US within a University. I work as part of Battery 500, a EVIATION

we have no supply chain in the US

large consortium of national labs and academic institutions, so we

as the reactivity with the battery

work closely together with them.

electrolyte increases so we lose

We are going to scale up.

capacity fairly fast. We started stabilising the 80% nickel by adding valence elements. We found niobium works best. We got several

Q: We discussed cathodes, but we know that electrolytes are also important. Can you tell us about your recent studies on the impact of

hundred cycles out of 90% Ni (NMC

different electrolytes on nickel-rich

9055) with about 1% Nb. You do

cathodes?

not need more than that. It looks

One of the things we are doing in

like Nb stops the cracking of those

Battery 500 is getting rid of the

cathode particles, and there is no

graphite anode, so we are using

capacity loss over several hundred

pure Li metal. Pure Li metal

cycles. The results are published

does not plate-out well from the

in our 2022 open access paper: Electrochemical characterization and

Eviation, a company based north of Seattle, is designing a standard take-off plane not a VTOL.

carbonate electrolyte presently used in Li-ion. We developed a new electrolyte which is really based

microstructure evolution of Ni-rich

on the old Exxon electrolyte. The

layered cathode materials by niobium

new electrolyte is organic ethers,

coating/substitution.

with a new salt LiFSI included.

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 11

BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY

The ether plate-out Li is much

Q: Two recent US startups are working

better than the carbonate. We have

on scaling up high-nickel cathode

been looking at how stable those

materials (Ni>90%). What’s your

systems are. Do they react with Li

view?

or high nickel? So, we embarked

Most of the commercial batteries

on a thermal stability study. Our

for the last decade have been

major goals in Battery 500 right

⅓Ni, ⅓Co, ⅓Mn and then it went to

now are to study the stability of

60% Ni. Then we have Tesla using

the entire system, understand any

high-nickel NCA in EVs. It was 85%

side reactions that we do not want

Ni and now going to 90% Ni. These

and how to wipe them out. The stability study started maybe a year ago and we published the first paper in 2023: Enabling Long Cycling

days we talk NMCA [nickel-manganese-cobalt-aluminium oxide]. The goal is to get higher Ni. The question is, how high is too high?

with Excellent Structure Stability

Q: What is your perspective on the

for High-Nickel Layered Cathodes in

various applications that nickel

Lithium Metal Batteries.

batteries contribute to a sustainable future beyond EVs?

Q: What is the commercialisation The goal is to get higher Ni. The question is, how high is too high?

path for Nb doped NMC materials ?

Beyond EVs, batteries for drones. The next logical step is search

My suspicion is that people are

and rescue, moving people in

already looking at it and they have

emergencies. Also, aerospace type

not told us yet. When they want to

applications.

commercialise it, they will come

Eviation, a company based north

and talk to us about licensing. All

of Seattle, is designing a standard

the details are in the publication

take-off plane, as opposed to a

mentioned earlier.

VTOL.

Dr. Stanley Whittingham received his BA and DPhil degrees in chemistry from Oxford University, where he is an honorary Fellow of New College. He has been active in Li-batteries since 1971 when he won the Young Author Award of the Electrochemical Society for his work on beta-alumina. In 1972, he joined Exxon and discovered the role of intercalation in battery reactions, which resulted in the first commercial lithium rechargeable batteries that were built by Exxon Enterprises. After 16 years at Exxon, he returned to academia in 1988. At Binghamton University (SUNY) he has initiated a program in materials chemistry. A Chemistry Nobel laureate with more than 200 publications in leading scholarly journals and 16 patents, Whittingham has earned a national and international reputation as a prolific scientist.

12 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

COMMERCIALLY PURE NICKEL While the element nickel is the basis of a wide variety of nickel-containing alloys, what about nickel on its own? What do we know about commercially pure (C.P.) nickel? Commercially pure (C.P.) nickel

production of caustic soda, in

(99.0% min) is available in two

caustic evaporators and crystal-

grades Nickel 200 (UNS N02200)

lisers, U-tubes in heat exchangers

and Nickel 201 (N02201). Nickel 201

and salt separators.

has a lower carbon content which

This caustic soda is then used in

is specified when operating above

many significant industries, such

315 °C (600 °F) to prevent embrittle-

as, extraction of alumina from

ment by graphite formation.

bauxite which is used to produce

C.P. nickel has corrosion resist-

aluminium; in pulping wood for making paper; in the conversion

ance that is useful in several chemical processing applications.

of fats into soap and for making

An outstanding characteristic

artificial textiles such as rayon.

is its resistance to caustic soda

Also, C.P. nickel has excellent

(sodium hydroxide) and other

resistance to dry chlorine gas

alkalis. In caustic soda, C.P. nickel

at high temperature. The upper

has excellent resistance to all

limit for Nickel 201 is about 540 °C

concentrations up to and includ-

(1000 °F). C.P. nickel is used for

ing the molten state. Below 50%

reactors, coils, agitators, and

concentration, corrosion rates

piping in the 250-500 °C (480-

are negligible, even in boiling

930 °F) range in the production of

solutions. C.P. nickel is one of the

chlorine.

best metals for resisting caustic

While the element nickel is the

corrosion while simultaneously

basis of a wide variety of nickel-

avoiding unacceptable metal

containing alloys, C.P. nickel

contamination. C.P. nickel is

is also an important industrial

used in many applications in the

material.

C.P. nickel is one of the best metals for resisting caustic corrosion while simultaneously avoiding unacceptable metal contamination.

Strength, min, MPa (ksi) (annealed) Grade

UNS

%Ni

Yield

Tensile

Nickel 200

N02200

99.0 min

0.15 max

100 (15)

380 (55)

Nickel 201

N02201

99.0 min

0.02 max

80 (12)

345 (50)

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 13

ASK AN EXPERT FAQ FROM THE NICKEL INSTITUTE TECHNICAL ADVICE LINE

NICKEL

O N L I N E

Geir Moe P.Eng. is the Technical Inquiry Service Coordinator at the Nickel Institute. Along with other material specialists situated around the world, Geir helps end-users and specifiers of nickel-containing materials seeking technical support. The team is on hand to provide technical advice free of charge on a wide range of applications such as stainless steel, nickel alloys and nickel plating to enable nickel to be used with confidence. https://inquiries.nickelinstitute.org/

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Q A

Q: A customer is requesting 316L tubing with higher sulfur (0.005–0.017%) for pharmaceutical application. After welding there is dross on the weld. My

question is: Why is the higher sulfur content required? And what action can be taken to avoid the dross formation during welding?

A: Sulfur is a complicated element in nickel-containing stainless steel. In the majority of cases it’s undesirable. Sulfur promotes centerline cracking in austenitic welds. Sulfide inclusions are potential sites for pitting corrosion by chloride and can produce unsightly surface imperfections which are aesthetically undesirable, particularly if stainless steel is going to be polished. Thus, stainless steel mills have worked hard to reduce sulfur levels as much as possible, down to 0.001 % and lower. However, sulfur is a surface-active agent and has a large influence on weld pool flow. The sulfur range of 0.005-0.017 % is a requirement of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers’ Bioprocessing Equipment

The dross is primarily sulfides that float to the surface of the weld pool and thus accumulate on the surface of the advancing weld pool. The dross is due to the higher sulfur content and the amount of dross present at the end of the weld will increase as the tube diameter increases. The dross can’t be avoided but can easily be brushed off.

WELD PENETRATION

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Standard to ensure optimal weld penetration particularly for orbital gas tungsten arc welds which is the preferred weld method used by the pharmaceutical industry. Sulfur promotes convergent mass flow which in turn promotes heat flow to the centre of the weld at the surface which then diverts downward in the centre of the weld to promote deeper weld penetration.

Molten metal

Base metal

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14 | NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023

With low sulfur shallow penetration

With higher sulfur deeper penetration

Nickel can be found in many forms from nanowires to stainless steel alloys. But what are the properties of nickel that make it an essential element in everyday objects?

Why nickel? NICKEL IN YOUR BATTERIES

The battery A battery converts chemical energy into electric energy. It powers devices, such as smartphones, portable power tools and cars. Batteries come in various chemistries, shapes and sizes depending on the size and power requirements of the device being powered. It consists of one or more electrochemical cells, which is comprised of two electrodes – an anode and a cathode – and an electrolyte. When the two electrodes are linked by an electrical pathway, electrons ﬂow from the anode and deliver energy to an external device.

During discharge, lithium ions (Li+) migrate from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte. The NMC cathode serves as the host for these lithium ions. Also, at the cathode the nickel, manganese and cobalt ions are reduced by accepting the electrons that are passing through the electrical pathway. This reaction can be reversed, making the battery rechargeable.

Anode (-)

Electrolyte Separator Cathode (+)

Graphite Lithium-Ion

Electron

Why Nickel? Lithium-ion is the most common battery type, however, there are many diﬀerent formulations. NMC is the most popular cathode which stands for Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide.

The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. Nickel is known for its high speciﬁc energy but poor stability; manganese has low speciﬁc energy but provides stability. Combining these metals enhances each others’ strengths.

Li-Metal Oxides

UNS DETAILS

Chemical compositions (% by weight) of the alloys and stainless steels mentioned in this issue of Nickel.

UNS

S31254 pg 16

0.020 max

19.520.5

0.501.00

bal

1.00 max

6.06.5

0.180.22

17.518.5

0.030 max

0.010 max

0.80 max

S32750 pg 2

0.030 max

24.026.0

bal

1.20 max

3.05.0

0.240.32

6.08.0

0.035 max

0.020 max

0.80 max

NICKEL, VOL. 38, Nº 3, 2023 | 15

SEBASTIAN L. TORJUSEN

SALMON EYE FOOD FOR THOUGHT

@SALMONEYE

It’s a unique project, featuring 9,275 seawate r-re sistant stainle ss steel cladding elements produced to withstand long-term exposure to seawater. Called Salmon Eye, this four-storey, 23 m high ﬂ oating aquaculture pavilion was unveiled in Norway’s Hardangerfjord in September 2022. Salmon Eye is not only a spectacular art installation, but also world-class visitor and learning centre, and home to a fine-dining restaurant, Iris.

Nickel-containing stainless steel used for the facade is 6% Mo (UNS S31254). • 1 of a kind fl oating experience • 2 electric shuttle ferries transport visitors to the pavilion • 13 anchors • 26 m in diameter • 330° vie w from roof top

16 NICKEL, | NICKEL,VOL. VOL.38,38,NºNº3,3,2023 2023

With one level underwater, the frame of the structure is made of bent H-beams and sheathed with steel sheets. Rectangular plates with cut corners are attached to the curved body of the building. Small stainless steel elements, designed to resemble silvery fish scales, reﬂect the surrounding nature on the outer surface of the pavilion. This complex elliptical shape ﬂoats on the surface of the 100 metres deep bay, creating special requirements for the load bearing and envelope structures. Moored with large anchors to the bottom of the

fjord, it weighs 1 000 tonnes and is built to withstand waves up to 5 m high. Ballast tanks are positioned on the ground ﬂoor to keep the ﬂoating structure stable. This stunning example of sustainable architecture was designed by the Danish firm Kvorning Design for the Norwegian salmon and trout farm Eide Fjordbruk. The project was commissioned to inspire and inform about how we can provide the world with sustainable food from the sea. Now thatʼs food for thought.