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Study Skills for International Postgraduates Second edition Martin Davies

Contents

Acknowledgements Preface to second edition

v vi

Part 1 Being a postgraduate student

Getting started as a postgraduate

Being in a foreign land: Cultural adaptation

Part 2 Basic survival skills

Time management, getting organized

Managing information collected

Reading: A complex skill

Part 3 Perils and pitfalls

Plagiarism and paraphrasing

Referencing: The importance of acknowledgement

105

Part 4 Standing on the shoulders of others: Doing research 123 8

The research process

125

Part 5 What about me?: Criticizing and ANALYZING

143

145

Critical thinking

iv Contents

Part 6 Getting your ideas down: Writing for assessment

169

Writing style and language

171

Writing critical reviews: A step-by-step guide

194

Writing a report

208

Preparing for the research essay

234

Writing a research essay

255

Writing a literature review

279

The final polish: Editing and proofreading

300

Part 7 Being heard: Speaking for assessment

313

Participating in, and giving a tutorial

315

Delivering a presentation

326

Speaking to your supervisor or lecturer

345

Groupwork as a form of assessment

349

Part 8 Want to go further?

359

Writing a research proposal

361

What next? Completing a PhD

370

References Index

384 388

Preface to second edition

When I began writing this book back in the early 2000s international education was at its peak. As I write this second edition we are in the throes of the COVID-19 epidemic. Countries have closed their borders, airlines have stopped operating, social distancing measures are in place throughout the world, millions are being infected with the virus and millions are dying. Tertiary education continues, but in a greatly diminished form. Academics around the world, and the administrators that support them, are scrambling to learn more about the implementation of online learning; a term well known for decades, but which now has taken on greater significance and renewed importance. As a consequence, while much of the book remains the same, much of it is new. I have added a section on academic skill development in the area of online learning. I hasten to add I am not a specialist in this field, but still I hope the advice provided is worthwhile. Also new is an expanded section on ‘Getting started as a postgraduate’ covering managing stress and staying sane whilst completing one’s tertiary studies, especially in an online environment. This is particularly important in these challenging times, under conditions that may well involve long periods of social and academic isolation. I have added new advice for the English as a Second Language student too; advice stemming from my long experience dealing with international higher-degree students and the recurring question, ‘How can I quickly improve my English?’, and its educational corollary: ‘How can I assist my students in their English language improvement?’ Other new additions include an expanded section on ‘Criticizing and Analyzing’ covering developing critical literacy and argumentation skills using argument maps. In the section on ‘Perils and Pitfalls’ I include a developed section on citing and referencing, with general advice on what to cite and how to do it. In the section on ‘Writing for Assessment’ I include an improved section on writing genres, which now covers assessment tasks such as critical reviews, reflective writing and case study reports. I have also reworked the ‘Being Heard: Speaking for Assessment’ section. I include a section on working with classroom peers when asked to do group assessment tasks. This most difficult of all assessment tasks, groupwork, is often treated in a perfunctory manner by students and not taken seriously. However, it is an area where much can be gained. I include a new section on ‘Using the Library’ and ‘Developing a Post-Degree Brand’ as bonus chapters on the Bloomsbury website. The latter covers ‘selling oneself’ by online profiling both in the academic sphere and in the corporate context. I assume that postgraduates will, generally speaking, want to go on either with further studies or with employment. This is not meant as a substitute for a book on careers, merely an introduction to what must be considered prior to, and preferably, well before completing one’s postgraduate studies. Too often students are too busy during their graduate work to consider issues associated with preparing for employment, but – as I hope to show – there is a lot to be gained by beginning the process early. I hope the readers of this book enjoy reading it as much as I have enjoyed writing it. vi

Chapter 1 Getting started as a postgraduate

Chapter summary This chapter covers the following topics: ●● ●● ●●

The expectations placed on postgraduate students in universities The key assessment tasks you might be required to complete The aim of postgraduate education

1. Introduction Perhaps you are reading this book because you plan to study overseas. Perhaps you have just been accepted into a university as a postgraduate. If so, congratulations! Postgraduate study is exciting and stimulating if it is approached in the right way. It can lead to increased employment prospects, and it can change your life. It is also true that postgraduate study brings significant challenges. As an academic, I regularly see students who say that postgraduate study is more difficult than they had expected. This is a natural reaction. The education system demands increasingly more from students as they move to higher educational levels. The higher you go, the more independent and self-reliant you are expected to be. This can be a challenge for international postgraduates from non-English-speaking backgrounds, so I address a few issues concerning improving English and cultural adaptation that will particularly apply to them. This material is covered in Chapter 2. However, I strongly suggest you read this chapter carefully too before being tempted to skip ahead. The demands of postgraduate study are not simply in terms of a greater workload. One of the major challenges is to realize that your success as a postgraduate is entirely up to you. Few people will hold your hand and tell you what to do. Postgraduate study demands independence and self-reliance, qualities that are highly valued by employers. Naturally, the transition from a semi-dependent undergraduate to an independent postgraduate brings considerable challenges.

Study Skills for International Postgraduates

Before commencing postgraduate study in a tertiary institution, students need to be aware of three things: ●●

outcomes expected of them during their course of study

●●

types of assessment used in their intended Faculty

●●

expectations of them in terms of their oral and written work.

Awareness of these three things is important for all students, but international students from non-western backgrounds also need to understand a little about the western education system itself and what it means to be a postgraduate student within it. The facets of a western education system are not unique to the west, of course (globalization has meant that they are increasingly common in non-western countries as well), but they may be more pronounced in these countries as the concept of a university is (largely) a western innovation.

2. Getting to know yourself Activity 1: Getting to know yourself The academic environment values the ability to discuss and express one’s point of view. Students should not be afraid of expressing their point of view as often as possible. Usually a postgraduate class will begin with an ‘ice breaker’ to encourage free exchange of ideas, and to allow you to meet fellow students. The following is an example of such an activity. Imagine yourself in a classroom consisting of students from mixed backgrounds – i.e. western and eastern, male and female, of different ethnic and religious backgrounds. Imagine some of your fellow students as welldressed, professional people who are very confident in English. Spend a moment imagining a class in which you are a participant. Write down and practice your responses to the following discussion questions: ●●

Why have you come to a foreign country to study?

●●

What do you hope to learn?

●●

Why didn’t you consider studying in an institution in your own country?

●●

What is different (or special) about a university education?

●●

How does your host country differ in general from your own country?

●●

How does the education system in your host country differ from the education system in your own country?

Getting Started as a Postgraduate

●●

What do you like or dislike about the education system in your host country so far? (If you have not yet started your course of study, what do you expect to like or dislike?)

If it helps, rehearse your answers in front of a mirror. Try to present a c oherent verbal argument for each reason (i.e. don’t just say to the first question: ‘I don’t know’ or ‘I wanted to experience something different’). Neither of these statements are arguments. Let’s take the first question. Consider starting with a general introductory phrase that shapes your answer: ‘Well, there are really three main reasons why I chose to come to a foreign country to study: the first, and most important reason, was …’ (use different introductory phrases for each question, e.g. ‘Second, it was critical that I … ’). Then, narrow down to your detailed answer: ‘For these three reasons, I particularly wanted to see whether I could survive on my own in another country. I am not used to living away from my family, and not used to cooking and cleaning for myself. So, I thought it might be a good challenge to study overseas.’ End with a concluding sentence: ‘So these are the reasons why I wanted to study overseas.’ Your answers should be shaped like this:

As we will see the above structure, the inverted funnel or triangle will be useful in many ways. It is a structure that is logically satisfying, and it has a lot of applications in writing for assessment as well as in speech.

3. What will you will have to do As postgraduates you will be required to do exams and assignments of course. In addition, most of your assessment work as a postgraduate will consist of some or all of the following assessment tasks. Many of the items in the list below will, to some extent, be discipline-specific, i.e. particular to a discipline. But it is also true that many items are common to most disciplines (e.g. information literacy tasks, essays, reports, annotated bibliographies, reading comprehension tasks, seminar presentations and tutorials). It’s good preparation to be aware of them all, and most of them will be covered in this book.

Study Skills for International Postgraduates

Typical postgraduate assessment tasks in university ●●

●● ●●

●●

●● ●● ●●

Exercises to test information literacy and tasks to demonstrate research skills Empirical reports, generic reports, business reports Annotated bibliographies, critical reviews and literature reviews (as part of a thesis, as stand-alone documents or as part of essays or reports) Research essays (be they argumentative essays, reflective essays or a mixture) Case studies and / or analyses of case studies Exercises to test academic reading skills Seminar presentations and tutorial presentations

In addition to content knowledge, i.e. understanding of subjects, and a high degree of skill in computer literacy, postgraduate students are expected to demonstrate familiarity and skills with a broad range of areas. These are listed below, along with the chapters in which they are covered. ●●

Understanding of academic expectations, cultural familiarity, time and information management skills (Chapters 1–4)

●●

Reading skills (Chapter 5 and bonus Chapter 24, ‘Using the Library’)

●●

Plagiarism, referencing and citation systems (Chapters 6–7)

●●

Research skills (Chapter 8)

●●

Critical thinking (Chapter 9)

●●

Writing skills (Chapters 10 and 16)

●●

Writing critical reviews / annotated bibliographies / literature reviews (Chapters 11 and 15)

●●

Writing empirical reports, generic reports and business reports (Chapter 12)

●●

Writing research essays (Chapters 13–14)

●●

Knowledge of how to conduct seminar and tutorial presentations, and developing speaking and negotiating skills, including familiarity with groupwork assignments (Chapters 17–19) Understanding of the preparation required for higher degree by research work and beyond, i.e. research proposals and doctoral dissertations, and marketing yourself post-degree (Chapters 21–23).

At the end of the book we will revisit these skills in relation to future studies, online profiling and gaining employment. Chapters 23 (Developing a post-degree brand) and 24 (Using the library) are available as bonus chapters on the website. Before you move on, try the checklist at the end of Chapter 2. How confident do you feel in each of these

Getting Started as a Postgraduate

areas? Hopefully, you will feel much more confident by the time you reach the end of the book than you did at the beginning. We will revisit this checklist at the end of the book.

4. The academic expectations of postgraduates It is important to understand what the academic expectations are in your host university, as they may conflict with those of your home university. The advice in this chapter is based on broad generalizations which are applicable to most – but not all – universities, especially those in western countries. Universities have a common tradition stemming from ancient Greece and were formally inaugurated as early as 1088 (the University of Bologna in Italy), although the philosophers Aristotle and Plato set up earlier proto-universities in much earlier. While academic writing and speaking styles can differ between different language groups and in different countries and cultures, the academic culture of western universities is broadly similar around the world. Thus, much of the advice here may be known by an international student who has studied in Spain or Germany but may be completely new for a student whose previous university was in a non-western country such as Saudi Arabia, India, China or Thailand. This is not to say that education in western countries is intrinsically ‘better’ than education in other countries. Rather, the advice here is given to help you to adapt to what is expected of you at a foreign university, so that you can succeed. This, in turn, will prepare you for the globalized workforce beyond the university, which is still largely dominated by western traditions.

1. Adult learning Adult learners are expected to demonstrate the following skills. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

They should take an active role in their own learning. They should seek, hold, express and justify opinions. They should be willing to participate in organized discussions. They should contribute to team-work assignments when requested to do so Students are expected to approach academic staff for assistance when they require help. They should follow strict assessment procedures and guidelines, e.g. due dates for assignments, examination times. Students should always express ideas in their own words when writing being careful to acknowledge the originator of the ideas. Students should support ideas and opinions with evidence from a variety of peer-reviewed academic sources (‘peer-reviewed’ will be explained in a later chapter). Students should be expected to think and write critically (‘critically’ will be explained later too).

Study Skills for International Postgraduates

2. Key aspects of the academic tradition 1. Active learning In many countries, university students are not expected to passively accept as true the information provided by the lecturer. Students’ own ideas are valued and respected, and students are expected to contribute to the class. Questioning and critical thinking are also key to active learning; information and ideas should not be simply accepted by students. It is quite acceptable for students to question or even correct the lecturer. You may feel uncomfortable with this but in many instances, this is greatly welcomed. Correction is important for ascertaining truth. It is also considered as an example of students and lecturers taking part of the joint enterprise of learning together. At postgraduate level, students are expected to be active learners: to find things for themselves, think for themselves, disagree with the point of view of the lecturer (when this is appropriate), and do their own planning, timetabling of their workload and preparation for assignments. Thus, the lecturer–student relationship is viewed somewhat differently to what you may have experienced in your home university. This is one of the greatest adjustment difficulties that international students face. Many students, especially those from Asian countries, are used to a more ‘passive’ approach to learning where lecturers ‘give information’ and students simply write it down. This approach is very different from the western academic approach where lecturers give minimal direction, make students arrive at the ‘answers’ themselves and expect students to argue with them! Active learning and initiative in problem-solving are important skills, particularly in the workforce. This learning starts in universities. The quicker a student adapts to this study environment; the quicker they do well.

But is this education? A natural reaction by many international students to the active learning approach is to feel that they are somehow ‘sold short’, i.e. that they are not being educated as much as educating themselves. Some students find this hard to accept, especially when they pay such high tuition fees. ‘What am I getting for my money?’ is an understandable reaction. ‘Why don’t lecturers just tell me the answer?’, ‘Why don’t they tell what I need to know for the exam?’ Thinking more broadly, however, it does make sense. The aim of a university is to produce independent thinkers capable of thinking critically about information presented to them. A second aim is to produce proactive people who can do things for themselves without the need for a mentor or guide. These happen to be highly sought attributes that employers look for in graduates.

Getting Started as a Postgraduate

Lecturers often keep a record of the verbal contributions of students in the class, particularly in tutorials and seminars. Some lecturers keep a grade book for this purpose, ticking off students’ names or assigning ‘points’ for intelligent comments or critical responses to ideas raised in class. At the end of semester, they calculate the points and arrive at a participation grade. If students have not participated or engaged actively with the material being discussed in classes, they receive zero for participation. Often students are upset by this as they did not realize verbal contributions were being assessed. Surprisingly, this expectation to contribute verbally and to be an ‘active’ and critical learner is not often made clear to students. The reason for this is historical. Many people regard active learning as the essence of a tertiary education. These historical traditions go back to ancient Greece, the birthplace of the university system. (Sometimes active engagement is known as Socratic dialogue after Socrates, one of the early Greek philosophers.) It is one of the main functions of the university to provide this opportunity for active learning and engagement, and students are expected to participate in it. It is good practice, therefore, to act and respond in class as though the teacher were silently giving students participation grades, because often they are (even though they may not have explicitly told the students). Opportunities are provided for active learning and interaction in all postgraduate classes. These may take the following forms: ●●

In-class, or take-home groupwork assignments

●●

Pair work discussions

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Whole class discussions

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Formal debates in class

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Problem-based learning

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Student presentations followed by critical peer feedback

There are many other variations, all involving active learning by students. In university there is generally less emphasis on teacher-centred learning (where the teacher ‘gives’ information and students sit passively absorbing it) and more emphasis on student-centred learning (where students learn by doing something themselves). Student-centred learning allows opportunities for discussion, clarification of ideas and concepts and disagreement on the material being discussed. This has many benefits, not least of which is the development of English-language skills. There is evidence to suggest that students learn better when they are actively involved in something. In fact, we usually learn best by doing something, not merely by being told about it. The most common form of information delivery in universities is, of course, the lecture, which is a large group, teacher-directed and teacher-centred classes. Lectures are usually supplemented with tutorials, which are small group, student-centred discussions. This practice is still common at undergraduate level, where hundreds of students attend a lecture followed by a smaller tutorial of 15 to

Study Skills for International Postgraduates

20 students. The purpose of the lecture is to impart information. The purpose of the tutorial is to discuss and critically analyse the material given in the lecture. At postgraduate level, however, it is increasingly common to have a blend of the two formats in medium-size classes (around 50 or more students in Australia, fewer in the United States). This is called a seminar. At a seminar, students receive some lecturer-directed content and then are expected to discuss issues, either as a large group or in smaller ‘break-out’ groups. Break-out groups later reconvene in the larger group to present their ideas. In seminars and tutorials active participatory learning is crucial. Students need to demonstrate that they have read and understood the material being discussed, and they need to show that they have ideas and opinions of their own. This is not just appreciated or encouraged; it is the purpose of the seminar or tutorial discussion groups. If students are not contributing actively, they are simply not doing what is expected of them. In large seminars, it is particularly important to make verbal contributions as – if you stay silent – the lecturer often does not know that you understand the material or have done the reading. In a sense, you need to ‘show off’, or demonstrate, that you are keeping up with the reading and that you understand it. Again, it is good practice to treat every class discussion group as though the tutor or lecturer was silently assigning grades for participation. If you approach your classes in this way you can be sure that you will gain an acceptable participation grade. Whatever you do, don’t stay silent. I shall offer some detailed advice on speaking in Part VII: Being heard: Speaking for assessment.

2. Asking questions Many international students are used to a learning situation in which asking questions is inappropriate. In many countries, however, asking questions is encouraged because this demonstrates a desire for knowledge and shows the student is intelligent and willing to question things and seek clarification. If you are having trouble understanding something, it is likely that other students do not understand it either. Asking questions has another advantage: If you ask the lecturer to repeat or explain what you do not understand this helps the lecturer to understand what your problem is. They then know how to help you. You can bet that other students will be also having the same problem as you are. It’s always good to ask. Remember too that lecturers often feel that students have experiences that can contribute to class discussions. For example, you may have had experience working overseas, or living in another culture. When relevant to class discussions, this kind of knowledge is invaluable and very welcome by lecturers. Do not be afraid to voice your views or opinions. It will make a good impression and possibly advance the progress of a class debate. The opinions and intercultural perspectives that you bring as an international student can be particularly valued and can enrich the learning environment. Asking questions is another aspect of active learning. Tutors and lecturers want to see evidence that students have engaged with the material being discussed. The best way to demonstrate this is by asking intelligent and relevant questions as often as possible.