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OCR Classical Civilisation A Level Components 32 and 33

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Contents Introduction | vi How to Use this Book | vii PART 1

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PART 1 LOVE AND rELATIONSHIPS

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1.1 Men and Women Topic Overview ●●

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Greek and Roman thinking regarding: the ideal qualities of men and women the relative status of men and women domestically, civically and legally Greek and Roman thoughts about marriage, including: what makes a good marriage the joys and benefits of marriage the relative sexual freedom allowed for men and women attitudes towards adultery Ideas regarding the nature of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ conduct which emerge.

There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to draw on any other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions: ●● ●●

the grave stele of Hegeso the portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife

stele (pl. stelai) relief sculpture with an image and/or an inscription

Men, women and their relationships are frequently represented in the literature and material culture of the Greeks and Romans. Grave inscriptions and memorials provide an insight into how men wished themselves and their wives to be remembered. The poets, philosophers and playwrights of the ancient world were interested in love, desire and the differences between men and women. The following two sources suggest ways in which material culture might offer indications about how the Greeks and Romans viewed men and women. The grave stele of Hegeso (Figure 1.1) shows a woman choosing jewellery from a box offered by a slave girl. Set up in public, the relief shows a domestic scene which emphasised the virtues of women. Hegeso is beautiful, richly dressed in thin, transparent fabric and adorning herself with jewellery, suggesting the wealth of her family.

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1.1 Men and Women Figure 1.1 The funerary monument of Hegeso in the Kerameikos in Athens.

The naturalistic portrait of the baker Terentius Neo and his wife from Pompeii (Figure 1.2) shows a richly dressed couple. The baker’s wife is in the foreground of the painting and holds a wax tablet and a writing implement, which suggests that she is literate. Her husband holds a scroll.

Figure 1.2 Portrait of the baker Terentius Neo and his wife.

THE IDEAL QUALITIES OF MEN AND WOMEN Greece A male Athenian citizen was expected to be involved in the life of the city. He would contribute to the wealth of his oikos. He would also help to secure the safety of the community by giving his opinion in the assembly and by serving as a soldier. In Homer’s Iliad the hero Achilles is advised to be a ‘speaker of words and a doer of deeds’. Moderation in word and deed was also a key principle of what it meant to be a good citizen but there were considerable freedoms available to the Athenian male. The Odyssey’s Penelope is often held up as the ideal woman in the ancient world. A dutiful and faithful wife, she has given birth to a worthy male heir. She keeps control of (most of) her slaves and is skilled at weaving. Andromache, the wife of Hector in the Iliad, is also exemplary. Brought up on Homer, Greek men would expect, ultimately, two key things from their wives: fertility (to guarantee a male heir) and fidelity (to guarantee the heir was legitimate).

oikos (pl. oikoi) the ancient Greek household; this would include not only the family and their slaves but also property and possessions

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Part One Love and Relationships

EXAM TIP It is important that you think of good and bad in the context of ancient societies’ attitudes. Modern morality, in some respects, is very different.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD MARRIAGE Greece Daughters were given to their husbands by their fathers with the words ‘I give you my daughter to sow for the purpose of producing legitimate children’. This was therefore the most important purpose of marriage. Girls would marry as virgins so that the paternity of any future children would be guaranteed. She was then expected to produce a male heir despite the dangers to her of repeated pregnancies. Unwanted babies, often girls, might be left outside to die (this was called ‘exposure’) or killed. One ancient source suggests that a married couple should be having sex around three times a month for procreation but also for reasons of health. Ancient understanding of female anatomy was limited: it was felt that intercourse was necessary to stop a woman’s womb from travelling around her body. If a womb wandered for long enough, there was a danger that it would reach a woman’s brain and drive her mad.

Rome manus ‘power’; this is the legal power wielded by a husband over a wife (the word literally means ‘hand’) cum manu ‘with power’; this denotes a marriage where the husband gained manus over his wife sine manu ‘without power’; this denotes a marriage where the husband did not gain manus over his wife and she remained under patria potestas

There were two types of Roman marriage: cum manu and sine manu. In cum manu marriages, the bride would be transferred from her father’s power to the manus of her husband. In sine manu marriages, the bride would remain under the patria potestas of her father and her husband would have no legal power over her. Marriages sine manu were seen as more advantageous because the woman would still inherit on her father’s death and could keep and acquire her own property. This method also made divorce easier for women. The purpose of a Roman marriage was twofold: the production of legitimate children as heirs and political alliances. The practicalities of marriage varied throughout Roman history, but one constant factor was that the man and woman required the permission of their fathers. Despite the power of the fathers, however, there was also a necessity for the bride and groom to be willing to marry. Consent was a crucial part. For the upper classes, marriage was a seriously influential political tool. Roman marriage was little more than a private agreement between two families. A betrothal period would allow the families to get to know each other better, although it could be

MODERN SCHOLARSHIP Emile Stocquart wrote an article on Roman marriage, and he states that sine manu marriage ‘leads to a wife being entirely independent of her husband; […] the only tie between both parties is simply cohabitation’. Do you think that a woman who married sine manu was entirely independent of her husband? What advantages or disadvantages might this have had?

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1.1 Men and Women

broken off at any time with no repercussions. Betrothal could happen at a very young age, but a Roman woman would probably marry in her mid to late teens, certainly no earlier than twelve (the legal lower limit); a Roman man would probably marry in his late teens or early twenties, though he was allowed to marry at fourteen. In both cases, Romans were not allowed to marry before puberty.

THE JOYS AND BENEFITS OF MARRIAGE Greece Marriage was the key to ensuring that the regular intercourse deemed necessary for a woman’s health took place within a controlled environment. This would guarantee that the paternity of any child would be known to the civic authorities. Pericles’ citizenship law in 451 stated that a baby born in Athens would only be considered a citizen of the city if both his father and his mother were Athenian citizens. Some ancient writers talk of marriages being a partnership, and the conversations between Penelope and Odysseus and Hector and Andromache in the Homeric epics suggest a close relationship could be expected. Other than observing his parents, much of a Greek child’s formative understanding of what to expect from marriage would come from the Homeric epics. There is also evidence that a woman’s contribution to the oikos was valued by her husband.

Rome Marriages were relatively easy to institute, but so was divorce. Marriage was little more than the intent of the couple to live together as husband and wife, so divorce was the lack of intent of one of the parties. Due to changes in political allegiance, it was not uncommon for men and women to marry multiple times over the course of their lives. Tiberius, the second emperor of Rome, is a good example of the political match-making which was common:

KEY INDIVIDUAL Pericles

Date: c. 495–429 BC Athenian general and politician Pericles was a key figure in the rise to prominence of Athens in the 5th century. Thucydides, the historian, refers to him as the ‘first citizen’ of the Athenian democracy.

Study question Explain the terms ‘kyrios’ and ‘oikos’.

[Tiberius] was forced to divorce [Agrippina] […] and immediately marry Augustus’ daughter, Julia. Suetonius, The Life of Tiberius 7

It would be unfair to assume that because most marriages were arranged, genuine affection did not exist between husbands and wives in ancient Rome. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter in which he praised his new wife and claimed a mutual affection: She loves me […] [and] she has gained a literary interest from her devotion to me. […] For these reasons, I live in the most certain hope that our union will be everlasting and will increase day by day. Pliny the Younger, Letters 4.19

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Part One Love and Relationships

Figure 1.11 Relief of a Roman wedding ceremony, 3rd century AD (Basilica Papale di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, Italy).

Julian law a law introduced by a member of the Julian family, which included the first five emperors

erastes (pl. erastai) the adult in a pederastic relationship (in English ‘lover’) eromenos (pl. eromenoi) the boy in a pederastic relationship (in English ‘beloved’)

Particular benefits of marriage were instituted when Augustus passed two Julian laws on marriage in 18 BC, which set down some specific rules aimed at encouraging marriage and the birth of children. One of the Julian marriage laws put in place specific legal benefits for married couples and families who had three or more children. For example, unmarried men and women were unable to accept legacies from wills. Augustus encouraged remarriages (Livia herself was his third wife, Augustus her second husband), although it was expected that a Roman woman would wait a period of time before remarrying to avoid potential issues of paternity of children. Therefore, as well as the social, familial and political benefits of marriage, there were also legal benefits.

THE RELATIVE SEXUAL FREEDOM OF MEN AND WOMEN Greece In Athens, a married woman would expect to have one sexual relationship in her life, with her husband. A man, however, could have a variety of partners. During his lifetime, he might act both as erastes and eromenos and he might have relationships with prostitutes. As a boy in his late teens his sexual experience might begin with an older man in the gymnasium. This older man might play a significant role in the boy’s upbringing. After a free Athenian citizen was married, he would regularly attend symposia where slaves would provide sexual favours.

gymnasium (pl. gymnasia) an area where men would meet to exercise naked. The word ‘gymnasium’ is derived from gymnos, Greek for ‘naked’

Figure 1.12 A Greek drinking cup depicting a symposium.

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1.2 Plato on Love and Desire Topic Overview ●●

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Plato’s ideas about love and desire, including: the definitions of love the physical symptoms of desire the differences between love and desire how and why desire should be controlled how and why desire can be resisted homoerotic relationships Ideas regarding the nature of good and bad conduct which emerge How Plato’s contemporary context influenced his ideas How these ideas might have been received by his contemporary audience

There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to read selections from Plato’s works and draw on any other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions: ●● ●● ●●

Plato’s Symposium and commentaries on the dialogue Plato’s Laws Plato’s Republic

Figure 1.15 Marble head of Plato. Figure 1.16 Marble head of Socrates.

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1.3 Seneca on Love and Desire TOPIC OVERVIEW ●●

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Seneca’s ideas about love and desire, including: the definitions of love the physical symptoms of desire the difference between love and desire how and why desire should be controlled how and why desire can be resisted homoerotic relationships Ideas regarding the nature of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ conduct which emerge The influence of Stoicism on the ideas of Seneca How Seneca’s contemporary context influenced his ideas How these ideas might have been received by his contemporary audience

There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to read selections from Seneca’s works and draw on any other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions: ●● ●● ●●

Campbell, R. (1969), Seneca: Letters from a Stoic, Penguin Classics. Davie, J. (2008), Seneca: Dialogues and Essays, Oxford World Classics. Watling, E. (1966), Seneca: Four Tragedies and Octavia, Penguin Classics.

This topic explores the ideas put forward by Seneca, the Roman philosopher, dramatist and politician. The historians Tacitus and Cassius Dio give us a fairly detailed account of his life, and his philosophy and some of his dramatic works have survived to modern day. He wrote a number of essays as well as a collection of letters addressed to his friend (and fellow Stoic), Lucilius.

THE INFLUENCE OF STOICISM ON THE IDEAS OF SENECA Seneca professed himself to be a Stoic. Stoicism saw humanity as one large community which was living according to the divine will. It urged people to elevate their reason above the desires of the body: this way a person might attain apatheia. The perfect Stoic was a person who felt no pain because they lived their life very simply, avoiding

Stoicism this was a philosophical school founded by Zeno in Greece in the 4th century BC; Stoicism maintained that reason and the soul were far more important than the body and it believed that virtus was the ultimate good apatheia ‘immunity to pain’; this is the desired state of mind for a Stoic; to achieve this, a Stoic must place reason above the natural desires of the body 29

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1.4 Sappho Topic Overview ●●

Learners should be able to identify and respond to the following: purpose and intended audience of her poetry the social and poetic context including the genre of the work the issues of fragmentary material use of literary devices and choice of language use of themes and motifs use of mythology use of humour

Love and relationships in poetry ●●

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In the work of Sappho (as prescribed) the representation of: love and desire men and women sex marriage society and values Comparisons between the views in the literature and the thoughts put forward by Plato and Seneca, and societal ideas about men, women and marriage

The following prescribed source is covered in this topic: ●●

Sappho, fragments

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic focuses on the poetry of Sappho to elicit a female perspective on love in the ancient world. Sappho’s biography is essentially unknown and much of what we infer comes from her own poetry. She mentions her mother, her brothers and her daughter in her poems, but there is no reference to her husband. A source which suggests that she was married to Cercylas from Andros is very unlikely to be correct: Cercylas is very close to the Greek slang for penis. Andros, although a real Aegean island, is also Greek for man. A suggestion, therefore, that Sappho was married to Mr. Penis from Man Island should not be taken too seriously! It is more likely that this is a joke on her reputation for 41

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1.4 Sappho

PRESCRIBED SOURCE Sappho, fragments Date: 6th century BC Author: Sappho, fragments Genre: Lyric poetry Collection: Fragments of poetry, whose original titles are unknown Overview of her poetry: Sappho’s poetry has survived in quotations from later sources and on fragments of papyrus found in Egypt Significance: Sappho’s poetry provides us with a unique female voice; her verse has been both celebrated and condemned by posterity for its power and honesty Read it here: OCR sources booklet. The numbering system used in the sources booklet and for the fragments in this book follows the Loeb.

Figure 1.25 Fragments of Sappho’s poetry found at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt.

LESBOS Lesbian women were infamous across the ancient world for both their beauty and sexual behaviour. According to Alcaeus in fragment 130B, female beauty contests were held on Lesbos, perhaps in honour of the goddess Hera. In Athenian comedy, the Greek verb lesbiazein, meaning literally ‘to behave like a lesbian’, refers to a woman giving oral sex to a man. 43

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1.5 Ovid TOPIC OVERVIEW ●●

Learners should be able to identify and respond to the following: purpose and intended audience of his poetry the social and poetic context including the genre of the work use of literary devices and choice of language use of didactic style use of themes and motifs use of mythology use of humour

Love and relationships in poetry ●●

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In the work of Ovid (Ars Amatoria book 3) the representation of: love and desire men and women sex marriage society and values Comparisons between the views in the literature and the thoughts put forward by Plato and Seneca, and societal ideas about men, women and marriage

The following prescribed source is covered in this topic: ●●

Ovid, Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love) book 3

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic focuses on the poetry of Ovid to discover the Roman elite’s attitudes towards love. Ovid was born in Sulmo (modern-day Sulmona), Italy, to a father of the equestrian (equites) order. Early in his reign, Augustus marked out Ovid and his older brother (born exactly a year before Ovid, on March 20, 44 BC) as future senators. Neither brother was destined to take up this role, however: Ovid’s brother died when he was only around twenty years old and Ovid chose the poetic life rather than the political one, much to his father’s dismay.

equites a rank in the Roman class system which grew in wealth and status through occupations in commerce and finance

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Part One Love and Relationships

for a certain effect: would the way a woman walks really send men running? This overthe-top statement adds to the humour of the lines, conjuring a ridiculous image of men fleeing because of a particularly terrible walk. Hyperbole is another very common feature of Ovid’s style. Consider the following lines, which contain a number of different literary techniques:

A few things shameful to mention, she must know how to call the throws at knucklebones, and your values, you rolled dice: sometimes throwing three, sometimes thinking, closely, how to advance craftily, how to challenge. lines 353–356

First, notice how Ovid addresses the ‘rolled dice’, referring to ‘your values’. This is called an apostrophe, when the poet directly addresses something. Usually, an apostrophe will be to a person/god who is not present or an object. This technique is used to add variety to his writing style, but can also be used for humour. In these lines, there is a certain amount of humour from talking to inanimate objects, which personifies them. Notice also in these lines that Ovid uses repetition at the beginning of successive clauses: ‘sometimes … sometimes … how to … how to’. Repetition is a very common way to emphasise or contrast ideas. Here, the repetition of ‘sometimes’ contrasts the two things that a girl should do when she is playing dice games: throwing and thinking. The fact that these words are repeated at the beginning of their clauses also means that they are examples of anaphora: repetition at the beginning of successive clauses. The anaphora of ‘how to … how to …’ brings out the parallelism of the clauses as Ovid instructs his pupils on what they must think: how can they advance and how can they challenge?

ACTIVITY

EXAM TIP It is important to remember to explain why an author is using particular literary devices when writing your answers in examinations. It is not enough simply to state that Ovid uses a metaphor; your answer should include discussion of why he uses it and how it is effective.

Read through the Ars Amatoria book 3 and find some more examples of: ● Metaphors ● Interesting vocabulary choices ● Similes ● Metonyms ● Litotes ● Hyperbole ● Apostrophe ● Repetition/anaphora ● Parallelism ● Contrast When you find them, make a note and consider why Ovid has used this particular literary device? What is its purpose? Has he used it for humour or to underline his message/lesson? Could he have said it in a different way? If so, why do you think he has chosen this way? Remember that poetic and sound effects (such as enjambment or alliteration) will be translator specific, and different translators might not use the same sound effects. It is best to avoid such analysis if possible.

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1.5 Ovid

Ovid is also very cleverly using the dice game as a metaphor for the game of love: girls need to know how to play and how to win.

Use of themes and motifs There are many themes and motifs to think about in the Ars Amatoria book 3. The following are only a small selection.

The role of Venus Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Ovid uses her in this poem as his reason for the venture: You still might lack [the art of love] now: but, before my eyes, stood Venus herself, and ordered me to teach you.

PS lines 43–44

Ovid claims a divine order for his book; but he does not necessarily suggest divine inspiration: the words come from him. Venus claims that Ovid has armed men in this dangerous game of love, but he has left women defenceless: Two books of their tricks have been composed: let this lot too be instructed by your warnings.

PS lines 47–48

The role of Venus is therefore to commission Ovid’s work. Why would Ovid need to claim divine commission? Consider these lines: Someone will say: ‘Why add venom to the snake, and betray the sheepfold to the rabid she-wolf?’

PS lines 7–8

Clearly there is an imagined male objector to Ovid’s latest literary project: he compares women with snakes and a she-wolf; men to a sheepfold. The metaphor paints women as dangerous and predatory, which means that Ovid is giving extra powers to these predators. So Ovid needs to defend himself. At first he defends himself by retorting: Beware of loading the crime of the many onto the few: let the merits of each separate girl be seen.

PS lines 9–10

S & C

Ancient poetry often started with an invocation (when you call on someone) to a divine being. In the prescribed source, this is Venus. Compare Ovid’s invocation here with the following ancient poems to see how they differ: Homer’s Iliad book 1 (lines 1–7) and Odyssey book 1 (lines 1–10) Virgil’s Aeneid book 1 (lines 1–11) Ovid’s Amores book 1, poem 1

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Part One Love and Relationships Figure 1.33 ‘If Apelles of Cos had never sculpted Venus,/she’d be hidden, sunk beneath the waters’ (PS lines 401–402). Birth of Venus, Sandro Botticelli c. 1480 (Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy).

ACTIVITY Read through the Ars Amatoria book 3 again and take a note of where else Venus appears. What is her purpose in the lines you have found? Why do you think Ovid has mentioned her in that particular context?

Ovid admits the predatory nature of some women, but claims that not all of them are the same. Does this successfully answer the objection? Even if it does not, Ovid has an ace up his sleeve: the divine commission from Venus. With the patronage of Venus, Ovid feels free to educate women in the techniques of seduction without fear of recrimination from angry men.

Love and war Ovid is very fond of pairing love and war. The very opening of the poem refers immediately to warfare (lines 1–6), claiming that it is only fair that men and women ‘Go equal to the fight’ (PS line 3) and that it was unfair ‘for armed men to battle with naked girls’ (PS line 5). In fact, Ovid goes on to say that a victory of this kind, against unarmed opponents, ‘would be shameful, men’ (PS line 6). Ovid is mixing the theme of seduction up with the theme of warfare expertly here; he reproaches men for wanting an easy victory. It is a challenge, a game, that Ovid wants to play. Thus games, war and love are all inextricably tangled within the first six lines of the poem. This also comes full circle in the last lines of the poem: Ovid cannot help himself from ending with another military metaphor: As once the boys, so now my crowd of girls inscribe on your trophies ‘Ovid was my master’. lines 811–812

The ring composition completes the motif of military metaphors, which has been sprinkled throughout the poem (e.g. lines 590, 667 and 672). The ‘trophies’ Ovid refers to are the spoils taken from fallen enemies in warfare or, in this context, the pleasures gained at the successful seduction of a lover. In fact, the last two lines of the Ars Amatoria book 3 are very close to the closing of book 2: 72

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1.5 Ovid

But whoever overcomes his Amazon with my weapon, He can inscribe on his trophies: ‘Ovid was my master’. Ovid, Ars Amatoria book 2 lines 743–744

Both men and women have benefitted by Ovid’s military teaching and both have gained spoils which they can dedicate to their professor. However, if the ultimate aim of Ovid’s poems is to allow men to seduce women and women to seduce men, then there is no real warfare. Both sides are fighting for the same goal. Perhaps this is Ovid’s game all along. Or perhaps it is actually Ovid who is the ultimate victor. He has the spoils of both men and women dedicated to him; also notice the change in the second line of the Ars Amatoria book 3 and the penultimate line: ‘you Penthesilea, and your Amazon troop’ and ‘my crowd of girls’. The women have switched their allegiance from Penthesilea, an Amazonian queen, to Ovid and his masterful teaching. How much is this manual of seduction merely a weapon of Ovid’s?

Love and war are a

S common theme in & Roman love elegy. Read C Ovid’s collection of poems, the Amores, to see further examples of love and war combined. Are there other ancient authors you have read which combine these two themes? Are there any modern contexts which you can think of linking the idea of love and war? Why do you think these two ideas are so often combined?

Youth versus old age Ovid paints a vivid picture of youth and the joys that are to be had when a woman is young. Conversely, he suggests that old age for a woman is the end of her sexual life and the end of her joys: Be mindful first that old age will come to you: so don’t be timid and waste any of your time.

PS lines 59–60

Ovid creates an image of the threat of old age hanging over every young woman and he urges her to ensure that she spends her youth wisely, which of course, for Ovid, is seducing men. The desolation which he envisions for older women is particularly vivid and, in some ways, pathetic: There’ll be a time when you, who now shut out your lover, will lie alone, and aged, in the cold of night, nor find your entrance damaged by some nocturnal quarrel, nor your threshold sprinkled with roses at dawn.

PS lines 69–72

Ovid here is pitying (and also mocking) his pupils for their loss of youth, which he claims is inevitable. There is a lot of imagery of life disappearing which Ovid uses in these lines about old age and youth. Ovid’s advice is to live life to the full while you can: un-aided our beauties flee: pluck the flower, which, if not plucked, will of itself, shamefully, fall.

PS lines 79–80

Ovid here is using the argument of old age to convince his pupils that they must search for lovers while they are young to avoid the inevitable lack of love in the future. It is, perhaps, supposed to be humorous as well as convincing.

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PART 2 POLITICS OF THE LATE REPUBLIC

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2.1 The Background of the Late Republic TOPIC OVERVIEW ●●

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Roman social hierarchy; patrician and plebeian families, the nobiles (nobles), the equites and the idea of a novus homo (new man) The res publica and the organisation of the state, including: the offices of the cursus honorum elections the tribal assembly, centuriate assembly and senate the government of the provinces imperium (command) dictatorship The ideas and views of the populares (favouring the people) and optimates or boni (aristocrats or Good Men) The role and importance of patronage, amicitia (alliance) and inimicitia (personal hostility), idealism and personal ambition.

Plutarch, Life of Marius Plutarch, Life of Sulla Polybius, Histories 6.11.11–18

In this topic, we shall be examining some of the background events and influential people leading up to 79 BC, as well as exploring the established social and political structures of Republican Rome.

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2.2 Cato and the Politics of the Optimates TOPIC OVERVIEW ●● ●● ●●

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The influence of Stoic philosophy on Cato’s political life Cato’s allegiance to the optimates or boni and how this position affected his legal and political activities His relationships with other political figures, including Cicero, Caesar and Publius Clodius Pulcher, and reasons for these His idealism compared to more pragmatic approaches to politics His significance as a conservative in a changing political world

Plutarch, Life of Cato the Younger Lucan, The Civil War (Pharsalia) Book II: 286–391 Seneca, Essays – De Providentia (On Providence), De Constantia (On Firmness), De Ira (On Anger) and De Clementia (On Mercy).

Cato the Younger was to stand as the voice of Roman traditionalists and later to act as a leading figure among the optimates. Uncompromising in his conservative beliefs about the central role of the nobiles and the senate, he rose to become a formidable and outspoken political figure, who took every opportunity to thwart what he perceived to be the unacceptable face of personal ambition embodied by populist individuals.

KEY INDIVIDUAL Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (Cato the Younger) Date: 95–46 Roman statesman Cato the Younger was born into a noble plebeian family in Rome. He was to serve as quaestor, tribune and praetor, and never failed to strive to preserve the traditional order of the Roman state, championing the optimate cause. He committed suicide following the defeat of his army against Caesar at Thapsus.

Figure 2.6 Portrait bust of Cato.

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

THE INFLUENCE OF STOIC PHILOSOPHY MODERN SCHOLARSHIP His [Cato’s] death symbolised the death of the Republic, which he had loyally if short-sightedly sought to uphold with unbridled vigour all his life: under the Principate [i.e. the Empire] he was idealised as a martyr of Republican liberty and a paragon of Stoic virtues. H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, p. 141 When you have studied this topic, consider the evidence for idealising Cato as both ‘a martyr of Republican liberty’ and as ‘a paragon of Stoic virtues’. What counter-arguments could you raise?

Originally expounded by the Greek philosopher Zeno in the 3rd century BC, Stoicism provided a philosophy that took hold in Rome in the 2nd century after the conquest of Greece and the advent of a huge wave of Roman interest in all ideas Hellenic. The arrival in Rome of the Stoic Panaetius of Rhodes in the second half of the 2nd century, in particular, was to influence many educated Romans. Ideas of Stoicism were adapted to fit the context of time and place. Of interest to the Romans was Zeno’s advocation of knowledge, free will and moral rectitude, with self-control over one’s emotions: hardship was to be endured; fortune, pleasure and pain were to be risen above. While Zeno had urged removal from public and political life, however, some Romans interpreted it as the perfect marriage with political duty to the state, with its moral nature lending itself well to an interpretation of ancient Roman values of manliness, wisdom, rationality and duty. While some modern scholars dismiss the authenticity of his Stoic ethics, there is no doubt that Cato identified himself with tenets of Stoicism, albeit a Romanised version, and followed a strict code of conduct in his private and public life that stood out in a period notorious for its pragmatic and chaotic politics. Most famous of Cato’s forefathers was his great-grandfather Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder (234–149). Cato the Elder lived a life famously devoted to austere and morally upright living, both a landowner and renowned soldier who climbed each rung of the cursus honorum to become consul in 195 and censor in 184. Central to his political belief was a duty to preserve Rome’s culturally defining ancestral customs. According to Plutarch (see Explore Further), Cato the Younger is alleged to have lived, like his great-grandfather, extremely frugally, learning to tolerate harsh physical conditions and studying hard. He married a noblewoman named Atilia, with whom he had two children, then divorced her for rumoured adultery. He later married another noblewoman – Marcia – who was of excellent reputation and also bore him two children. Offered as a story demonstrating Cato’s strong sense of unemotional reasoning and his loyalty to amicitia, Plutarch recounts how Cato, despite his fondness for Marcia, handed her over to his close optimate friend Hortensius whose marriage had remained childless, but who wished to have children. After Hortensius’ death, Marcia returned to live with Cato. 112

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(iii) Julius Caesar In 60 Julius Caesar asked the senate for two things – a military triumph in recognition of his successful subjugation of Gaul and the right to campaign as consul in absence since he could not, while holding military imperium, set foot in Rome to stand for election. Cato and the optimates refused the latter, perhaps in the hope that Caesar would not be able to resist choosing the triumph and abandon his hope to achieve the consulship. Caesar instead forwent the triumph and entered Rome to campaign for the consulship, and Cato and the optimates put all their support into a rival candidate – Cato’s son-in-law Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (see p. 00). The period from 59 to 49 was peppered with events demonstrating Cato’s hostility towards Caesar, from threats of prosecution for illegal behaviour on campaign to influencing the senate not to agree to Caesar’s requests. When civil war broke out, Cato led the optimates to follow Pompey rather than Caesar (see pp. 00). On hearing the news of the defeat of the Republican forces at Thapsus in April 46, Cato realised the resistance to Caesar was effectively over. Refusing to submit to Caesar’s rule – a tyranny that Cato believed had been illegally acquired through the instigation of civil war – Cato committed suicide. In seeming response to Cicero’s eulogy of Cato, Caesar too produced a pamphlet after Cato’s death – an Anti-Cato – which was received as a cruel and vindictive piece of writing, reflecting Caesar’s long-standing deep anger and frustration with Cato. Figure 2.9 The suicide of Cato, shown in a French engraving.

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

EXPLORE FURTHER Read Plutarch’s description of Cato’s suicide in his biography of ‘Cato the Younger’ (suggested translation by Arthur Hugh Clough (2015) or freely available on the internet at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0014). Why do you think Plutarch writes about it in so much detail? Does it confirm your image of Cato’s behaviour during his lifetime?

S & C

What was involved in a military ‘triumph’ in Rome? Why do you think Julius Caesar requested one? What did he stand to gain? Do you think it was unfair that the senate refused to grant him one?

IDEALISM AND CONSERVATIVE POLITICS IN THE LATE ROMAN REPUBLIC Cicero himself, as a traditionalist and sympathiser, perceived Cato as clinging to unrealistic principles: With the best of intentions and highest regard for the republic, he acts as though he lives in Plato’s republic rather than the sewers of Rome. [Letter to Atticus II.1]

As we have seen, Cato was unafraid, to say the least, of antagonising those whom he considered to have behaved unacceptably. Consistently stalwart in illustrating his Republican ideals through his own lifestyle and decisions, Cato was to be known forever after he died as a paragon of principled behaviour. Criticism of course can be made of his extreme and inflexible standards. Acting in defiance of a turbulent period of political revolution, Cato sometimes perhaps failed to further his cause through a lack of compromise, seen in his attitude towards all requests to the senate from individuals whom he perceived to be self-seeking such as Pompey and Caesar in the 60s. The contest may have begun as one between optimates and populares, but as events passed, one could argue that Cato should have considered replacing his dogmatic approach with a more pragmatic one. We saw a glimpse of such recognition in his decision to support the motion for making Pompey temporary sole consul in 52. Cato’s suicide in 46 was in so many ways true to his strongly held Stoic principles. His ‘noble death’ itself was to be his final Stoic act, asserting his personal freedom from even the prospect of tyranny. The rise and fall of Cato exemplifies the disintegration not only of an optimate faction struggling to preserve the ruling right of an oligarchy that had successfully reigned for centuries, but the crumbling of the Roman Republic as a whole. Cato did, however, represent an extreme position, and while not alone in his love for the Roman Republic of old, his inability to recognise the changing political landscape blinded him to alternative courses of action and in part led him to exacerbate the situation he was trying to ameliorate. His dogmatic determination to prevent Crassus, 122

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2.3 Caesar as Popularis and Dictator TOPIC OVERVIEW ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

The reasons for, and the significance of, the ‘First Triumvirate’ Caesar’s first consulship and its ‘popular’ programme The politics of the civil war and Caesar’s reasons for pursuing it His dictatorship, ‘anti-Republican’ behaviour and attitude to the Republic His plans for ‘popular’ reform The reasons for his assassination His relationships with other political figures, including Cicero, Cato and Pompey, and reasons for these

Suetonius, The Deified Julius Plutarch, Life of Caesar M. Grant, Cicero. Selected Letters (Penguin, 1960)

Julius Caesar stands as one of the main protagonists in the fall of the Roman Republic, ending a system of government that had endured for 450 years. Often painted today as a fundamentally populist politician, just how revolutionary an individual was Julius Caesar? What motivated him? Did he hold an alternative vision for the state and for a new form of government? Had ideals of altruism towards those in need taken prominence in Roman politics? Or was Caesar simply ambitious for power himself?

THE ‘FIRST TRIUMVIRATE’

Figure 2.10 Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar in many ways followed a model Roman Republican statesman’s career. He became quaestor in 69, aedile in 65, praetor in 62 and consul in 59. He had also been made pontifex maximus in 63 and had governed Spain in 61. How could anybody so faithful to the Roman constitution act so radically as to bring about the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60? This extraordinary alliance between Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey the Great – the First Triumvirate – has been described as the ‘ultimate origin of the Civil War of 49’ (Scullard, p. 118). Caesar was the key driving force behind the

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alliance – Pompey and Crassus had not always been on friendly terms. The term ‘First Triumvirate’ was coined retrospectively: it had no official recognition, but functioned instead as a powerful, political amicitia. To understand Caesar’s reasons for championing it, we need to look at the years leading up to it. The alliance of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey was formed to counteract the hostility of optimates in the senate. Caesar was perceived as an unapologetic populist, championing popular reforms while holding important offices of state. At the same time, he strengthened ties with Crassus and Pompey. Caesar was indebted to Crassus for funding his election campaigns, as well as financing splendid spectacles at Rome for the people’s entertainment. Caesar had publicly supported Pompey in many of his interests, for example in the bills of 67 and 66 (see p. 00); in 59 he married his daughter Julia to Pompey. Pompey’s requests to the senate in 60 – for land allocation for his veterans and for the ratification of his treaties with the East – had been rejected outright by the optimates. Crassus also, championing the business interest of the equites, had requested the senate’s approval of a rebate for the tax farmers in Asia – a request which was again dismissed by the optimate faction in the senate. Frustration and bruised dignitas must inevitably have contributed to the formation of the triumvirate. The First Triumvirate was not formed as a political coup, but as a pact or agreement to enable each of the triumvirs to fulfil their immediate political desires. United they combined the wealth of Crassus and his support from the equites, the military prestige and support of Pompey and his veterans, and the political and military prowess of Caesar and his huge popularity with the urban masses.

EXPLORE FURTHER

KEY INDIVIDUAL Marcus Licinius Crassus Date: 115–53 Roman general and politician Crassus fought for Sulla in the early 1st century and gained much of his fabulous wealth through property acquisition in the years that followed, benefitting hugely from the proscriptions. He is probably best known for his role in putting down a slave revolt in 73–71 led by Spartacus. Crassus shared the consulship with Pompey in both 70 and 55. A member of the First Triumvirate, he died in the battle of Carrhae against the Parthians in 53, who were alleged to have poured molten gold into his mouth as a symbol of his insatiable thirst for wealth.

Using the internet, research the life of Crassus. How might the slave revolt led by Spartacus have influenced Crassus’ relationship with Pompey? Why do you think it was in Crassus’ interest to form an alliance with Pompey?

Figure 2.11 Bust of Crassus. Louvre Museum.

dignitas dignity or prestige, associated particularly with social, religious and political standing

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2.4 Cicero and the Res Publica TOPIC OVERVIEW ●●

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Cicero’s ideas about the ideal state and how it had developed in Rome, including: the role of concordia ordinum (‘the agreement of the orders’) the ideal state of affairs as cum dignitate otium (‘peace with dignity’) how actions during his career can be rationalised with his political ideas His attempt to reconcile senators and equites in the concordia ordinum and the reasons why this failed Explanation of his relationships with, and attitudes toward: the optimates, including Cato the populares, including Clodius and Caesar Pompey the ‘First Triumvirate’ Catiline the provinces land reform The civil war between Pompey and Caesar Mark Antony

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic: ●●

Cicero letters, to Atticus (Att. 8.8); to Atticus (Att. 9.4)

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers. The prescribed sources for Topics 5 and 6 are also relevant here.

We shall look at this topic in four sections: 1. Cicero’s ideal Rome – looking at his political beliefs and ideals 2. Cicero, the optimates and populares – examining his early career and how his actions were influenced by his ideals 3. Cicero and the First Triumvirate – how Cicero negotiated the troubled decade of the 50s 4. Civil war and Mark Antony – Cicero’s political motivation and actions in a period in which his ideal constitution had visibly been crushed by civil war and a dictatorship

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CICERO’S IDEAL ROME Cicero wished for the Roman Republic to exist in a state of concordia ordinum. This ideal involved maintaining a perfect status quo of a clear social order of Rome, which perhaps had never even existed in Cicero’s own lifetime, but rather was a paradigm borne of conservative nostalgia. By the time of Cicero, the Gracchi brothers had extended the power of the tribunate so far that it had been deliberately squashed by Sulla later. Equites such as Marius had wielded hitherto unseen power through the creation of professional armies. Men like Pompey had been appointed dictator, with no respect for the official cursus honorum. Dictatorship and civil war had already been suffered in the early part of the century. By the time of Cicero, the ‘traditional’ oligarchy of the Republic had been challenged by powerful individuals, taking advantage of the social and economic change of the 2nd century. But for Cicero, concordia ordinum was an ideal that could be retrieved and re-embedded, with the right men at the helm of the ship of state. Cicero’s aim was to establish a Rome that, in response to the recent periods of conquest, civil violence and political disruption, prospered from a period and indeed future of cum dignitate otium. With this ideal in mind, Cicero placed great importance upon a number of qualities needed for those with responsibility for the health of the Roman state: duty, libertas, dignitas and traditional morals embodied in part by Stoic philosophy. The language of these ‘values’ runs throughout his written work – see, for example, the theme of libertas in his correspondence (p. 00) or Verres’ failure to embrace ‘Roman’ values as a quasi-criminal fault (p. 00). The fact that Cicero undertook the case against Verres points also to how he projected his idealism further afield than simply in Rome itself: he was, as one modern scholar points out, raising fundamental new questions about how Rome should govern its provinces:

concordia ordinum literally, ‘the agreement of the orders’: a political ideal held by Cicero in which the original structures of the Republican constitution were encouraged to flourish and continue, with the aristocracy and equites united in the common good of governing the Roman state

cum dignitate otium literally, ‘leisure with prestige’: used in a wider sense by Cicero to refer to an absolute social, religious, legal and political status quo

How was a Roman governor expected to behave in the provinces? How was his job defined? What voice were the provincial populations to have, particularly in seeking redress against misrule? And what was to count as misrule? Issues of provincial government were brought right into the very heart of domestic political debate. M. Beard, SPQR, pp. 255–6

It is important to be clear that while Cicero was driven by a strong intellectual and moral outlook, he was not in favour of meritocracy or democracy. He made his negative feelings towards the general populace and their inability to govern the state very clear in his philosophical treatises on politics, as well as in letters to his close friend Atticus. For Cicero the key to Rome’s successful future lay in ensuring the dignitas and power of the upper classes, of ensuring both a harmony between the optimates and equites, and that only the very best, wealthy, most capable men – boni – were placed in positions of political, legal, financial and military power. Their duty as patrons of the lower orders would in turn make sure that the ruling classes would establish peace and justice.

Figure 2.16 Portrait bust of Cicero.

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

CICERO, THE OPTIMATES AND POPULARES

KEY EVENT

The conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) – the ‘Catiline Conspiracy’ Date: 64–63 Where: Rome This was a plot led by the patrician Catiline to overthrow the consulship of Cicero in 63. Supported by disaffected Sullan veterans and some aristocratic allies, Catiline was alleged to have raised an army from the ‘dregs’ of the Roman urban mob, appealing to political promises of the annulment of debt. Cicero uncovered the conspiracy and delivered a bitter and effective speech to the senate ‘exposing’ the plans of Catiline who was present but subsequently fled Rome. Catiline later died in battle against the state army led by the consul Antony Hybrida. Some of his fellow senatorial conspirators were identified and controversially put to death without a trial.

Cicero’s relationship with the optimates was central from the outset of his career. He had to convince them that he – a novus homo and member of the equites – could work alongside them while continuing to build up a significant network of amicitia at all social levels. During his office as aedile in 69, Cicero successfully defended his first senator in court – Marcus Fonteius – against an accusation of extortion during his recent governorship in Cisalpine Gaul. Fonteius had been a senator who had protected the interests of the equites and in defending him Cicero grew his political network of supporters from both orders. The 60s were to challenge Cicero immensely in his aim for concordia ordinum. He was constantly forced to side as pragmatically as possible between rising political factions, particularly in the form of powerful individuals. As Pompey, Caesar and Crassus grew in status, optimates entrenched themselves as an uncompromising opposition, with Cicero treading a careful path between courting the optimates and individuals like Pompey, whose popularity and power Cicero could not afford to ignore. Cicero had already alluded to the idea that the popularis Pompey – the great hero of the time – had held sympathetic views to his own in his speech against Verres in 70 (see p. 00). In 67, however, when Cicero was campaigning for the office of praetor in Rome, he kept a low profile in the bill proposed by the tribune Aulus Gabinius to allow Pompey a special command to rid the Mediterranean of pirates – a matter which was seriously impeding the corn supply to Rome. The following year, however, Cicero was to present an entirely different face. As praetor in 66, Cicero delivered a lengthy political speech – Pro Lege Manilia – advocating Pompey as the ideal man to assume another extraordinary command, this time to replace the optimate Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the East who was as yet unsuccessful in concluding Rome’s fight against Mithridates. A small group of optimates – men such as Hortensius and Catulus – closely supported Lucullus. Cicero had chosen to announce his support of Pompey in public, risking his own alienation from the group of men he had so assiduously supported until now. By framing his support for Pompey as an opportunity to make Rome safe and to secure her finances, he appealed widely to the equites and of course the people, without appearing revolutionary and all the while praising Lucullus’ efforts highly. The Manilian Law was passed and Pompey was granted imperium to fight in the East. With one eye on the consulship ahead, Cicero was taking a carefully considered direction that Cato, for example, would never have contemplated: to promote his own position and enable him to reach the consulship and thus influence the course of politics, Cicero was willing to take a long-term pragmatic approach to politics to achieve his ideal. Cicero needed the votes and had waited to time his support for Pompey perfectly. Cicero’s year as consul was to test both his principles and his bonds of optimate amicitia greatly. On his first day of office – 1 January 63 – Cicero delivered a speech opposing a bill proposed by the tribune Publius Servilius Rullus regarding land reform. Supported behind the scenes by Caesar and Crassus and openly by all ten tribunes, this populist bill to redistribute land was an attractive prospect to the urban masses. The proposal was to create a commission of ten men for five years who would control

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the redistribution of land – to Cicero’s mind an enviable role for a power-hungry individual. Cicero’s co-consul Antonius (bankrolled by Crassus and supported by Caesar) was expected to support the bill, but Cicero effectively bribed Antonius to support him instead by offering him the province of Macedonia – the very wealthy province allocated to Cicero for governing after their consular year was complete. Cicero’s speech to the people convinced them that this was a fraudulent gesture of populism, with the aim of personal ambition driving it that would give individuals the power of kings. By thus aligning it with his beliefs about the danger of unconstitutional power in the hands of individuals, Cicero had in many ways positioned himself against another powerful and rising individual – Julius Caesar. Cicero’s most dramatic challenge during his consulship came in the form of a conspiracy to overthrow the government by Catiline. His patriotism, his sense of duty to the state and his dislike of popularis politics left him in no uncertainty as to the guilt of Catiline, but Catiline was a man of patrician rank from an ancient family who had fallen on hard times financially – a man whose family embodied the tradition and past that Cicero was striving to save. Caesar also had supported Catiline’s campaign for the consulship the year before (against Cicero). When the trial of some of Catiline’s fellow senatorial conspirators came up, Cicero, as consul, was forced to decide on a punishment that would be completely effective, but also legal. Having called a senatus consultum ultimum, there was historical precedent for Cicero to have the conspirators executed for treason, despite their Roman citizenship. Caesar recommended imprisonment for life, but it was Cato who argued convincingly to the senate that the conspirators should be executed. With almost full senatorial backing (Caesar was among those who disapproved), Cicero declared the conspirators guilty of treason and had them put to death. It was a triumph for Cicero to have succeeded in gaining such determined support from the elite core of optimates in the senate. According to Plutarch, Cato named Cicero parens patriae for

senatus consultum ultimum (SCU) abbreviated form of senatus consultum de re publica defendenda, a decree of the senate passed in times of crisis allowing the suspension of the normal restrictions placed on consuls to do whatever was necessary to protect the state

Figure 2.17 Cicero Denounces Catiline in a painting by Cesare Maccari in 1888.

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2.5 Cicero as Orator: In Verrem 1 TOPIC OVERVIEW ●● ●●

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The courtroom setting, partial delivery and subsequent publication of the Verrine speeches The form, structure and style of Roman legal oratory including devices such as anaphora, apostrophe, tricolon and hyperbole The ways in which the speech is typical of Roman rhetorical practice The themes of corruption, justice and the necessity of upholding the state His portrayal of Verres and his corruption, and how this is created

The following prescribed source is covered in this topic: Cicero, In Verrem 1

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Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE In Verrem 1 Date: 70 Author: Marcus Tullius Cicero Genre: Forensic (legal) oratory Summary: The first of seven speeches known as the Verrine orations. Only the first two were delivered. In this speech, Cicero focusses on the responsibility of the jury, details Verres’ early crimes before and during his office as governor and reveals the ways in which Verres and his supporters had tried to pervert the course of justice. Significance: Cicero establishes his fame in Rome by successfully prosecuting an extremely wealthy member of the nobiles who is defended by Hortensius – the leading orator of the time Read it here: OCR sources booklet

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The speech Cicero delivered in the trial against Verres in 70 was to establish him as Rome’s greatest orator, winning him friends and allies as well as fame. His intimate understanding of the power of rhetoric and his oratorical skills enabled him to persuade his audience to break with a growing tradition of corruption and to sacrifice ‘one of their own’ – a senator accused by a mere novus homo. It also allowed Cicero to showcase himself as the ultimate Roman patriot dedicated to establishing some form of concordia ordinum and rooting out ‘un-Roman’ behaviour. It was this power of oratory that was to render Cicero so valuable to other political players of the times.

IN VERREM 1: SETTING, DELIVERY AND PUBLICATION The trial of Verres was to mark a significant turning point for Cicero in his political career. By 70, Cicero had established a name for himself through the pro Roscio Amerino trial in 80, in which he had successfully defended Roscius against a charge of parricide. Cicero had since married and acquired some wealth, and been elected quaestor at the earliest age allowed. He had served his quaestorship at Lilybaeum in Sicily and earned himself a reputation for fairness and thoroughness. After three years of suffering at the hands of Verres, the Sicilians sent embassies to Rome to ask Cicero to plead their case against Verres and his unacceptable maladministration of the province. Cicero was to deliver In Verrem 1 in the permanent court in Rome specifically for cases of extortion. Verres’ fame and that of his defence counsel – Quintus Hortensius Hortalus – guaranteed it would draw a large crowd of public spectators. People had also flocked to Rome for the elections and to enjoy the public festival granted to celebrate Pompey’s military success in the East. For Cicero it was the perfect arena in which to showcase his oratorical and rhetorical talent, and further raise his profile. The judge was Manius Acilius Glabrio. The jury comprised senators alone since Sulla had removed the rights for equites to stand on juries. Verres himself was a member of the nobiles. Cicero, it must be remembered, was a novus homo, with no significant political network of support: he would be reliant on his oratorical skills of persuasion to sway jury and judge on the day of the delivery of his speech. Despite an extraordinary number of setbacks deliberately created by Verres, Cicero acquired an overwhelming amount of evidence and number of witnesses and, by changing the normal procedure of speeches (see p. 00), delivered the first Verrine to devastating effect. Hortensius advised Verres to leave Rome in voluntary exile immediately, which he did, and the case was successfully won by Cicero without giving the rest of the speeches he had prepared. In accepting and winning the case, Cicero achieved a number of personal aims. His oratorical prestige became acclaimed, for he had defeated Hortensius who was widely acknowledged to be Rome’s greatest orator of the time. Within the senate, Cicero’s views were now to be called upon earlier in debates – alongside those who had held praetorships – a result of a law which allowed any senator who had won a prosecution to be given the accused’s position in the senate. He had extended his client base significantly, including the people of Sicily and one of their traditional patrons – the Claudii Marcelli

KEY EVENT The trial of Verres Date: 70 Accused: Gaius Verres Presiding Judge: Manius Acilius Glabrio Prosecution Lawyer: Marcus Tullius Cicero Defence Lawyer: Quintus Hortensius Hortalus Alleged Crime: Extortion of 400,000 sesterces from the province of Sicily during his governorship from 73 to 71 Location: Extortion court, Rome Outcome: Verres found guilty, but fled Rome before the trial was concluded and lived out his life in exile

Figure 2.22 An engraving of Cicero and Verres.

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

Aside from specific details, Cicero employed many features common to speeches in which the speaker wished to move his audience emotionally. A number of rhetorical topics were identified for this purpose by the anonymous author of the Rhetorica ad Herennium (once falsely attributed to Cicero himself) – the earliest surviving Latin text on rhetoric (from the late 80s). Such rhetorical commonplaces included:

Figure 2.23 Rhetoric was a core subject in Roman education for many centuries. This relief from centuries after the Republic shows a rhetoric teacher with his pupils.

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Appealing to how important the contentious issue or crime is to a main authority such as the senate, Roman ancestors or the gods Presenting sympathetically who has been affected Exploring what would happen if this crime were to go unpunished Appealing to the idea of setting an example to prevent encouragement of such behaviour in the future Emphasising the inability to ‘turn back’ on the judgement later or mitigate its effects Proving deliberate premeditation by the accused Emphasising the foulness of the crime Noting the unique nature of the crime and preventing further examples by suitably punishing the first instance of it Underlining the scale of the crime by comparing motives for it to those for other wrongs Describing the crime in such detail that the jury feels they are witnessing it for themselves Cicero adopted many of these approaches, and many more besides. He had recourse also to his knowledge of a very wide range of literary stylistic devices, well known for their effect. In adopting such features he was to find them effective not only in his argument but also in demonstrating his education and oratorical authority. Below are some of the more common rhetorical devices Cicero employed. These specific literary devices as well as a host of other rhetorically effective turns of phrase, choices of vocabulary and rhetorical commonplaces can be found throughout In Verrem 1. We shall look at each of these in context as we analyse the speech in more detail below.

CORRUPTION, JUSTICE AND THE DEFENCE OF THE STATE On the face of it, Verres was being brought to trial for the extortion of 400, 000 sesterces from the province of Sicily. In Cicero’s speech, however, this specific crime is mentioned only in the final paragraph. What, then, was the focus of In Verrem 1? 156

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The speech created a situation in which the accused, the prosecutor and the jury were all carefully framed by Cicero to render the jury morally and politically obliged to pass a guilty verdict. This, with an overwhelming arsenal of evidence, secured Cicero’s success. In this section we shall look in detail at two ways in which Cicero constructed this piece of dramatic oratory. First, we shall examine the way in which he created an urgent sense of social and political crisis, in which the senatorial order was under threat of collapse from corruption within. This served sometimes to shift Cicero’s argument from a focus on Verres to what was at stake for the members of the jury – the future stability of the Republican social orders and the superiority of the senate. Secondly, and of paramount importance, was Cicero’s own self-representation as a champion of Roman values – moral, legal and political. The embodiment of a citizen devoted to his country, he portrayed himself as a defender of the senate’s prestige, of the rights of Rome’s allies and provinces and of the traditional systems and values of Roman law, justice and upright character. This was very much in line with his conservative political idealism. The framing of Verres himself is dealt with in the final section below.

EXAM TIP Credit in the examination will be given for use of some technical vocabulary but only when you can explain its effect: this is the most important skill.

(i) Crisis The opening paragraph to the first Verrine speech sets the scene. Verres remains unnamed, as does any direct mention of the crime of extortion. Instead, Cicero instantly re-frames the trial as an opportunity to rescue the country from dire crisis. He explains that the real issue at stake is the perception of a rotten core within society, in which money speaks louder than justice. The perpetrators are, he argues, those who allow corruption to take place unpunished. The effect is distrust and dislike of the senatorial order that comprises the juries – a damaged reputation that threatens concordia ordinum and the stability of the Roman state. In this opening, Cicero immediately employs one of the rhetorical commonplaces listed above – ‘Appealing to how important the contentious issue or crime is to a main authority such as the senate.’ He addresses the jury as if opening a direct conversation with them (apostrophe), demanding their full attention. The language is full of references to imminent threat: the situation is ‘destructive’ and ‘dangerous’. The speech is also full of hyperbole: it is a ‘crucial time for the republic’; the scale of the problem for the senate has become international: ‘rumour is spreading, not only among the Roman people, but also among foreign nations’, and he sweepingly dismisses room for exception – ‘no wealthy man, however guilty he may be, can possibly be convicted’. He continues in this vein later: That man’s [Verres’] wicked plans, which he endeavours to plot simultaneously against me, against you, Manius Glabrio, and against the Roman people; he plots against the allies, against foreign nations, against the senate and against the very name of senator. Cicero, In Verrem, Ch. 4

apostrophe a direct address to a third party to break up the narrative voice hyperbole exaggeration

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2.6 Cicero as Correspondent: Selected Letters TOPIC OVERVIEW ●● ●● ●●

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Cicero’s correspondents and his relationship to them The form, structure and style of Roman letter-writing The extent to which letters can be informal or formal in tone, and the choices of language and devices which create this Recurring ideas and theme in the letters and their relationship to Cicero’s life and political career The public or private nature of the letters and their history of publication

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic: ●●

Cicero, to Pompey, Fam. 5.7; to Atticus, Att. 2.18; to Curio, Fam. 2.4; to Caelius, Fam. 2.11; to Caesar, Att. 9.11a; to Atticus, Att. 13.40; to Atticus, Att. 14.4; to Trebonius, Fam. 10.28; to Plancus, Fam. 10.6

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

Cicero was a prolific letter-writer. Within the small selection of his huge corpus of letters that make up our prescribed sources, we get a sense of how important correspondence was to Cicero, as well an opportunity to see the innermost thoughts of one of the most important political players in the late Roman Republic. The letters form an invaluable source of political, historical and cultural information for this turbulent era. With the mixture of intimate and formal content, we can view both Cicero’s publicly sworn political principles and his own personal struggles to reconcile these with the crumbling of the political system in which he believed and for which he would give his life.

CICERO’S CORRESPONDENTS More than 900 of Cicero’s letters have survived, ordered into collections, including the Epistulae ad Atticum – Letters to Atticus (his closest friend) and the Epistulae ad Familiares – Letters to Friends and Family (including Caesar, Pompey and others). Letter-writing illustrated and strengthened the amicitiae between individuals in ancient Roman society and politics. Cicero’s dedication to his epistolary output reflects 166

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2.6 Cicero as Correspondent: Selected Letters Figure 2.24 Map of Cicero’s Italy.

CISALPINE GAUL

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Rome

Ad ria tic

Ameria Corfinium Tusculum Praeneste Anagria Bovillae Arpinum

Lavinium Lanuvium Antium Astura

Sea

Interamna Minturnae Luceria Cales Caieta Venusia Formiae Capua Puteoli Nola Cumae Mt Vesuvius Pompeii Baiae Naples

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Brundisium

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the importance he placed on keeping alive such ties of relationships, both friendly and formal. Cicero’s oratory and literary skills were his strength and his sword: he had no family lineage to rely upon for ready-made familial bonds, he had no adequate funds for effective bribery and he could never have commanded the loyalty of legions in the manner of Pompey or Caesar. Born in 110, Atticus, Cicero’s closest friend, was the recipient of a lifetime’s correspondence and was privileged with what appear to be the most intimate insights into Cicero’s thoughts and beliefs. Titus Pomponius Atticus was given the name Atticus (the ‘Athenian’) in recognition of his great love for Athens and Greek culture. Cicero met him during his early school years and they remained friends for the rest of Cicero’s life. When Cicero furthered his academic study later in Rhodes he was accompanied by Atticus. When Cicero could afford to buy his villa in Tusculum, it was Atticus who enjoyed furnishing the Greek-style ‘Academy’ Cicero created there – choosing suitable Greek works of art to fill it. A member of the equites, like Cicero, Atticus, however, did not become involved in the public life of politics at Rome. He was to be an extremely useful supporter of Cicero, owning ‘a circle of friends larger than any man’s in Rome’ (Tempest, Cicero, p. 82). Their 167

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

amicitia was also more formally cemented by the marriage of Cicero’s brother Quintus to Atticus’ sister Pomponia. It is clear from the corpus of letters sent to Atticus that Cicero loved him deeply and valued his friendship above all others. Atticus’ political policy of diplomacy and abstention secured him a comfortable life until he died in 32. One of our prescribed sources is Cicero’s letter to Pompey (Fam. 5.7) written in 62. For consideration of this letter as a reflection of their relationship, see p. 00, and p. 00. Similarly, a letter (Att. 9.11a) to Julius Caesar is included, which is also discussed in detail on pp. 00 and on p. 00. We shall also be considering letters from Cicero to Gaius Scribonius Curio (Fam. 2.4), Marcus Caelius Rufus (Fam. 2.11), Gaius Trebonius (Fam. 10.28) and Lucius Munatius Plancus (Fam. 10.6). The following sections include more information on each of these correspondents.

FORM, STRUCTURE AND STYLE MODERN SCHOLARSHIP Morello, in Writer and Addressee in Cicero’s Letters, p. 198, describes how the form and structure of letters is characterised by the fact that they are: ‘an interactive genre – one half of a dialogue … It is, indeed, a cliché of epistolary theory that letters are a substitute for a conversation. They anticipate an answer, and … maintain an apparent realism and seek to minimise the sense of geographical separation between writer and addressee.’ While Cicero’s letters might differ in style and tone, the ‘intense and recurring focus upon the addressee’s persona gives them both the epistolary quality and their artistic complexity alike’ (p. 207). When reading Cicero’s letters, consider carefully what kind of ‘persona’ he creates for each of his addressees.

rhetorical question a question to make a point; a question that frames the addressee since it presupposes that no one will answer it

A definite contrast of style stands between some of Cicero’s letters to close friends and relatives like Atticus with those letters to, for example, Caesar and Pompey. The differences in formality/informality of style are discussed in more detail below. Many of the nuances of literary style, however, are lost in translation. Grant, in Cicero. Selected Letters, p. 23, discusses at length the challenges faced by the translator of Cicero’s letters who would wish to write ‘contemporary readable English’, as Cicero’s works are filled with stylistic flourishes unpalatable to a contemporary style such as hyperbole or a string of rhetorical questions. Cicero enjoyed, for example, using Greek quotations to express himself or quote another (particularly in his letters to Atticus) – a stylistic feature that modern translators sometimes convey through the adoption of French or German

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2.6 Cicero as Correspondent: Selected Letters

Study questions Read Cicero’s letter to Plancus from 43 (Fam. 10.6). Plancus was governor of Gallia Comata (northern and central France), later described by the ancient writer Velleius Paterculus as pathologically treacherous – ‘a watchful and obsequious timeserver who, by frequent changes of side, was to outlive this whole period of civil war into successful old age under Augustus’ (Grant, Cicero. Selected Letters, p. 98). Cicero, in Rome, needed to persuade the notoriously slippery Plancus not to swap sides and join Antony. The letter is divided into the following structure: 1. An update from Rome and assertion of amicitia 2. A threat 3. Advice 4. A threat 5. A reassertion of amicitia

1 Can you identify these five sections in the text? 2 How does Cicero appeal to their existing amicitia? 3 What is the main threat that Cicero points out to Plancus? 4 How many actions does Cicero outline for Plancus in his section on advice? Why do you think Cicero chose this number? 5 How persuasive do you think this is as a structure? Explain your answer.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE Letter from Cicero to Plancus Date: 43 (20 March) Index: Fam. 10.6 To: Lucius Munacius Plancus From: Cicero in Rome Tone: Formal Significance: Plancus is ‘pathologically treacherous’, and Cicero is trying to persuade him as governor of mid and northern Gaul to stand fast against Antony and help out those in Gaul loyal to the senate Themes: ●● Cicero’s use of amicitia ●● Political pragmatism – ‘peace cannot be achieved by merely putting down your weapons’ Read it here: OCR sources booklet

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Part Two Politics of the Late Republic

phrases, as one might in a certain register of writing in English. Cicero tended to avoid such erudite literary frills when writing serious political letters, where the expected and traditional Roman register was one of simple clarity. We shall examine the style, form and structure of individual letters below.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS Letter-writing in ancient Rome was a system of exchange or communication between two people linked by some degree of amicitia. Cicero’s letters can thus be categorised relatively straightforwardly into letters to individuals with whom he had close personal ties (informal letters) and those with whom he had or hoped to have a more formal bond of amicitia (formal letters). Cicero’s informal correspondence covered a huge range of topics, but it all served to strengthen ties of friendship. In the Prescribed Sources we see examples of him writing to friends for all sorts of reasons. His relationship with Atticus is extremely important: as he once wrote ‘I speak with you as if with myself’ (Att. 8.14) and indeed the frankness and intimacy with which he appears to share his innermost thoughts and feelings is striking. In 59, when the First Triumvirate was newly established and Cicero was upset by the paralysing effect it had on the workings of the senate, he had written to Atticus in distress:

PRESCRIBED SOURCE Letter from Cicero to Atticus (2.18) Date: 59 (June or July) Index: Att. 2.18 To: Atticus on his way to Epirus From: Cicero in Rome Tone: Informal Significance: Cicero explains how, at the time of the establishment of the First Triumvirate - Caesar, Pompey and Crassus - he has been approached by Caesar to join them, but has turned the offer down Themes: Figure 2.25 A 17th-century romanticised sculpture of Julius Caesar.

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Disempowerment of the senate and people Libertas Struggle to match his political ideals with practice Cicero–Atticus relationship

Read it here: OCR sources booklet

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