Landscape Architecture Master Thesis Acacemie van Bouwkunst Amsterdam - 2025 Mentor: Anna Maria Fink Committee members: Lada Hrsak, Remco von Togt
Lujia Zhu 朱露嘉 NATIONS, DANUBE, AND THOSE WHO LIVE CLOSE BY Landscape Architecture Master Thesis Acacemie van Bouwkunst Amsterdam - 2025
Danube’s course crossing a nation Danube’s course overlapping an international border
Study site
River, Border, Territory Introduction
0
Fisk’s famous map of the Mississippi River beautifully illustrates the free-flowing nature of a river, that over time it meanders, floods, and recedes. Globally and throughout history, we have invested in various methods to restrict rivers’ movement. We want to keep it tamed, predictable, and make it flow fast or slow depends on our needs. As Dilip da Cunha (2018) sharply pointed out, “... separating land from water is an act of design facilitated by a uniquely endowed line in a chosen moment of time“.
Figure 1
Figure 1. Fisk, Harold. Meander Maps of the Mississippi River, 1944. Map. The Public Domain Review. July 21, 2020. https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/maps-of-the-lower-mississippi-harold-fisk/
These “designed lines” are usually what is drawn on a map. Taking an old map of the Danube River as an example, the lines indicate levees, retaining walls, weirs, irrigation channels, and many other water engineering structures to define and freeze water’s many paths. They are evident in the physical world and serve a good purpose to separate land from water.
water
land
Figure 2
Figure 2. Treaty of Trianon. Hungarian–Czechoslovak border, 1925. Map. Arcanum Maps. https://maps.arcanum.com/en/map/ trianon100
The international border is another “designed line” that even though is not as apparent in the physical world, holds an even higher significance in real life. The international border between Slovakia and Hungary decides that two sides of the same river belong to two different nations, which has varied visions, policies, decisions on the Danube.
Hungary
Slovakia
Gabčíkovo Electric Danube and the international border
Hungary
The river landscape in this area becomes more complicated with the construction of the Gabčíkovo Dam. The realisation of the dam is a story of complex geopolitical relationships entangled with the demands of water engineering — ultimately reshaping the river’s ecosystem and groundwater levels, with consequences for both nations. This is the study area of the thesis.
c Dam system Slovakia
Duna, Dunaj, The Gabičíkov
(Historical) relationship between human, na
vo Dam
ation and the Danube
1
In 1867, following the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, The Blue Danube was composed to lift the nation’s spirit. As its notes echoed through Vienna and across Europe, the Austrian Empire joined hands with the Kingdom of Hungary, forging a new Central European power.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Overview of the city of Vienna with bridge crossing the Danube, 1830. Engraving. Meisterdrucke. https://www.meisterdrucke.uk/fine-art-prints/Unknown-artist/1024804/Overview-of-the-city-of-Viennawith-bridge-crossing-the-Danube.-Austria-Engraving-from-1830-Private-Collection.html
The river Danube first wound through the forested hills of Germany, its water shallow, clear and swift. As it flowed between the mountains in Austria, its course broadened and became steadier. After the river passed Pressburg -today’s Bratislava -- its character changed once again.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Kunike, Adolph. The Danube at Weltenburg (Bavaria). Engraving. DZM Museum. https://www.dzm-museum.de/en/danube-swabian-culture-and-history/
N
With no mountains to restrain its course, the river ran unbound across a flat land stretching for 50 kilometers. Wide and narrow channels fanned out, met, and parted again -- each in turn dominating the other -- endlessly braiding an ever-changing pattern across the landscape.
Figure 5
Figure 5. Historical map of the site in 1800s. Adapted from Second military survey of the Habsburg Empire, 1819-1869. Map. Arcanum Maps. https://maps.arcanum. com/en/map/secondsurvey-hungary
In this stretch, the Danube was not always blue. Its color shifted between dark, inky green and murky yellow. The water was unpredictable, moody, and haunting. The land was once carpeted by miles of willow forests, and when their leaves rustled in the wind, sounded like ‘a planet flying through space.’
Figure 6
Figure 6. Prohászka-Tallós, Štefan. Cormorant Island, 1930-1935. Oil painting. Pressburger kipferl. October 9, 2022. https://pressburgerkipferl.sk/das-letzte-wasserparadies-auf-derdonau-ist-nach-sueden-gezogen-erinnerungen-an-die-kormoraninsel
Aside from its romanticized portrayal in music and literature, the Danube has served very practical purposes throughout history. The Romans viewed it as their frontier, establishing military bases to protect the Empire from the ‘Barbaricum.’
Figure 7
Figure 7. Roman lime, 19th century. engraving. Planet wissen. July 13, 2021. https://www.planetwissen.de/kultur/voelker/roemer_in_germanien/pwiedievarusschlacht100.html
The Kingdom of Hungary (1600s in the image) saw the riverside as the land of productivity. Along its banks, they farmed, grazed, and harvested, drawing sustenance from the Danube.
Figure 8
Figure 8. Braun, Georg & Hogenberg, Frans. Bird’s-eye view of Bratislava (Presburg-Pozsony), 1635. Copper engraving. Sanderus. https://sanderusmaps.com/our-catalogue/antique-maps/europe/central-europe/ old-antique-map-bird-s-eye-view-of-bratislava-presburg-pozsony-by-braun-and-hogenberg-2327
Austria-Hungary (1867-1918) began a chapter of systematic waterworks, stabilizing the riverbanks with massive amounts of rock and constructing higher dikes for flood protection.
Figure 9
Figure 9. Heath, Charles. Walls of Vienna along the Danube and the Schalg-Brucke, 1821. Steel engraving after Rober Batty’s drawing. Posterazzi. https://www.posterazzi.com/vienna-danube1821-nwalls-of-vienna-along-the-danube-and-the-schlag-brucke-steel-engraving-1821-after-adrawing-by-robert-batty-poster-print-by-granger-collection-item-vargrc0101571/
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Shifts in geopolitics and the expanding demands of water engineering gradually reshaped the river. The First World War dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and in 1920, Danube became a border once again. The south-west side of the river kept the name Hungary, and the other side was renamed to Czechoslovakia. By that time, much of the river’s course had already been dredged and straightened. Yet the most dramatic change was still to come.
Kingdom of Hungary (1780)
Figure 10
Czechoslovakia (1941)
Hungary Figure 11
Figure 10. Historical map of the site in late 1700s. Adapted from Königreich Ungarn first military survey, 1782-1785. Map. Arcanum Maps. https://maps.arcanum.com/en/map/firstsurvey-hungary Figure 11. Historical map of the site in 1941. Adapted from Military Survey of Hungary, 1941. Map. Arcanum Maps. https://maps.arcanum.com/en/map/hungary1941
In the 1950s, after the suffering and destruction of the Second World War, like many nations, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the Hungarian People’s Republic sought a swift recovery. Rebuilding what had been lost was not enough—they dreamed of a brighter, faster, and more progressive future. Large-scale infrastructure promised both economic growth and a boost to national morale. Looking to the Danube between them, they saw an opportunity: to build two jointly funded dams that could improve flood control, enhance navigation, and generate hydroelectricity.
Figure 12
Figure 12. Construction work of the Bös lock system in Slovakia, 1988. Photo. Fortepan. https://fortepan.hu/hu/photos/?id=250502
The project was originally called Gabčíkovo–Nagymaros, named after the two towns—Gabčíkovo in Czechoslovakia and Nagymaros in Hungary—where the hydroelectric dams were to be built. The plan alarmed ecologists in Hungary, who, together with the general public, protested for years. Ultimately, Hungary withdrew from the agreement, and nothing was ever built at Nagymaros.
Figure 13
Figure 13. Demonstration against the construction of the Bös-Nagymaros dam, May 27,1988. Photo. Sajtoszoba blog. August 4, 2020. https://sajtoszoba.blog. hu/2020/08/04/a_rendszervaltas_hangulata_es_szereploi_kepekben
Around the same time, on the other side of the river, Slovakia was completing its Velvet Divorce from the Czech Republic. For the first time in history, Slovakia would appear on the world map as an independent nation. To them, the Dam became a symbol of international recognition and national pride.
Figure 14
Figure 14. ČT24, Vladimír Mečiar, Václav Klaus, August 12, 2017, Radio Prague International, August 12, 2017, https://english.radio.cz/twenty-five-yearsafter-divorce-czechs-and-slovaks-closer-ever-8174546
The Danube’s wetland within Hungarian territory would still suffer severely if Slovakia continued construction. However, there was little Hungary could do because the entire dam now lay within Slovak borders.
Figure 15
Figure 15. Climate Policy Institute. August 29, 2025. https://klimapolitikaiintezet.hu/en/analyse/ diplomacy-slovakia-hungarys-danube-hydropower-energy-security?ref=centraleuropeantimes.com
In 1992, after the dam was put into operation and diverted the majority of the Danube’s flow, the once free spirited, intricate labyrinth river streams were drained in a matter of days.
Assessment of Long-Term Changes in the Szigetköz Floodplain of the Danube
235
Figure 16
Figure 16. Gáborthe Guti, diversion “Assessment of Long-Term Changes October in the Szigetköz Floodplain of Fig. 8 Changes of the main arm: 1991—before of the river, 1992—after the the Danube River,” in Human Impact on Danube Watershed Biodiversity in the XXI Century diversion of the river, 2009—progress of terrestrial on the dry river bed (Springer, vegetation 2020), 215–40, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37242-2_11.
ad.banaduc@yahoo.com
1780s
1819-1869
Over the years, among the political turnovers and ambitious water engineering projects, the power of the Danube has been largely diminished. And the construction of the Dam crossed a threshold, took away the water, the very foundation of an organic and vital river landscape. This led to a dramatic change and loss in the river’s eco-system, and created consequences that we are just now beginning to understand.
1869-1887
1910
1941
2025
Although the dam protected some places from floods, it caused floods elsewhere. In 2024—32 years after the Dam began operation—the capital was hit by the biggest flood in three decades. To this day, no study has compared the profits of the electricity generated to the costs of maintaining the Dam, the expenses of flood repairs, and the known and unforeseen consequences of changes in groundwater levels.
Figure 17
Figure 17. Flooding along the Danube in Bratislava, September 2024. Photograph by David Mariancik. Source: Sona Macor Otajovicova, “Slovakia’s Capital Hit by Biggest Floods in 30 Years,” Deutsche Welle, September 18, 2024, https://www.dw.com/en/slovakias-capital-hit-by-biggest-floods-in-30-years/a-70251068
Universal Declarat
1. Right to flow 2. To perform essential functio 3. To be free from pollution 4. To feed and be fed by susta 5. To native biodiversity 6. To regeneration and restora
Inspired by successful river lawsuits in Colombia and New Zealand, the Earth Law Center, a U.S. based organization, drafted a Universal Declaration of River Rights in 2020, identifying six fundamental rights of a river: We can also interpret a healthy river as one that fulfils all six of the criteria. At present, the Dam has deprived the Danube of nearly all of these rights.
tion of River Rights
ons within its ecosystem
ainable aquifers
ation
This is reflected in one study was published in 2010. Experts from both Slovakia and Hungary joined forces to explore the feasibility of rehabilitating the Danube while maintaining the Dam’s functions. The short answer from the 300-page report was : ‘not feasible.’ In other words, to restore the river’s habitat, the dam must “go“.
It became clear what I need to do: To restore the river’s vitality and prevent future disasters for both countries, the dam needs to “be removed“. To guarantee the river’s rights in the future, the border needs to be re-drawn. The traditional single-line boundary becomes a new region—a territory claimed by the river itself, named “the River Republic.”
Slovakia, Hungary, The River Rep Regional scale interventions
public
2
Danube
To ‘remove’ the dam, we first need to understand how it functions. Long before the dam was built, the Danube had already lost its braided pattern, flowing instead as a clear main stream. While it was not in a fully ‘natural’ state, it still carried enough water to sustain its side branches. To harvest hydroelectricity on flat land, a long system of reservoirs and levees was needed.
Gabčíkovo hydropower dam
Hrušov reservoir
Čunovo Dam
80%
20%
After the river passes Bratislava, the water enters two reservoirs and slows down. At the town of Čunovo, a small dam was built. Although relatively small compared to the entire system, this point plays a significant role by blocking 80% of the water flow from entering the Danube river course (“Feasibility Study: The Rehabilitation of the Szigetköz Reach of the Danube” 2010). Instead, the water is diverted to the supply channel that eventually leads to an artificial drop created at Gabčíkovo.
Gabčíkovo hydropower dam
outer dam retaining wall
inner dam retaining wall
Slovakia
Danube’s curre and the intern
Szigetköz w
The supply channel in Slovakia, formed by two retaining walls, creates a straight water highway. The remaining 20% of water flows through the Danube’s main channel as well as the Szigetköz wetland, with about 60-80% of its vegetation being production forests that lie between flood protection dikes on each side (“Feasibility Study: The Rehabilitation of the Szigetköz Reach of the Danube” 2010).
flood protection dike (SK)
ent main stream national border
wetland
Hungary
flood protection dike (HU)
In order to fulfil the Danube’s six river rights, the 20/80 water distribution needs to be changed. I decided to keep the majority of the dam’s structure, and leave a small amount of water flowing in it. The water will then create new wet and dry situations between the levees which then become the foundation of future landscape typologies. The remainder of the dam walls becomes an acknowledgment of a peculiar decision made at a specific moment in the history.
dam retainin
flood pr
To give the river its own territory, I first need to know how much space it needs. I overlapped the river courses form the past 300 years. It became evident that most of the rivers flow within two existing man-made structures: the flood protection dike in Hungary, and outer dam retaining wall in Slovakia.
ng wall
rotection dike
Slovakia
These two existing physical barriers would then define the edge of the River Republic, where the Danube and its alluvial ecosystem are the rightful owners and the river’s six rights are guaranteed. The River Republic encompasses not only the Danube’s floodplain but also three Slovakian villages, which, together with their Hungarian counterparts, serve as human representatives of the area—tasked with observing and protecting the land.
River Republic
Hungary
The primary residents of the River Republic—the Danube’s surface and groundwater, seasonal floods, fauna, and flora—possess an extraordinary capacity to flourish when given sufficient time and space. This space is created through subtraction: removing the Dam’s function, clearing poplar production forests, and scaling back man-made objects maintenance. Some of the old connections are dissolved, while new ones are shaped.
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To ensure the safety of the nearby villages while realizing the River Republic, several steps must be taken. First, the landscape needs to be prepared. By digging and connecting side arms, and creating new branches, the water is provided with sufficient channels to flow and reach the inner land. The material excavated can then be used to reinforce the existing flood protection dike.
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Step two is to open the Čunovo dam and return 90% of the water to the Danube. At first, the force of the water will be powerful. The landscape will undergo dramatic changes under the renewed currents. Water levels and flow speed will rise, carving out large parts of the riverbanks. The water will turn muddy and turbulent, washing away much of the vegetation along the shore.
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Finally, once the water has receded between the levees, openings can be created to allow new connections to form—providing even more space for movement and interaction for both the ecosystems and the villagers.
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Swamp
Sand/silt land with dense shrub layer
Within the River Republic, a rich variety of habitats emerges, shaped by the frequency of flooding. Roughly six distinct groups can be identified.
Gravel Islands/shore line with low pioneer vegetation
Temporary bare gravel islands
Softwood alluvial forest
Hardwood alluvial forest
Elemental, Vital, Structural The long section
3
I then selected a site and created a 20-meter cross-sectional drawing to illustrate some of the possible transformations of the land. The narrative begins at the border between Hungary and the River Republic, then moves through different scenes within the river landscape, and finally ends at what is now a dried-up riverbed. The story is told through six short chapters, from the perspectives of both the organic and inorganic forms of life that make up the river.
Mārta grew up in a scenic village nearby the river. After having watched the landscape shifting, and dam falling out of use, she now works alongside her neighbours to monitor and protect this rich land.
3.1 Entering the River Republic
Autumn in this region is windy and sombre. Near her home lies the drier hardwood alluvial forests. Oak, ash, elder, and elm are turning brown with their leaves drifting slowly to the ground. Roots twist out of the sandy path, tall grasses reach for her waist, shrubs encroach, and ivy coils around tree trunks. In summer, this thicket of a solid wall of green would stop her from moving forward completely. Now, with the foliage thinned in the fall season, she can thread her way through.
Her goal today is to reach a stream, where she will observe and document the beavers. In autumn, the animals are busy, maintaining dams and gathering food for winter. The beaver dams slow the current and guide the water to the inner land, reshaping the landscape in a gentle manner.
A knight and his lady were strolling along the bank of the Danube. He saw dainty blue flowers blooming on the shore. As he bent down to pick them, he lost his balance and fell into the river. Before being carried away by the current, he tossed the flowers to the lady and cried, “Forget me not!”
3.2 Forget-me-not
The flower, Myosotis palustris, is commonly seen on the banks of small river arms. It is part of softwood alluvial forest association, which under natural conditions dominates the area.
In early spring, near the water, Leucojum takes advantage of the light and begins to bloom. The small white flowers dangle like bells, as if waking the rest of the forest from winter hibernation. Starting in June, the famous Myosotis takes over, adding the blue to the Blue Danube. Salix alba and S. fragilis’ pale green foliage arches over the water. Between the slanted leaves, also swaying in the wind, hangs the peculiar nest of a penduline tit, crafted from leaves and seeds of the very willow tree it clings to.
At the Szigetköz wetland, over 2,000 m³ of water passes every second—twice the volume of the IJ. The river deposits the materials it carries from upstream, while simultaneously sweeping away sediment from the riverbed. When the water meets an obstacle, heavy gravel sinks and settles, becoming a new barrier for the following current. As sediments accumulate, they can rise above the water surface and form islands.
3.3 Assembling and dissolving
In late summer, when the water level starts to recede, these bare islands and banks extend further. The shallow water and open terrain attract many water birds—both local and migratory—to feed, bathe, and rest.
Sometimes grasses or Salix purpurea begin to shoot up between the rocks, but many do not last long, as they can be easily swept away by the next flood. In the midst of the rapid current, land constantly assembles and dissolves.
Driven by rainfall in Germany and melting glaciers in Austria, the Danube’s water level at this area peaks from May to July. As the river fills its large and small arms, the extra weight pushes groundwater up in the lower inner lands. Combined with spring showers, what was flowing now overflows, and what was dry is now soaked wet.
3.4 Through the eyes of a damselfly
Among this “ubiquitous wetness” hovers the dashing blue body of a damselfly. After living as larvae underwater for a year, these beautiful creatures begin to mature in late May. For about one and a half months, they feed and mate, laying their eggs on aquatic plants in slow-flowing waters. As the summer season ends, so too does their lifespan. The next generation survives the winter underwater, waiting for the coming spring showers.
Hybrid poplars, bred for fast growth in production forests, become poorly adapted to prolonged flooding. When seasonal floods persist, their roots struggle for oxygen, and after a few years, the trees begin to weaken and die. Fallen trunks and branches create shelter for amphibians, insects, and fungi. Mosses and lichens colonize the bark.
The production forests—once cultivated for human use—now contribute greatly to the vitality of the floodplain after their death. They gradually become the foundation of a self-sustaining ecosystem, supporting an intricate web of life that thrive along the river.
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When the dam became operational in 1992, since 80% of the water was diverted from the river, the water level of Danube’s main stream dropped by four meters—so low that it could no longer naturally feed its side banks (Froncová, Andrea. Interview by author. January 26, 2024).
4m
3.5 The wetland once begged for water
To “solve” the problem, a 15-meter-wide side gate was built into the side of the levee. Twice a year, for 20–30 days, the gate opens, allowing a narrow stream to flow into the Slovakian side of the wetland. Most of the water had been used up half way through (Froncová, Andrea. Interview by author. January 26, 2024).
Now, as water returns to the Danube where it rightfully belongs, the wetland begins to nourish itself. The once artificial channel now connects to the river’s side arms, feeding and being fed by the Danube itself. The concrete channel stands as a monument. By walking on the path once flushed by water, we are reminded of the mechanical solutions provided for the mechanical problems we once created.
When the bottom of the dam was first revealed, it was a dramatic sight. In stark contrast to the green and blue wetland on the other side, the interior was an endless expanse of white gravel. Now, like a massive blank canvas awaiting its first stroke, the area soon attracted flocks of birds, drawn by dying fish that hadn’t escaped in time. With the birds came seeds caught in their feathers and nutrient-rich droppings.
3.6 A new beginning
It didn’t take long for tenacious pioneer species to sprout. Within ten years, the first patches of willow trees will mature. The land once again will be able to provide shelter and feeding ground for wild life, and a meeting place for neighbors that was once separated by 450m wide water highway and a complex geopolitical relationship.
Reflect, Reconnect, Reimagine
epilogue
Yuval Noah Harari argued that “Sapiens have... been living in a dual reality. On the one hand, the objective reality of rivers, trees, and lions; and on the other hand, the imagined reality of gods, nations and corporations. As time went by, the imagined reality became ever more powerful, so that today the very survival of rivers, trees and lions depends on the grace of imagined entities“ (2015).
In this case, the “imagined reality“ — international border between Slovakia and Hungary — led to the construction and failed cooporation of the Gabčíkovo Dam, which then negatively impacted the vitality of the “objective reality“, the Danube River. In this project, by acknowledging the river’s own rights and transforming the region into a healthy river landscape, the new borderland emphasises what Slovakia and Hungary share, rather than what sets them apart.
The Danube seeps out of the Black Forest at the same moment it pours into the Black Sea. It feeds the willow leaves while bathing a kingfisher. It is the rapid current that swallows everything in sight, and at the same time, it is the white gravel drying in the blazing sun.
The river is not merely a volume of water capable of generating power, but an entity of ebb and flow, wet and dry, on which a rich variety of lives depends. The sound of the Danube was likely never the famous waltz, but the voices of all of those who live close by.
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