DISSERTATIONS THE INFLUENCE OF AFRICAN SCULPTURE ON BRITISH ART, 19101930 BY BUCKNER KOMLAR DOGBE
MPhil Dissertation by the same title submitted at University of St. Andrews DATE 1989 SOURCE Courtesy of the Author
EXPLORE MORE DISSERTATIONS AT BENURI.ORG
THE INFLUENCE OF AFRICAN SCULPTURE ON BRITISH ART, 1910-1930 Buckner Komlar Dogbe A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews
1989
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THE INFLUENCE OF AFRICAN SCULPTURE ON BRITISH ART 1910 TO 1930
Buckner Komla Dogbe
A Thesis presented in the Department of Art History in the University St.
Andrews for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. 1988
of
ABSTRACT This thesis aims to discuss the influence of African wood
sculpture
on British art from 1910 to 1930.
It proposes that the works, tastes and
pronouncements of
century British
influence
and
various
that
20th
although
the
artists
British artists
did
betray
not initially
understand the conceptual foundations of African sculpture their knowledge
was
just
sufficient
for
the
modernization
this
limited
of British art
through the adaptation of the formal qualities of African art.
the
In assessing the validity of these propositions the thesis
examines
factors
Chapter 1
and
issues
that
facilitated
the
influence.
discusses the formal qualities of African wood sculpture the
that
attracted
It outlines the unusual figural proportions, the
British artists.
free and direct use of planar, linear and solid geometry,
the
treatment
are
generally
of material and its surfaces. The outlined
conceptual
foundations
in
2.
Chapter
The
of
African
sculpture
extent
to
the
which
British artists
understood these foundations is also discussed. Chapter 3 concerns the introduction of African sculpture to and
discusses
the
aesthetic
interest
Exhibitions
and
examined.
development that
it
of
the
aroused.
Britain
anthropological and subsequent Both
the
Post-Impressionist
the Omega Workshops which facilitated its influence are
Chapter 4 examines the concept and attempts to categorize
the
nature of this influence. The last three chapters act as case studies in which the on Epstein,
Moore
is
sculpture
examined.
The conclusion discusses the term 'Primitive' and the
.
.
and
of
African
artists and the 'Primitive' •
Gaudier-Brzeska
impact
Henry
British
Declarations
I, Buckner KomIa Dogbe, hereby approximately
that
this
thesis
which
is
81,000 words in length has been written by me, that it is
the record of work carried out by me and that it has not
been
submitted
in any previous application for a higher degree.
Signature • B. K. Dogbe
I was admitted as a Research Student under
Ordinance
No.12
on
10
October 1984 and as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy on 24 June 1985; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St.
Andrews between October 1984 and June 1988.
Signature B. K. Dogbe
III
Copyright Declaration
In submitting this thesis to understand
that
the
University
of
St.
Andrews
I
I am giving permission for it to be made available for
use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time
being
in
force,
being affected thereby. will
subject to any copyright vested in the work not I also understand that the title
and
abstract
be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied
to any bona fide library or research worker.
Signature B. K. Dogbe
Certificate
I hereby certify that fulfilled
the
candidate,
Buckner Komla
Dogbe,
the conditions of the Resolutions and Regulations appropriate
to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of st. and
that
has
Andrews
he is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that
degree.
Date ••.•.•.••.••
Signature of supervisor
.................. ........ . Dr. Anthony Parton
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In order to provide me with the best facility and supervision in my research,
Professor Martin Kemp suggested the title "The Influence of
African Sculpture on European Art" when I applied for admission into the Department
1982.
in
When
I arrived in St. Andrews two years later in
November 1984, my supervisor Dr.Christina Lodder suggested subject,
for
which
I am grateful to her.
the
present
Nevertheless Professor Kemp
has shown continued enthusiasm in the progress
of
my
research
for
assistance
and
I
appreciate his encouragement. I am
also
preparation and
of
indepted this
several
thesis.
Elizabeth Wengraf,
archives,
to
who
in
the
Especially I wish to thank Peter, Monica unreservedly
photocopying machine
Gallery, Royal Arcade, London.
people
and
gave
me
access
to
their
African collections at the Arcade
This proved of great inspiration and
an
enormous privilege. I wish to thank Dr D.H.A.Kaferly for introducing me to of
the
the
basics
computer and also Mrs Philippa Hill and Ms Dawn Wadell who have
helped me in many ways. Many
scholars
Dr.Elizabeth
have
Cowling
also
provided
guided me
me
useful
information
collections in Britain. light
on
on
Dr George
my
scholars.
the
Museums
H.A.Bankes
Ms
Jane
Bywaters
with Ethnographical
also
willingly
shared
the ethnographical holdings of museums in the United Kingdom.
Dr Terry Friedman has been tremendously helpful by giving me the
research.
with many sources of information on
primitive art and introduced me to other gave
helped
and
access
to
collections and archives of The Henry Moore Centre for the Study of
Sculpture, Leeds. Epstein's
Dr
Evelyn
Silber
most
willingly
shed
light
on
work and introduced me to other scholars including Mr Michael
Paddington who was also helpful on the same subject.
VI
Mr Malcolm McLeod
gave
me
valuable
information
on
the African sculptures in Epstein's
collection. Among the staffs of several galleries
who
archives,
museums
and
deserve especial thanks for their courteous and generous
response to my requests are: the
institutions,
Kettle's
Yard,
the staffs of King's College Library,
University
of
and
Cambridge; The Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge; Manchester Museum, Manchester; City Art Gallery,
Manchester;
Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London; The Courtauld Intitute Galleries, University of London; The Henry Moore Centre for the Study of Sculpture,
Leeds;
City Art
Galleries, Leeds; City Museum, Leeds; The
County Museum, Liverpool; Pitt Rivers Museum and Department of Ethnology and
Prehistory,
University
of
Oxford;
City Museums
Birmingham; City Museum and Gallery, Bristol; The
London;
The
Museum
and
Gallery,
of
Mankind,
British Museum, London; Ipswich Museum, Ipswich; Sainsbury
Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia, Norwich; Victoria and Albert
Museum,
London.
And
abroad
I wish to thank the staff of The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. I am grateful to the Staff of the Computer Laboratory of University of
St. Andrews
as
well
as
the
Inter-Library Loan
Section
of
the
University of St.Andrews Library whose remarkable efforts have immensely improved
many aspects of this thesis.
MY sincere thanks also go to the
staff of
Photographic
University
marvelous
work
has
Unit improved
of
the the
quality
of
St. Andrews
whose
of the photographs of this
thesis, which I personally took without the proper skill. I am also grateful to Mr Tom Normand who was briefly my from July
1987 to January 1988, for his useful suggestions.
greatly thank Dr Anthony Parton who took over thesis
the
supervisor Finally I
supervision
of
the
from Mr Normand, and whose encouragement and quick responses led
to its ultimate completion.
CONTENTS
Abstract ...............................•...•.•....................... 1.J..
Acknowledgement •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• vii List Of Illustrations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Xl. INTRODUCTION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
CHAPTER 1 Formal Analysis of African Sculpture •••••••••••••••••••••• 11 CHAPTER 2
The Conceptual Foundations of African Sculpture ••••••••••• 40
CHAPTER 3
The Developing Interest in African Sculpture •••••••••••••• 74
CHAPTER 4
Defining The Influence ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 114
CHAPTER 5 Jacob Epstein, Passionate and Obssessive Approach •••••••• 137 CHAPTER 6 Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, An Experiment ••••••••••••••••••••• 170 CHAPTER 7
Henry Moore, An Inspiration •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 196
CONCLUSION ••••••••••••••.•.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 215 NOTES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 221
APPENDICES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 246
BIBLIOGRAPHY •••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 259 MAPS ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS In the list below items are categorised according to the system:
tribe
and
following
country or artist, subject or title, medium, size,
location, and in the case of African sculptures the date of
acquisition
by the museum or gallery i f known. FIG.1.1. Baluba, Zaire, Female Figure (back and (46cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1910.
front),
wood,
18ins
FIG.1.2. A Diagram of Formal Analysis of African Wood sculpture. Louis Perrois, La Sculpture Traditional du Gabon, Paris, 1977, p.
After 33.
FIG.1.3. Stages of Carving Showing Examples of Proportions. Louis Perrois, La Statutaire Fan Gabon, Paris,1978, as Fig.82.
After
FIG.1.4A. Kulango, Ivory Coast, Female Figure, wood, 18ins (46cm), Fried Collection, New York. Reproduced in William Rubin ed., "Primitivism" in 20th Century Art, New York, 1984, p. 530. FIG.1.4B. Mbuun, Cameroon, Staff, Wood and metal, 33in (83.8cm), ErIe Loran Collection, Berkeley. Reproduced in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 530. FIG.1.5.
Examples of Types
Head-shapes of African Wood sculpture.
FIG.1.6. Types of Concave Faces in African Sculpture. After D.E.McCall and Edna Bay, Essays in African Iconology, Boston, 1975, pp. 253-7. FIG.1.7. Two Masks with Heart-shapes Ending in Upper Respectively. British Museum, London.
and
Lower Lips
FIG.1.S. Bamum, Cameroon, Headdress, wood and fibre, Pierre Harter Collection, Paris. Reproduced "Primitivism", p. 156.
11.75ins (30cm), in Rubin ed.,
FIG.1.9. Bakuba, Zaire, Ndob, wood, 21.5ins (54.6cm), London, acquired 1909.
British Museum,
FIG.1.10. Basongye, Zaire, Standing Male Figure, wood, 21.75ins (55cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1905. FIG.1.11. Dogon, Mali, Female Figure, wood, 23.6ins I 'Hamme, Paris, acquired 1906.
(60cm),
FIG.1.12. Mende, Sierra Leone, Female Figure (front and 46.5ins (118cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1901. FIG.1.13.
Eye Types of African Sculpture.
FIG.1.14.
Nose Types of African Sculpture.
FIG.1.15.
Mouth Types of African Sculpture.
FIG.1.16.
Ear Types of African Sculpture.
FIG.1.17. Bajokwe, Angola, Museum, London.
Musee
side),
Figure, wood, 11ins, (28.9cm),
de
wood,
British
FIG.1.18.
Breast Types of African Sculpture.
FIG.1.19.
Types of Male Sexual Organs in African sculpture.
FIG.1.20. Baluba, Zaire, A Female W.O.Oldman Collection, London.
Figure,
wood,
FIG.1.21. Az and e , Central African Republic, 20.75ins (52.7)cm, British Museum, London.
21 ins
Female
(53.3cm),
Figure,
wood,
FIG.1.22. Balwena, Congo, Ritual Female Figure painted Red and Black on The Chest, wood, 11ins (28.9cm), Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgium. FIG.1.23. Fang, Gabon, A Woman on Horseback 38ins (96.5cm), British Museum, London.
Carrying a
Bowl,
wood,
FIG.1.24A. Bateke, Congo, Human Figure, wood, 6.75ins (17.1cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1906. FIG.1.24B. Bateke, Congo, Fetish Figure, wood, 5ins (15.25cm), Museum, London, acquired 1906. FIG.1.24C. Bateke, Congo, Fetish Figure, British Museum, London, acquired 1906.
wood,
5.75ins
British (14.6cm),
FIG.1.25. Bangwe, Cameroon, Dancing Royal Couple, wood. 34.5ins (87.6cm) and 33.25ins (87.1cm), The Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. Reproduced in Hugh Honour, A World History of Art, London, 1983 as Figs 18 and 16. FIG.1.26 Ashanti, Ghana, Akuaba, wood, London.
13ins
(33cm),
FIG.1.27. Bakota, Congo, Reliquary (66cm), British Museum 1924, London.
Figure,
wood
British Museum, and
FIG.1.28. Yoruba, Nigeria, Two Ikenga, wood, 18ins 18.25ins (46.4cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1873. FIG.1.29. Senufo, Ivory Coast, Museum, London.
Mask,
brass,
26ins
(45.7cm)
and
wood,
36ins
(91.5cm),
British
FIG.1.30. Bamileke, Cameroon, Throne, wood, Museum, London, acquired 1900.
46ins
(116.8cm),
British
FIG.1.31 Yoruba, Nigeria, Epa Mask (front and side), wood painted red, blue and white, 54ins (137.1cm), Leon Underwood Collection, London. Reproduced in Leon Underwood, Masks of West Africa, London 1948, as pl.34. FIG.1.32. Ogoni, Nigeria, Mask, (41.2cm), British Museum, London.
wood,
fibre
and
cane,
16.25ins
FIG.1.33. Wazaramo, Tanzania, Human Figure, wood, 33.5ins (85cm), Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin, acquired 1889. Reproduced in Fagg, Tribes and Forms in African Art, London, 1965, p. 119. FIG.1.34. Ijo, Nigeria, Memorial Screen, British Museum, London, acquired 1910. FIG.1.35.
wood.
45.5ins
(115.6cm),
Bambara, Mali, Chi wara Antelope Mask, wood, 29.5ins
(75cm),
M.Nicaud Collection, Paris. Reproduced in Pierre Meuaze, Africa Art: Sculpture, London, 1968, p. 48. FIG.1.36. Swazi, Namibia, Milkpot, wood, 19x15ins (48x38.1cm), Private Collection, London. Reproduced in Werner Gillon, A Short History of Africa Art, London, 1984, p. 206, as pl.253. FIG.1.37A. Bambala, Congo, Headrest, wood, 10.75ins Museum, London, acquired 1907.
(27.3cm),
British
FIG.1.37B. Ashanti, Ghana, Stool, wood, 28ins (71.1cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1880. FIG.1.38. Bagirmi, Chad, Doll, wood, 8.75ins (22.2cm), Charles Rat ton Collection, Paris. Reproduced in Fagg, Tribes And Forms, p. 69. FIG.2.1. Dogon, Mali, Sanctuary Shutter, wood, 29x18ins (73.1x45.7cm). Private Collection, Cannes. Reproduced in Meuaze, African Art, p. 153. FIG.2.2. Dogon, Mali, Mythical Ancestors (front and back), wood, 26.25ins (66.5cm), Rietberg Museum, Zurich. Reproduced in Elsy Leuzinger, The Art of Black Africa, London, 1972, pl.A20. FIG.2.3. Yoruba, Nigeria, Shango Sacred Staff, wood, 16.6ins Ipswich Museum, Ipswich.
(41.9cm),
FIG.2.4. Bambara, Mali, Chi wara Headdress, wood, 40ins (101cm). Reproduced in Ladislas Segy, Masks of Africa, London, 1960, as Fig.38. FIG.2.5. Bambara, Mali, Two Masked Dancers with and Female chi wara Headdresses. Reproduced from Segy, Masks of Africa, as Fig.37. FIG.2.6. Senufo, Ivory Coast, (96.5cm), Private Collection, "Primitivism", p. 130.
Deble (Rhythm Pounder), wood, 38ins Paris. Reproduced from Rubin, ed.,
FIG.2.7A. Yoruba, Nigeria, Odudua (Fertility goddess), (76.1cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1912.
wood
30.5ins
FIG.2.7B. Yoruba, Nigeria, Odudua (Fertility goddess), (64.7cm), Horniman Museum, London, acquired 1925.
wood,
27.5ins
(116.8cm),
British
FIG.2.8. Baga, GUinea, Museum, London.
Nimba
Mask,
wood,
46ins
FIG.2.9. Baga, GUinea, Nimba Figure, wood, 24. 75ins (63cm), Rietberg Museum, Zurich. Reproduced in Elsy Leuzinger, The Art of Black Africa, London, 1972, pl.E26. FIG.2.10. Bundu, Sierra Leone, Museum, London.
Bundu Mask,
15ins
(38.1cm),
British
FIG.2.11. Bundu, Sierra Leone, Bundu Staff, wood, 30ins (76.2cm), University Museum, Philadelphia. Reproduced in Paul Wingert, The Sculpture of Negro Africa, New Yeork, 1950. pl.11. FIG.2.12.
Yoruba, Nigeria, Bowl, wood, 15ins (38.1cm), British Museum.
FIG.2.13.
Types of Fetish Figures.
FIG.2.14A. Museum.
Yoruba, Nigeria, Gelede Mask, wood, 40ins(101.6cm),
.
.",1
British
FIG.2.14B. Yoruba, Nigeria, Egungu Mask, wood 17.25ins (43.8cm), Rantenstrauch-Joest Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in William Fagg and Margaret Plass, African Art:Anthology, London, 1964, p. 90. FIG.2.15. Baluba, Zaire, Kneeling Female Figure with Bowl, wood, (53.5cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1905.
21ins
FIG.2.16.
Yoruba, Nigeria, Ibeji Figures, wood, British Museum, London.
FIG.2.17.
Bawongo, Congo, Bowl and Lids with Animal and Human Forms,
FIG.2.18.
Types of Bakuba Wooden Cups
...
FIG.2.19. Sakal ave , Madagascar, Grave Post, wood, 38ins (96.5cm), Musee de l'Homme, Paris. FIG.2.20.
Types of African Carved Drums.
FIG.2.21. Bamileke, Cameroon, British Museum, London. FIG.2.22.
Door
Frame,
wood,
77.4ins
(200cm),
Sculptures showing Tottoo, Scarification and Cicatrices.
FIG.3.1. Yoruba, Nigeria, Equestrian, wood, 12.5ins Museum, London, acquired 1830. FIG.3.2. Baluba, Zaire, Stool (front, back and (63.5cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1901.
(31.8cm), side),
British
wood,
25ins
FIG.3.3. Fang, Gabon, Spirit Head, wood, 10.6ins (27cm), The Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark, ed., Last Lectures London, 1939, as pl.89. FIG.3.4. Henri Matisse, Girl with Green Eyes, 1909, Oil on canvass, 26x20ins (66x50.8cm), San Francisco Museum of Art, San Francesco. Reproduced in Ian Dunlop, The Shock of The New, London, 1972, p. 151. FIG.3.5. Pablo Picasso, Head of a Woman, 1909, gouache 24x18ins (61x45.7cm), Museum of Modern Art, New York.
on
paper,
FIG.3.6. Pablo Picasso, Head and Shoulder of a Woman, 1909, gouache paper, 25.25x 19.12ins (64x48.5cm), Gallerie Beyer, Basel.
on
FIG.3.7. Pablo Picasso, Buffalo Bill, 1912, oil on canvass, 18.25x13ins (46x33cm). Present collection unkown. FIG.3.8. Henri Matisse, La Serpentine (front and back), 1912, 21.5in (54.6cm), Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.
bronze,
FIG.3.9. Bambara, Mali, Seated Ancestor Figure, wood, 24ins (61cm), formerly Matisse Collection now in Private Collection. Reproduced in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 229. FIG.3.10. Duncan Grant, The Queen of Sheba, 47.25x47.25ins (120x120cm), Tate Gallery, London.
1912,
oil
on wood,
FIG.3.11. Pablo Picasso, Head of a Man, 1912, oil an canvass, 24x15ins (61x38cm). Private Collection, Paris. Reproduced in Pierre Daix, Picasso: The Cubist Years 1907-1916, London, 1979, as Fig.468. FIG.3.12. Ducan Grant, Couple Dancing, 1913, pencil and 30x15.5ins (76.2x39.4), Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
gouache,
FIG.3.13. Pablo Picasso, Nude with Raised Arms, 1907, oil on canvass, 24x17ins (61x43.2cm), Thyseen-Bornemisza Collection, Lugano, Switzeland. FIG.3.14. Pablo Picasso, Nude with Drapery, (152.3x101cm), Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.
1907,
oil,
60x39ins
FIG.3.15. Duncan Grant, Head of Eve, 1913, oil on board, 29. 75x25ins (75.5x63.5cm), David Garnet Collection. Reproduced in Roger Fry, Duncan Grant, London, 1924, as pl.8. FIG.3.16. Duncan Grant, Adam and Eve, 1913, oil, 84x132ins (213.3x335.2cm), damaged in the Tate Gallery flooding in 1928. FIG.3.17. Pablo Picasso, African Head, 1907, oil and sand 6.8x5.5ins (17.5x14cm), Claude Picasso Collection, Paris.
on
FIG.3.18. Pablo Picasso, African Head, 1907, oil on (17x8.14.3cm), Claude Picasso Collection, Paris.
canvass,
FIG.3.19. Duncan Grant, The Tub, 1912, watercolour board, 30x22ins (76.1x55.9), Tate Gallery, London.
and
panel, 7x5.3ins
tempera
on
FIG.3.20. African sculpture in Matisse's collection in his appartment at Hotel Regina, Nice. Reproduced in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 237. FIG.3.21A. Wyndham Lewis, Design for Drop-Curtain, 1912, and crayon, 12x15.3ins (30.5x38.9cm), Theatre Museum, Albert Museum, London.
pencil, ink Victoria and
Wyndham Lewis, Indian Dance, 1912, FIG.3.21B. watercolour, 10.75x11.5ins (27x29cm), Tate Gallery.
chalk
black
FIG.3.22. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Marquetry Tray, 1913, (64cm), Charles L.Strong Collection, London. FIG.3.23. Pablo Picasso, Dryad, 1908, oil (185x108cm), Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.
on
wood,
canvass,
and
25.25ins
72.75x42ins
FIG.3.24. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Bird Bath (two views), 1913, 10.5in (26.7cm), Mercury Gallery, London.
plaster,
FIG.3.25. Dan, Liberia, Mask with Monkey Hair, 6ins Museum, London, acquired 1868.
(15.2cm),
British
FIG.3.26. Roger Fry, Mother and Children, 1913, painted 11.25x9x4ins (28.5x23x10cm), private collection, London.
wood,
FIG.3.27. Roger Fry, Marquetry Cupboard, 1915-16, inlaid wood, 84x45.5x16ins (213.5x115.5x40.7cm), Lady Tredegar, London. Reproduced in Isabelle Ascombe, Omega and After, London. 1981, as pl.18. FIG.3.28. Roger Fry, Essay in Abstract Design, 1914, oil and tickets on panel, 14.25x10.5ins (36.2x27cm), Tate Gallery, London.
bus
FIG.3.29. Roger Fry, Tennis Players, Q1914, pencil on paper, 7.5x11.5ins (19x29.2cm). Private Collection, London. Reprpoduced in Judith Collins, The Omega Workshops, London, 1983, as pl.44. FIG.3.30. Roger Fry, Reclining Nude, Q1914, pencil on paper, whereabout of original is unknown, photocopy in the Witts Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London.
, ..
""m
FIG.3.31. Wyndham Lewis, Circus Scene, 1913, pencil, watercolour and gouache, 20.2x15ins (51.1x38.7cm), Victoria and Albert Museum, London. FIG.3.32. Wyndham Lewis, Omega Workshops Letter Head, 1913, printed paper, Whole sheet 9.8x8ins (25x20.3cm), private collection, London. Reproduced in Richard Cork, Beyond the Gallery, London, 1985, as Fig.161. FIG.3.33. Wyndham Lewis, Theatre Manager, 1909, pen, ink and watercolour, 11.6x12.4ins (29.5x31.5cm), Victoria and AI bert Museum, London. FIG.3.34. Baga, GUinea, Nimba Headdress, wood with copper eyes, 25.25ins (64cm), Rietberg Museum, Zurich. Reproduced in Elsy Leuzinger, Art of Black Africa, London, 1972 as pl.E9. FIG.3.35. Wyndham Lewis, Fire Place, 1913-14, painted side panels each 92.8x14.5ins (236x36.8cm), painted top panels each 9x86.25ins (23x219cm), mirror 67x61ins (170x155cm), private collection, London. Reproduced in Wyndham Lewis ed., Blast l (London), June 1914, as illustration vii. FIG.3.36. Duncan Grant, Decorated Omega Plates, Q1914, earthernware with white tin glaze decoration, diameter 9.75ins (24.8cm), private collection, London. Reproduced in Isabelle Anscombe, Omega and After, London, 1981, as pl.26. FIG.3.37. Pablo Picasso, Standing Nude (30x22cm), Musee Picasso, Paris.
and
a
Foot,
1909,
11.8x9ins
FIG.3.38A. Frederick Etchells, Head, 1914, watercolour, (43x30.5cm), lost, Reproduced in Blast l as illustration x.
17x12ins
FIG.3.38B. Frederick Etchells, Head, 1914, watercolour (43x30.5cm), lost. Reproduced in Blast l as illustration ix.
17x12ins
FIG.3.39. Ulvira, Zaire, Mask, wood, 24ins (61cm), Courtauld Galleries, London.
Institute
FIG.4.1. Wyndham Lewis, Three Figures (Ballet Scene), 1919-20, crayon and wate rcol our , 14,75x19.5ins (37.5x49.5cm), private collection. Reproduced in Walter Michael, Wyndham Lewis. Drawings and Paintings, London, 1972, p. 382, as pl.73. FIG.5.1. Adrian Allinson, Mr Epstein doubting the authenticity of a South sea Idol, 1914, pen and ink, 20x20ins (50.8x50.8cm), Reproduced in Colour (London), November 1914, p. 142. FIG.5.2. Fang, Gabon, "Brummer Head", (front and side), wood, 24ins (61cm), formerly Epstein Collection. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark ed., Last Lectures London, 1939, as Figs. 93 and 94. FIG.5.3. Jacob Epstein, Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1912, stone, Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. FIG.5.4.
Jacob Epstein, Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1912, detail.
FIG.5.5. Assyrian, Winged Man-Headed Lion, from the Palace of King Assur-Nasid Pal, 880-860BC, Marble, 192.9ins (490cm), British Museum, London. FIG.5.6.
Jacob Epstein, Sketch for .,eiy
the
Tomb
of
Oscar Wilde,
1910,
pencil, 15x22.75ins (38.1x50.8cm), Anthony D'Offay Gallery, London. FIG.5.7. Jacob Epstein, Sketch for the Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1911, pencil, 11x11.5ins (27.9x29.17cm), Simon Wilson Collection, London. FIG.5.8. Jacob Epstein, Study for Girl 19x8.25ins (48x21cm), Walsall Museum Collection), Walsall.
with Dove, 1906, pencil, and Gallery (Garman-Ryan
FIG.5.9. Jacob Epstein, Head, 1910, crayon and wash, 25.75x19.5ins (65x49cm), private collection, London. Reproduced in Richard Buckle, Epstein Drawings, 1962, pl.30. FIG.5.10. Jacob Epstein, African Carving, c.1908-10, pencil, no size given. Photograph in the Witt$ Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. FIG.5.11. Jacob Epstein, Crouching Sun Goddess, 1910, 37.5ins (95.2cm), Nottingham Castle Museum, Nottingham. FIG.5.12. Jacob Epstein, Sunflower, 1910, stone, (58.8x26x24cm), National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne.
limestone,
23x10.5x9.5ins
FIG.5.13. Fang, Gabon, Head, 22.8ins (58cm), formerly Epstein Collection, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 430. FIG.5.14. Jacob Epstein, Maternity, 1910, stone, 82ins (208.3cm), Henry Moore Centre for the Study of Sculpture, Leeds. FIG.5.15. Fon, Dahomey, RitualBowl, wood, 7ins (17.8cm), 5.5ins (13.3cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1889.
diameter
FIG.5.16. Jacob Epstein, Cursed Be the Day Wherein I was Born, 1912, wood and plaster, 45.5ins (115.5cm), lost, photograph owned by the Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, London. FIG.5.17. Amedeo Modigliani, Caryatid, 1913, pencil and blue 16.25x21.75ins (41.5x55cm), Wasall Museum and Gallery, Walsall. FIG.5.18.
crayon,
Analytical Study of Modigliani's Caryatid of 1913.
FIG.5.19. Jacob Epstein, A Nude Figure, 1913, 25.25x20.75ins (64.1x52.8cm), Epstein Estate, London.
blue
chalk,
FIG.5.20. Constantin Brancusi, First Step, 1913, wood, 44ins 115cm). Destroyed except for the head. Full figure reproduced in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 348. FIG.5.21. Bambara, Mali, A Male Figure, wood, 25.6inc (65cm), Musee de I 'Homme, Paris. Reproduced in Marius de Zayas African Negro Art, New York, 1916, as Fig.16. FIG.5.22. Jacob Epstein, Mother and Child, (front and back), marble, 16.25ins (41.3cm), Museum of Modern Art, New York.
1913,
(46.5cm), FIG.5.23. Fang, Gabon, Reliquary Head, wood, 18.25ins Collection now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New formerly Epstein York. FIG.5.24. Jacob Epstein, First Venus with Doves, (front and side), 1913, marble, 48.5ins (123cm), Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore.
FIG.5.25 Jacob Epstein, Second Venus with Doves, (side and front), 1914, marble, 92.5ins (235cm), Yale Gallery, Yale. FIG.5.26. Dogon, Mali, Seated Figure, wood, 27.2ins (69cm). Formerly Epstein Collection now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. FIG.5.27. Jacob Epstein, Drawing for Birth, 1913, brush and ink, Reproduced in Blast l, as illustration xxvi. FIG.5.28. Jacob Epstein, Birth, 1913, stone, 12x10.5ins Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto.
lost.
(30.5x26.6cm),
FIG.5.29. Jacob Epstein, Study for Man and Woman, 1913, wash, 24.25x16.5ins (61.1x41.3cm), British Museum, London.
pencil
and
FIG.5.30. Sakal ave , Madagascar, Funerary Post, wood, 39.75ins (101.cm), formerly Epstein Collection. FIG.5.31. Jacob Epstein, Totem, (61x42cm), Tate Gallery, London.
1913,
pencil
and
wash,
24x16.5ins
FIG.5.32. Jacob Epstein, Study for Rock Drill, 1913, pencil and red and blue crayon, 18x23ins (58.4x45.5cm), Anthony d'Offay Gallery, London. FIG.5.33. Baule, Ivory Coast, Mask, wood, 35.8ins (91cm). Formerly Paul Guillaume Collection. Reproduced in The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.36, No.205, April 1920, p. 168, as pl.1. FIG.5.34. Baule, Ivory Coast, Mask, wood, 35.75ins (91cm). Formerly Paul Guilluame Collection, Paris. Reproduced in Paul Guillaume and Thomas Munro, Primitive Negro Sculpture, New York, 1926, as Fig.28. FIG.5.35. Jacob Epstein, Study for Rock Drill (back views), 1913, (A) crayon, 16x26.5ins (40.6x67.5cm), Anthony d'Offay Gallery, London. (B) Lost. Reproduced in Bernard van Dieren, Jacob Epstein, London, 1920, p. 237, as pI. XII. FIG.5.36. Jacob Epstein, Study for Rock Drill (front views), 1913, (A) black crayon, 21x25ins (53.3x64.1cm). Tate Gallery, London. (B) charcoal, 16.75x26.5ins (42.5x67.5). Walsall Museum and Gallery, WalsalI. FIG.5.37. Jacob Epstein, Rock Drill, 1914. Reconstruction 1973-74 by K.Cook and A.Christopher after the lost original, matal and wood, 98.5ins (250.1cm), Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery, Birmingham. FIG.5.38. Jacob Epstein, Genesis, Granada Television Limited, London.
1930,
marble,
64ins
(162.5cm).
FIG.5.39. Dogon, Mali, Seated Female Figure, wood, no size given. Albert Barnes Collection, New York. Reproduced in Guillaume and Munro, Negro Art, as Fig.16. FIG.5.40. Baule, Ivory Coast, Male Figure, wood, no size given. Albert Barnes Collection, New York. Reproduced in Guillaume and Munro, Negro Art, as Fig.21. FIG.5.41. Jacob Epstein, Two Studies for Genesis, 1929, (A) pencil, 11x16.75ins (28x42.5cm). Private collection, London. Reproduced in Richard Buckle, Jacob Epstein. Sculptor, London, 1963, p. 153, as pl.236. (B) pencil, 11.25x17.5ins (28.5x44.6cm), Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery, Birmingham.
FIG.5.42. Dan-Ngere, Liberia, Mask, wood. 10.5ins (26.8cm). Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection. Reproduced in Evelyn Silber, Terry Friedman, et al., Jacob Epstein. Sculpture and Drawings, London, 1987, as pl.III. FIG.5.43. Bakota, Zaire, Female Figure, wood, 23ins (58.4cm), Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection. Reproduced in Christies Sales catalogue, Egyptian. Greek and Roman Antigues and Primitive Works of' Art of' Af'rica etc. From Jacob Epstein Collection, London, 1961, Cat. No.13, pl.4 FIG.6.1. Yoruba, Nigeria, Divination Bowl, wood, 7.8ins (20cm), Bristol Museum, Bristol, acquired 1896. FIG.6.2. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Ornament Mask, 1912, painted 30x27ins (76.2x68.5cm), Musee du Petit Palais, Geneva.
plaster,
FIG.6.3. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, A Letter f'rom Gaudier-Brzeska with a Sketch of' Epstein's Tomb of' Oscar Wilde, 1912. Reproduced in Roger Cole, Burning to Speak, 1978, p. 22. FIG.6.4. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Head of' a Young Man, 1912, sandstone, 12x9.5ins (30.5x24.1cm), Stadt Bielef'eld, Germany. Reproduced in Cole Burning to Speak, p. 56, as pl.9. FIG.6.5. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Redstone Dancer, 1913, stone, 17x9x9ins (43.2x22.9x22.9cm), Kettle's Yard, University of' Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.6. Bambala, Congo, Fertility Doll, wood, 2.25x3.75xO.5ins (5.4x9.5.x1.2cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1907. FIG.6.7. Bapende, Congo, Mask, wood, 16.8ins (42.8cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1907. FIG.6.8. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Study f'or Redstone Dancer, 1913, watercolour and charcoal, 18.7x12.25ins (48x31cm), Musee d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges, Pompidou, Paris. FIG.6.9. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Portrait , of' My Father, 1910, dry painted bronze. 10.75ins (27.2cm), Museedes Beaux Arts, Orleans FIG.6.10. Auguste Rodin, Man with Broken Nose, 1864, bronze, (22.8x22.8x25.4cm), Rodin Museum, Paris. FIG.6.11. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Imp (two views), alabaster, 16ins (40.6cm), Tate Gallery, London. FIG.6.12. Bambala, Congo, Female Figure, wood and (50.7cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1907.
human
clay
9x9x10ins
1914, hair,
vained 20ins
FIG.6.13. Gaudier-Brzeska, Drawing f'or Imp, 1914, charcoal, 9.5x6.25ins (24.1x15.6cm), The St.Louis Art Museum. Reproduced in Alan G.Wilkinson, Gauguin to Moore: Primitivism in Modern Sculpture, OntariO, 1981, p. 125. FIG.6.14. Baule, Ivory Coast, Museum, London, acquired 1908.
Doll,
wood
16ins
(40.5cm),
British
FIG.6.15A. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Self' Portrait with Pipe, 1913, pencil, 18.5x12ins (47x30.5cm), Kettle's Yard, University of' Cambridge, Cambridge. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Self' Portrait with Pipe, 1913, FIG.6.15B. pencil, 18.5x12.2ins (447x31cm), Kettle's Yard, University of' Cambridge,
')<.vii
Cambridge. FIG.6.16. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Three Women, 1913, Charcoal and wash, 9.25x7.5ins (23.2x1B.5cm). Reproduced in H.S.Ede, Life of Gaudier-Brzeska, 1930, as pl.LIV. FIG.6.17. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Woman and Dog, 1913, 1B.25x12ins (46.4x30.5cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge.
charcoal, Cambridge,
FIG.6.1B. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Vase, 1913-14, marble, 17ins (43.2cm), Ezra Pound Collection, Brunnenburg. Reproduced in Cole, Burning to Speak, as p1.45. FIG.6.19. Bambala, Congo, Snuff Mortar, wood, 16ins Museum, London, acquired 1907.
(40.6cm),
British
FIG.6.20. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Garden Ornament 2, 1914, plaster, 25xB.5ins (63.5x47cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.21. Baluba, Zaire, Chief's Stool, wood, 21ins Museum, London, acquired 1905.
(53.3cm),
British
FIG.6.22. Illustrations of the possible process of development Gaudier-Brzeska's Garden Ornament 2, by the author of this thesis.
of
FIG.6.23. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Garden Ornament 3, 1914, plaster, 14.5x11ins (36.Bx27.9cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.24. Henri Gaudier-Brzeka, Men with Bowl, 1914, Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
bronze,
Kettle's
FIG.6.25. Lozi, Zambia, Kneeling Woman with Bowl, (56.5cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1905.
wood,
22.25ins
FIG.6.26A. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Design for A Door-knocker, 1914, ink and watercolour, 11.75x7.75ins (30x20cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.26B. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Design for A Door-knocker, charcoal, 10.25x7.5ins (26.3x1B.5cm), Wolmark Collection, London.
1914,
FIG.6.27. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Door-knocker, 1914, brass, 6.Bx3.25x1.25ins (17.5xBx3cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.28. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Couple, Q1913, ink and wash, size and provinance unknown. Reproduced in H.S.Ede, Life of Gaudier-Brzeska, London, 1930, p. 71. FIG.6.29. Gaudier-Brzeska, Female Figure, 1914, ink, 1B.5x12.25ins (46x31.1cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.30. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Hieratic Head of Ezra stone, 36x24ins (91.3x61cm), private collection, London. Cole, Burning to Speak, as pl. 50.
Pound, 1914, Reproduced in
FIG.6.31. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Maternity (front and back), marble, 11x10.25ins (27.9x26cm), Musee d'Art Moderne, Paris.
1913,
FIG.6.32. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Charity (front, back and sides), 1914, stone, 17.75x8ins (45.1x20.3cm), Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. FIG.6.33. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Carved Toothbrush Handle (front and back), 1914, bone, 6.75xO.8ins (17.2x2.3), R.A.Bevan Collection, London. Reproduced in Richard Cork, Vorticism and Abstract Art in the First Machine Age, London, 1975, p. 444. FIG.6.34. Yoruba, Nigeria, Ivory Baton, ivory, Museum, London, acquired 1910.
24ins
(61cm),
British
fIG.6.35. Yoruba, Nigeria, Fetish Staves, wood, cane and metal, 58ins (147.5cm), 56 ins (142cm) and 52.25ins (140cm) respectively, British Museum, London, acquired 1903. FIG.7.1. Baule, Ivory Coast, Seated Female Figure, wood, Paul Guillaume Collection, Paris. Reproduced in Roger Fry, Vision and Design, 1920, London, as pl.III. FIG.7.2. Henry Moore, Head the Virgin (after Virgin and Child by Dominic Rosselli in Victoria and Albert Museum, London), 1922-3, marble, 21ins (53.3cm), Ramon Coxon Collection, London. Reproduced in David Sylvester, ed., Henry Moore. Vol.1, London, 1954, as pl.6. FIG.7.3. Henry Moore, Studies for Reclining Figure (page 39 from No.3 pencil, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Notebook) ,1922-24, Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.4. Baule, Museum, London.
Ivory
Coast,
Mask,
wood,
25ins
(63.5cm),
British
FIG.7.5. Henry Moore, Ideas from Negro Sculpture (page 102 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.6. Henry Moore, Sketches of African and Oceanic Sculptures (page 103 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.7. Junkun, Nigeria, Standing Male Figure, wood, 34.6ins (88.8cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1909. FIG.7.8. Henry Moore, Sketches of Negro Sculpture (page 105 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil, 9x6.75in (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.9. Mumuye, Nigeria, Standing Female Figure, wood, 18.8ins (48cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1922. FIG.7.10. Baga, GUinea, London, acquired 1889.
Head,
wood,
24 ins
(61cm),
British Museum,
FIG.7.11. Henry Moore, Head (page 126 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.12. Henry Moore, Drawings of African and Inca Sculptures (page 120 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil, pen and ink, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.13. (18.4cm).
Ubangi, Central African Republic, Negro Head, wood, 7.25ins Private Collection, New York. Reproduced in Carl Einstein,
Negerplastik, Leipzig, 1915, as pl.15. FIG.7.14. Henry Moore, Sketches of Standing Figures (page 143 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24, pencil and chalk, 9x6.75ins (23x17.2cm), The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham. FIG.7.15. Henry Moore, Studies of African and Eskimo Sculptures, 1931" pencil and chalk, 10.75x7.12ins (27.3x19.4), private collection. Reproduced in Rubin, ed., "Primivism", p. 602. FIG.7.16. Henry Moore, Girl, 1932, wood, 12ins (30.5cm), private collection. Reproduced in Sylvester, ed., Moore Vol.1, as pl.112. FIG.7.17. Nkole, Zimbabwe, Figurines, stone, 3ins and 4ins 10.1cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1905. FIG.7.18. Henry Moore, Head of a Girl, City Art Galleries, Manchester.
1922,
wood,
(7.6cm and
9.5ins
(24.1cm),
FIG.7.19. Henry Moore, Standing Woman, 1923, wood, 12ins (30.5cm), City Art Galleries, Manchester. FIG.7.20. Henry Moore, Caryatid, 1924, stone, 12ins (30.5cm), private collection. Reproduced in Sylvester, ed., Moore Vol.1 as pl.17. FIG.7.21. Henry Moore, Torso, 1927, wood, 15ins (38.1cm), Marborough Fine Art Gallery, New York. Reproduced in Moore Vol.1, as pl.47. FIG.7.22. Azande, Sudan, Pipe-bowl in Human (31.2cm), British Museum, London, acquired 1860.
Form,
wood,
11.8ins
FIG.7.23. Henry Moore, Mother and Child, 1922, stone, 11ins (27.9cm), private collection. Reproduced in Sylvester, ed., Moore Vol.1, as pl.3. FIG.7.24. Henry Moore, Maternity, 1924, City Art Galleries, Leeds.
stone,
9ins
(22.9cm),
Leeds
INTRODUCTION In 1935 a book Hichael
Sadler,
of Hest Africa (Excluding Husic), edited by
with
an
j.ntroduction
Sir
by Sir \llilliam Rothenstein was
published under the auspices of the Colonial Office in London,
for
the
International Institute of African Languages and Cultures in London.
It
is a short illustrated book intended to be of service to those
in
Britain
and
Overseas,
Hichael's own essay, appeared
in
this
I
are interested in the life of West
Significance and Vitality in
book.
African
Sir art f,
also
Here, he briefly but effectively outlined the
salient qualitties of African sculpture. sincere
Ivho,
He then pointed out
that
the
appreciation
of African art by Europeans would take place only
in the distant future.
He therefore feared that the true recognition of
the
high
merits of African sculpture vlOuld manifest too late or not at
all because, liThe shado,;vs ax'e falling fast
on 1.vhat
is
best
in Hest
African art."[1] The indigenous religiOUS, economic, social, moral, philosophical
values
that
sculptur'e was undergoing a undermining
its
formed fast
significance
and and
the
political,
cultural
matrix
unprecedented
change
vitality.
of
and
African was
In order to arrest this
unfortunate situation and to maintain a high aesthetic level of this ar·t form
in
it's
native
place, Sir Michael made a suggestion which began
rhetorically: vlhat then can be done? 'Send!, some may argue, I as soon as funds allow, to each British dependency in Equitorial Africa, and especially the west, an of outstanding capaCity who has shown insight into the significant quality of African art, and who can judge between what is good and ,vhat is indifferent or bad in it with a masterly penetration shown twelve years ago by Mr. Roger Fry vThen he lirote for the Athenaeum the memorable article on "Negro Sculpture", since published in his Vision and Design. '[2]
- 1 -
This artist of proposed
by
Sir
Fry's
calibre
Michael.
He
was
charged
with
several
was to excite a general interest among
Africans and Eur-opeans in the profound problems '\>Jhich the study of African art.
duties
implicated
in
He was to promote this art in African schools
and to organise exhibitions in many places in the provinces, with a full explanation
of
the
finest
qualities in \'Jest African art. [3] Although
there are indications of the appreciable success of this scheme, it yet to be fully assessed.
However, on the other hand, it can be claimed
with a degree of certainty that there has been and
discriminating
has
appreciation
and
an
increasing,
recognition
of
sincere
the vitality of
African sculpture in Britain, Europe, and America since the first decade of
this
century.
This
is
reflected
in the high prices achieved by
African sculpture in public auctions, in the acquisition Western
museums
and
art
galleries,
Today
numerous,
addition
to
the
aesthetic
well-illustrated, and at times colourful
books, monographs, and essays on African sculpture are turned year. [4]
From
time
of
in its indisputable and profound
influence on modern art and its subsequent vocabulary.
programmes
out
each
to time major exhibitions of African sculpture are
witnessed by the public in
all
the
artistic
centres
of
Europe
and
&'1lerica. In Britain, in exhibitions
of
there have been no less than sixty major
African
sculpture since the beginning of this centur'Y.
There rune over fifty private and public museums and galleries in Britain that
have
SUbstantial
collections of African sclupture, (see Appendi.x
III).
No less than ten British artists, critiCS, decorative artists and
so on have collected impossible
and
sculpture since 1912 to the present.
needless
to
be
statistical
individual collectors allover Britain.
- 2 -
about
numerous
It is private
The appreciation of the vitality of ,African had
never
been
too
sculpture
late as Sir Michael feared.
Britain
Britain can boast of
scholars with deep 'insight' into African sculpture in i'lHliam
in
the
persons
of
Fagg, r-:lalcolm HcLeod, David Attenborough, Sir Herbert Read, Sir
Kenneth Clark, Frank vlillet,
Michael
himself
and
others,
whose
appreCiations are often cited.
The salesrooms in Britain are witnessing , and recording high prices and an increasing interest in prtmitive art,
African and Oceanic sculpture in particular. centre of the primitive of
American
London is the indisputable
market although New York is now
Indian objects.
the
centre
There are about 16 major sales of African
and Oceanic sculptures in London every year. [5] The leadership of Britain in this area is not fortituous. first
place,
In
the
Britain ''las a colonial pm'ler that had the most extensive
trade links with several
parts
ar'tefacts
l'lay
found
their
of
fl£rica
and
by
into
Britain.
In
these
links
many
the second place, the
leadership can also be attributed to the responsibility of a fevl British artists,
critics
and
dealers
who
developed an aesthetic interest in
African sculpture, admired, imitated, collected
and
evolved
it,
then
at
the
developed a nevI connoisseurship in regard to it. Paradoxically, since the discovery beginning
of
this
century
with
its
of
African
influence
sculpture on
Western art, its
aSSOCiation with British art and artists in the process of modernization has
not been stUdied.
This
phenomenon has been related to the
French and German artists in PariS, l:'lunich and Dresden. Of the several material
on
the
publications relation
of
on it
African to
modern art.
Prim). tivism in Modern Art [6], is the most ci ted area.
It
discussed
the
- 3 -
art
only
few
included
Robert Goldwater's study
in
this
historical and aesthetic problems brought by
African and Oceanic art on modern painting, and related to
the
French
and German artists.
these
problems
It also discussed the influence on
the works of Epstein, Gaudier-Brzeska and Henry Noore as modern and
not
artists
as representatives of the British school; except Epstein whose
relation to
Vorticism was
mentioned
publication
"Primitivism"
in
20th
in
passing.
Century
The
recent
Art[7], edited by William
Rubin, discussed the influences of many primitj.ve arts on artists in general, from Gauguin to Moore.
most
20th
century
African influence on Italian
paitings, French, German and American art were also discussed
excluding
British art. The reluctance of writers to discuss the crucial sculpture
role
of
African
on the British art scene could be attributed to the fact that
the influence on British art is not a neatly self-defined phenomenon and great effort is needed to look into incidents that helped to realize it. For instance, the two Pre-"lar
conditions
given to sculpture. seemed
less
Post-Impressionist of
exhibitions
in
London,
art and the sudden and unprecedented prominence
And many writers on African and Oceanic
concerned
about
them.
influences
The difficulties of analysing the
complexity of British modern art in their essays has been epitomised some
writers.
the
For example, Bryan Robertson stated:
by
liThe difficulties
of British painting during the twenties and the thirties are too complex to analyse definitely here ••• II [8] There are other reasons for overlooking the school.
role
of
the
British
The British were late to develop interest in African sculpture
and were influenced by it at the time
its
impact
on
the
continental
artists, critics and 'iv-riters \Vas less dramatic. [9] In general the French were inspired by the formal quality of Cubism,
African
sculpture
and
evolved
while the Germans were inspired by the sentimental impact of it
and invented the Expressionism. [10] These approaches
- 4 -
are
distinct
and
separate
the
two schools in the study of African influence on European
art.
The British were inspired by the formal quality after the
but
did
not
French,
invent any African inspired movement to distinguish them.
Another reason is that the British sculptors were prominently and for
a
longer period, influenced by African sculpture.
But in the cases of the
French and the Germans it
This
seemed
writers
on
was
the
British
painters.
because
a
to
the
concentrated
on
painting
mentioned.
These reasons have more or less created the impression that
sculpture
the artistic scene in Britain was African
sculpture
than is often
and
its
was
altogether
the
be
disadvantage
while
many
to
only
barren
subject
occasionally
of
interest
in
influence, although more went on in London
acknmvledged.
Britain
deserves
in
this
area
to
be
sculpture
has
appreciated in terms of its own development in modern art. This thesis
seeks
influenced
the
the
extent
what
foundation
of
20th
to
investigate:
how
African
century British artists between 1910 and 1930; to
the
artists
influenced
understood
the
conceptual
African wood sculpture and if there is any need for such
understanding in regard to
the
artistic
development
of
the
British
To
identify
the
qualities
artists. (i)
The problems are: characterised
African
sculpture
(ii) To
identify
the
and
to
see how and why the influenced British
artists became interested in
it
and
development.
foundations
that
which can be seen in the works of the
British artists influenced by African sculpture. conceptual
formal
(iii)
To
of
what
use
it
was
to
identify the problems aroused by the influence
and to categorise the influence that affected the British artists.
- 5 -
their
The research is limited to 1910 and 1930 since this was the of
struggle
for
British
artists
period
to bring their- 1rlOrk to the level of
those of their contemporaries in Europe, and it was the period in the
influence
of
African wood sculpture occured.
influence began
to
recede
as
a
result
of
which
After the 1930s the
total
establishment
of
or representational traditions which had been accepted in all variations as true means of expression; been
absorbed
into
the
fabric
of
the
and
the
history
influence
had
of modern art.
The
research is also limited to African wood sculpture and will not consider sculptures
in
stone,
metals,
ivory,
terra cotta and other materials
except for reference and except composite sculptures in which been
largely
combined
with
other materials.
with date of production
and
individual
artists
wood
had
It is difficult to deal in
regard
to
early
African 1vood sulptures because most of them "Jere works of anonimity and the early collectors had no significant knmvledge of Only
very
their
production.
few of the wood carvings knmvn to us today are more than 150
years old and the majority are considered less.
Generally African
sculptures were shortlived in a tropical climate and in use. case of the
influence
the
sculptmnes
that
their
found
dating way
can
be
limited
to
wood
But in the
African wood
into private and public museums and
collections from 1800 to the 1920s in Europe, Britain, and tunerica had
been
seen
by
the
British artists directly or indirectly through
illustrations.
The actual ages of production of the sculpture
produced
do
them
and
in
Africa
which
matter.
The
research
most
their
does not seek to
establish the tribes in Africa whose sculptures influenced artists
who
not matter in the study of their influence but it is
the date of their acquisition in Europe, Britain and America, and provenance
that
the
British
because artists themselves ,,[ere not concerned with tribal
styles and this is an independent study which is this research.
- 6 -
beyond
the
scope
of
The term African wood sculpture in this
research
refers
to
wood
carvings of Africa, south of the Sahara, just below latitude 20 North of the Equitor including Madagascar, (see Hap 1), that conformed and
practices
established
as
valid
to
customs
and
The carvings therefore strongly adhered to styles,
functions
determined
produced in the period long before European several
decades
after
the
affected them due to the African
of
these
also
found
museums
and
galleries.
through
art";
and
Other terms used art";
"Negro
"African art"; "Black African art"; art".
Although
these terms are unSUitable terminology, it is not necessary to
redefine them here but they will be used in a context sculpture.
Large
photographs
"Negro
"Tribal art"; "Traditional tribal art"; and "Primitive of
the
in private collections allover the
the European and the British artists.
Negro
of
sculptures are found in European,
historically to imply African wood sculpture are:
many
and
acculturation
unprecedent
They are the works seen physically or
"African
Africa
and
world.
sculpture";
with
fast
of
by
They are wood sculptures
contacts
numbers
appreciated
and
where European influence had not
British, American, Russian and African are
forms
contacts
continent.
them
ideas
beliefs of the
African.
by customs and beliefs.
to
On
the
other
hand
of
African
wood
the term African art shall be used in
broader sense to cover architectural decorations, design works, pottery, jewellery,
textile
and
other
African
simplicity the term African sculpture
artefacts.
shall
be
used
For the matter of throughout
this
sense
cover
thesis. The term Primitive art will be sculptures
used
in
of Africa, Pacific Islands, North
etc.
- 7 -
broader
to
Indians, Eskimos,
Conceptual foundation is a term that refers to formed
the
basis
the
concepts
that
of
African art.
The concepts refer to factors like
motivation
or
meaning,
form,
style,
functions
which
determined
the
inspiration,
goals
aspiration
and
and manifestations of artistic
expressions which in turn culminate in the cultural totality or complex. Due to several field studies changed.
The
procedure
here
of is
African
art
tribal
names
have
to use the most up-to-date names if
possible. The first assumption in this research is influences
of
African
that
there
not
initially
visible
sculpture on some 20th century British artists.
The second is that the British artists influenced by did
are
understand
the
conceptual
African
sculpture
foundation
of African
sculpture although in the later years their writings reflected a limited contextual
meaning
of
the
critical studies of the development.
The
sculpture.
formal
third
and
They were irrelevant to their
qualities final
and
their
writings,
artistic
assumption is that the extent and
nature of the influence can be determined through the pronouncements,
modern
study
of
works,
and publications of and on some 20th century
British ffi tists and critics. 1
The paintings and sculptures African
of
the
British
artists
influenced them.
revealing
and
explanations
views
Examination
of
chapters
the
with
deal
manifestation of the influence. sculptors
as
case
factors
that
The
contributed
The last three chapters consider
studies.
but
first to
the three
The first chapter deals with the
analysiS of the formal qualities of African
- 8 -
brief
on African sculpture and the subtle
revelations of methods and meanings of the artists are made.
British
show
influence are studied in comparison with the African sculptures
that are supposed to
four
that
sculpure.
It
establishes
the
generalised
formal
characteristics
that
interested
the British
artists and influenced their drawings, paintings, sculptures and tastes. The
second
chapter states how the British artists became interested in
the conceptual foundations of foundations
by
discussing
fl£rican the
sculpture.
motivations,
It
functions,
sometimes the meanings of the works and explains to foundations
were
in
many
had
what
In
this
seen them.
were
This does not
developed
problems
term influence.
these
P£rican
mean
that
posed
the
British
Chapter three deals with how African sculpture
in it.
the
aesthetic
It examines how it came to influence
the works and tastes of British artists. artistic
extent
chapter
was introduced into Britain and how the ethnographic and interests
purposes and
museums in Europe and the United States of America
are cited to illustrate points. artists
these
understood by the British artists and how little they
were related to their artistic development. sculptures
explains
Chapter
four
discusses
the
by the influence, the misunderstanding of the
It examines some previous definitions of the
term
and
then redefines as well as outlining types of influence that affected the British artists. approach
of
Chapter five discusses the
Jacob
and collection
of
influenced
it.
by
passionate
and
obsessive
Epstein to African sculpture, his interest, writing it.
And
how
his
drawings
and
sculptures
were
Chapter six discusses the experimental approach to
African sculpture by Gaudier-Brzeska, and hmv and sculpture
and
to
drawings and taste were inlfuenced.
what
extent
Chapter seven deals
with how Henry Moore derived his inspiration from African sculpture how
it
influenced
his
works
and
then
led
his
him
to
and
other forms of
SCUlpture. Although this research does not claim to exhaust the study
of
the
subject it will hopefully serve as documentary evidence of the influence of African sculpture on 20th century British
- 9 -
artists.
As
a
body
of
knmvledge
the
result
of
this
research
researchers in Art History, anthropology and knowledge.
- 10 -
will other
be
useful related
to
other
fields
of
CHAPTER 1 FORMAL ANALYSIS OF AFRICAN SCULPTURE African sculpture is usually approached formal For
in
terms
of
its
purely
or plastic characteristics and the way they have been organised.
instance
&,eeney
J.J.
considered
that
the
plastic
qualities
manifested in African sculpture were unrivalled: It is not the tribal characteristics of Negro art nor its strangeness that are interesting. It is its plastic qualities. Picturesque or exotic features as well as historical and ethnographical considerations have a tendency to blind us to its true worth... It is the vitality of Negro art that shOUld speak to us, the simplification without impoverishment, unerring emphasis on the essential, the consistent three-dimensional organization of structural planes in architectonic sequences, the uncompromlslng truth to material... The art of Negro Africa is a sculptor's art ••• It is as sculpture we should approach it.[1]
&veeney epitomises the way British and European avant-garde artists approached
African
sculpture
the
formal
characteristics which attracted and influenced them and sustained
their
visual
interest.
They
were
as
not
SCUlpture.
It
was
initially interested in the subject
matter nor any ideological content that African art possessed. few
years
later
these areas.
that some of the artists began to develop interest in
By analysing the basic
qualities
treatment,
organisation),
surface
forms,
and
understand and indentify the nature of avant-garde
experienced.
Yet
the
of
visual
African it
is
or
appreciation. from
primitive
art
art,
(the
possible
to
stimulus
that
the
some scholars are still uncertain as to
how far the formal aspect can be separated from the content sculpture
It was a
in
general
for
a
of
African
meaningful aesthetic
Eckart von Sydow believed that, "to separate
the
object
its social significance, from its ethnic role, to see and look for
aesthetic side alone is to remove from
- 11 -
these
specimens
of
Negro
art
their sense, their singnificance and the reason for their existence."[2] This Chapter concentrates on the formal aspects since initially was only these that interested the avant-garde.
As William Fagg, one of
the foremost authorities in the field of African art, confirmed when wrote:
he
"What interested and influenced the 20th century avant-garde was
the pure form of African carvings; they knew nothing of the the
it
forms,
meaning
of
of their content of their belief, and cared less, for among
their revolutionary purposes was the liberation of form from content
in
art."[3J The formal analysis here is arrived
at
from
the
author's
museums in Britain, and from writers.
Some
based
writers
the
upon
selective
generalization
observation
of
results
field-studies
of
African sculptures in
which
according
to
them
is
not homogenous.
such
the
a
vast
For example Andre
Terisse argued that, "it is very difficult to classify or to in
other
are reluctant to make general statements about
African sculpture because it is so diversified and covers area
by
generalise
domain of African art."[4] Other writers, such as Werner Gillon
believed that in spite of the common
characteristics
African
sculptures,
generalisation
in
stylistic the
wherever
diversity
treatment it
there
are
certain
of forms and masses in most
originated.[5J
Fagg
also
accepted
in African sculpture on broader terms in relation to art
in general. [6] African sculpture largely consists comparatively
few animal
of
were carved.
human figure is divided into two sections: neck and torso, and the
human
figures
and
masks;
The formal analysis of the - Major Forms (the head, the
limbs); Minor Forms (the eyes, nose, lips,
ears, the female breasts, the navel, the forearms, the fingers and toes, the buttocks, and the male and female genitals.)
- 12 -
African figural sculpture .vas alvTays divided into three the
most
striking
characteristics
parts
and
of
the
figure
is
the
usually
forms
one-third
of
the
disproportionately large head.
This
total
For instance, the Female Figure, FIG.1.1,
height
of the figure.
Baluba, Zaire, acquired by the British Museum in 1910, has a large vlhich
is approximately one-third of the total height of 18ins.
This
intriguing
Proportion',
and
unusual
known
as
'Reducing
In his analysis Jan Vansina
explained
that
the
forms one-third or one-quarter of the total height of many African He illustrated this with a diagram, FIG.1.2,
figural sculputres. is
is
(46cm).
'Diminishing proportion', 'Proportion of Significance', or
'African proportion'. head
proportion
head
based
on
Louis
Perrois's
analysis
of
over
statues. [7] The numbers in the vertical order the
parts to the whole figures.
two the
which
hundred
Fang
percentages
of
In accordance with thiS, it has
been argued by iHllet that, in general, sculptors traditionally began by carefully dividing the block of wood to be carved into separate sections which would eventually represent the head, body, and legs.
Hence
proportions
Robert Hottot
deliberately established at the outset. as
1906,
although
his
work
these
first observed this as
early
published
posthumously
in 1956.[8] FIG.1.3 shows the various stages of
carving:
Diagram 1 represents the cylindrical log of wood to be carved;
Diagram
2 shows the first stage of cutting away of the round surface to
give the vlOod flat planes to make it more stable and easiel to n
it
is
worked
by
is
held
in
grip
only
as
the sculptor siting on the ground or on a low stool.
One end is held in one hand the other end stands tool
was
the
free hand.
on
the
ground.
Sometimes the wood is worked on the
ground on its side, where it \vould roll around out of control if it not cut into planes.
- 13 -
The
vias
In Diagram 3 the block is divided into proportions.
The
indicated
establishing
by
the
proportions.
body
into
the
various
parts
parts
of
of
body,
while
6 shmis the completed figure. [9] The practice of giving figures
large heads is often attributed to the fact that the
horizontal
format of the wood; Diagrams 4 and 5 ShOVl the wood
rudimentarily shaped in accordance with various Diagram
The
second, fourth and fifth arl"OV1S represent the
secondary scorings which guide the carver to fit the the
the
three brackets and the corresponding sets of numbers
indicate the three primary divisions and lines
sections
head
as
the
explained
exaggerating
There
regarded
its
size.
Leon
that, "The head, regarded as the seat of all human
wisdom, is a symbol the meaning of which, heart. ,,[ 10]
African
seat not only of intellect but also of the emotions.
The sculptor stressed its importance by Underwood
the
are
in
Europe,
belongs
to
the
a feo,r exceptions to this general rule vlhere the
proportions of the heads to the bodies are
in
the
ratio
of
1:5
for
example in the Female Figure, and even 1:12 as in the Staff, Mbuun, (See
FIG.1.4) Apparently thepe is no specific which
is
established
common to all African sculpture.
conical, pyramidal, oval or squarish. the
hair
makes
the
head
larger
In some cases and
ie.
for
the
head
The head may be egg-shaped,
defines
illustrates examples of different head types. shape,
shape
the the
treatment
of
FIG. 1.5
form.
They are all geometriC in
they are all based on cones, spheres, half spheres, cubes, (eg.
common
feature
the
prominence
given
to
the forehead i'lhich may protrude
dramatically in a
dome-like
sweep
or
form
overhang as in FIG.1.5E.
these
Another
combinations
is
of
FIG.1.5E)
pyramids, or
horizontal
shelf-like
Often the prominent forehead gives a prominent
concave profile to the face as in FIG.1.5C.
- 14 -
a
Generally sculpture,
speaking
namely,
the
there
are
concave
two
types
of
faces
and the convex faces.
in
African
In the concave
faces the dome-like foreheads and the depressed bridge of the noses form a'S'
curve
in the profile, while the shelf-like overhang forms a 'C'
curve.
In the convex face the sweep of the forehead continues downwards
with the nose without any depressions forming a bow. Douglas Fraser, all
observed
Lavachery, Perrois, and Hans Himmelheber have
that the two types are equally common and can be found in
the same tribe and place. destined
by
nature
manner and not in the Senufo,
(See FIG.1.5D)
Himmelheber stated:
"Probably
no
tribe
is
or by some inherent aesthetic
to carve in one
other(sic)."[11]
he
As
an
example
cited
the
whose works are generally concave, but who occasionally produce
convex pieces.
He
identified
tendencies
concave
three
predominated:
geographical
regions
the
Sudan
Bambara, and Bobo tribes); the area between
the
Lower
where
(the Congo
the
Senufo, and
the
Ogowe Rivers (the Bakota, Pangve, Bapende, Bakwele, and Ossyeba tribes); and the Eastern Congo (the 11bole, Hetoko, Balega, tribes).
and
Baluba
Yet he also emphasised that in these regions there were tribes
producing convex pieces. Benjabi
Pumi,
Babembe,
produce
For instance in the western Sudan, the ¥asage, convex 'ivorks.
Outside
these
regions
both
tendencies
equally common.
Concave
and
Convex
tribes.
Fraser and Lavachery
survival
of the oldest Black Cultures, the 'paleonigritique' [12] Fraser
Faces.
Map 2 shows the Regional Distribution of 11ap 3 gives more detailed positions of the linked
the
concave
explained that 'paleonegritique' is an African the
tendencies
prehistoric
to
culture
the
of
Neolithic period often referred to as Hegalithic tradition which is
5,000 years old.
This tradition is similar to those of
East
He
and
Asia.
therefore
observed
Hiddle
that the concave motif is in
several art styles of these periods and traditions.
- 15 -
Europe,
He
cited
examples
of
Hegalithic
concave
faces
excavated
Beersheba in Palestine, in Scandinavia and in the
Urals
of
comparison
ivory
with
two
figurines
with
near
Russia
in
wooden grave effigies excavated in South Ethiopia
now in the Sammlung flir Volkerkunde, University of Zurich. [13] Another characteristic of the face that has been writers
is
by Paul
Wingert. [14]
I
high-arched
the 'heart-shape'. Elsy
eyebrows,
by
some
The term 'heart-shaped face' was coined
Leuzinger
s,V'eeping
described
the
face
as
having
outward across the temple and cheeks,
and meeting at the mouth'. [15] Fraser considered it a complex idea
that
runs through African sculpture and elaborated: ••• the face is shown as a smooth depression or concave face which extends from the under side of the eyebrows to the vicinity of the mouth. Within the heart-shaped plane, the nose appears in a relief as a downward extension of the forehead and the eyes as raised oval shapes.[16]
Edna Bay divided
FIG. 1.6).
the
heart-shaped
into
six
types,
(see
In the first type, the strong arch of the eyebrows ends in a
pointed or rounded or rectangular chin. among
faces
the
works
of
the
Bakota,
This shape
is
commonly
found
Mpongwe, and Fang tribes; the Baga,
Senufo, Baule and Kissi in the west; Ibibio, Ibo,
Ijaw,
and
Ijala
in
South Nigeria; Bapende, Ndugu, Balega, Bene Lulua, Balubu, and Bakuba in Zaiere; Ometo in Ethiopia; Zaramo, Yakonde and south.
Zulu
in
the
east
and
In Type 2, the heart-shape ends in the upper or lower lips, ie.
the lower or the upper lip forms
the
base
of
the
heart
shape;
for
example a Bala'lele mask 't'lhere the heart shape ends in the upper lip, (see
FIG.1.7A); and a Bakete mask with the lower lip forming the base of heart
shape, (FIG.1.7B).
the
Figures and masks with the heart-shape ending
in the lower lip are less common and often found among the Fang, Barega, and
the
Makonde.
Those
- 16 -
with the heart shape ending in the the upper
In Type 3,
lips are common to the Baule, Afo, Ibibio, Ekoi, lbo, Ometo. the
archs
of
the brows meet the rectilinear edges of the cheeks which
formed a V-shape.
This is common among the Bakete, Barega, Bapende, and
Bakuba.
In
fourth
shallow.
The intersection of this plane and
forms
rounded ridge, unlike the sharp ridges of types 1 and 2 faces.
a
the
It is frequently found Bapunu,
Baluba,
type
among
the
the
concave
Baule,
plane of the face is very the
planes
Guro,
of
Dan,
11akonde, Balumbo, Bapende, Basuku and Senufo.
cheek
form a diamond-shape enclosing the concave plane of the face.
This
Bakota,
Baluba,
and
Ngombe.
6 is characterised by a straight and strongly emphasised forehead
which overhangs the lower face, replacing the arched can
In Type
the
is common among the Barega, Dogon, Baga, Type
jaws
Fang,
5, the brows descend in steep diagonals to meet the edges of and
the
be
either
rounded
or
pointed,
brows.
The
chin
but the face is often elongated.
Although this type hardly looks heart shaped, Professor Bay considers it to be an adaptation of the long shape of Type 1. Toma, Dogon, Bobo, Mende, Baga, Bambara, Ijaw,
Ibibio,
Bakota, lbo,
It is common among the
Malinke,
Senufo,
Ngumba and Duma.
Dan
Ngere,
Type 1 and 2 are
the most common and Wide-spread, while Type 5 is the least common, r1ap
4).
Apparently,
are inseparable. thought
that
(see
the concave and the heart-shaped characteristics
Their meaning and functions are still obscure.
Fraser
the origin of the concave trait might be at least fifteen
hundred years old, from the time of the beginning of the
migrations
by
the Bantu-speaking peoples whose ancestral roots lie in Nigeria. [17] Owing to the emphatic use of geometric shapes,
planes,
and
sharp
and rectilinear edges the face is often devoid of emotional expressions such as joy or anger. this
The face is mute and
impersonal
and
invokes a feeling of tranquility (perhaps induced by a trance-like
state), serenity and dignity.
- 17 -
These characteristics were to
remind
or
reassure
the
African of the peace and har'ID.ony
the spiritual world which
necessary for his
there
that
are
some
sculptures
mouth, (see FIG.1.8).
survival. [18]
However,
display rather threatening features:
glaring eyes and rows of aggressive teeth oval
the physical and
revealed
through
square
or
Perhaps they were to invoke a sense of fear
or humour in the onlooker. In spite of the generally stylised treatment of facial features African
sculpture
there is some evidence that there have been attempts
to carve portrait statues or portrait masks among the and the Baule.
These are,
Bushongo,
a
Baluba
not portraits in the European sense,
intended to convey a reasonably accurate likeness of a at
in
particular moment.
specific
person
African portraits are conceptual, not visual,
representations of the individuals.
In other "lOrds they have
the
same
formal characteristics as other sculpted figures but with the difference that they are commemorated to, or associated with specific The
examples
which
most
frequently
cited
the
of
commemorated
FIG.1.9). almond
The
shaped
emphasise
the
kings
are the Baluba figures or Ndobs,
the
Baluba
people
of
Zaire,(see
earliest of these
been dated to about 1600.[19] The
eyes
slits
with
repose
of
horizontal the
dead king.
are
posture.
closed
probably
to
It shows a huge head; thick
cylindrical neck; square shouders; short arms with cross-legged
individuals.
blunt
fingers;
and
Such characteristics are found in other figural
sculptures except perhaps the cross-legged posture. The Baule portraits also depicted imaginary individuals the
ancestral
living owners. human
being
world
or
heavens,
to
in Heaven before they "Iere born.
belief
that
a dream.
every
Since the earthly
spouse was not necessarily the heavenly spouse, the latter might in
in
elicit their protection for the
They were associated with the Baule lived
living
appear
Then the heavenly spouse was described to the sculptor who
- 18 -
made
the
portrait. [20]
heart-shaped
motif,
Such
sl it
portraits
were
characterised
eyes, long narrO',i inverted
!
pursed lips, rounded chins, and dome-shaped foreheads.
by
the
T I shaped noses, The cheeks,
the
temples, the necks and at times the chins were decorated vlith cicatrices in 10Vl relief.
These were tribal marks of identification which have now
lost their meaning. The second section of the African sculpted neck
and
torso.
figures
comprises
the
The neck is often cylindrical and elongated; it seems
to be the extension of the torso '-lith relation to the thickness
of
it.
In other words the thickness of the torso often determined the thickness This trait is well depicted in FIG.l.l0
of the neck.
Standing
Figure, Basongye, Zaire, in the British Huseum since 1908.
r-hle
The torso is
often cylindrical with occasional bulges at the front as in FIG.l.l0, or at
the
effect.
left
and
right sides, giving it slightly conical or pyramidal
These bulges sometimes were to facilatate holes in the torso in
which magical substances were stuffed.
The Female Figure, Dogon, FIG.l.l1, acquired by
as Fetish Figures.
the
1906, shows an unusual type of torso that is flattened on
in both sides.
In such cases they are described
This is a common feature of the
ancestor
figures
of
the
Dogon. The Lmier limbs form the shortest section of the body; and
legs
or
pyramidal.
plastically
like
stability. It [21]
Guillaume
observed:
nearly
of the
base
all of
"Such
legs
and
sculpture ••• a
pyramid
to
feet
They
serve
are
function
fundamental
Besides the structural significance of flat or broad or
pyramidal feet as a support and balance to the it
thighs
are short and often thick, the feet are broad and either flat
characteristic
that
the
symbolised
man's
relation to Hother Earth. [22] - 19 -
figure,
Fagg
suggested
faith in a stable universe and his intimate
The knees are often bent to give a zig-zag impression to the part
of
the
body.
lower
Andreas Lommel assumed that this was derived from
squating figures but the actual
origin
and
meaning
were
unknown
to
him. [23] Ladislas Segy interpreted the bent-knee as a restrained posture and therefore called it 'latent motion'. [24] There are, however, several African
\'looden figures with relatively straight legs.
Hende, (FIG.1.12, which was acquired by the from
Sierra
Nuseum
in
1908),
Leone has straight long legs but disproportionately small,
short, and weak arms. Yassi,
British
A Female Figure,
The figure is blackened and it
is
a society devoted to the art of magical healing.
to trasmit the wishes of the spirits through the medium priestesses. [25]
The
46.25ins (117.5cm).
head
is
used
by
the
It is supposed
of
the
shaman
approximately one-sixth of the height -
The unusual proportion Cnot of
the
usual
African
proportion) and the straight legs of this figure cannot be attributed to its magical significance. The Hinor forms or secondary anatomical features such as the
eyes,
the nose, the breasts, the toes and fingers, the navel, the buttocks the genitals, etc., can be considered to be the African
figures and masks.
most
expressive
parts
of
As well as expressing mass and volume, they
are also sometimes decorated with symbolic details, the significance
of
most of which are obscure. Eyes incised
carved in an or
projecting
immense
variety
of
craters.
In
some
as
cylinders,
be
Sometimes
they
cubes, pyramids, and cones.
gouged
project
out
in
high
They may be tiny or
disproportionately huge, close together or wide apart.
- 20 -
are
masks and a few figures, the eyes are square,
rectangular or diamond shaped holes. relief
may
almond shapes, coffee beans, or mere horizontal
slits either straight or curved, and or sometimes they like
They
forms.
Al,
FIG.1.13 illustrates different Eye Types:- Type lozenge
shaped
shape eyes. convex).
with
a
others
Type B shows almond
shape
eyes
(B1
tips.
Others
pierced eyes:
round, square and
vertically.
Type
F
is
concave,
Some have
are prisms.
as
seeds,
B2
is
pointed
ends
Type E represents the
cut
out
horizontally
or
are cylindrical eyes without holes and with holes
like tubes. [26] Type G consists of eyes represented by such
raised
diagonal slits, horizontal slits, and
Type D are conical projections. rounded
a
dot for the pupil; A2 has incised lozenge
Type C shows slit eyes:
curved slits. and
eye
is
All
of
materials
For instance G1 shows
metal discs, shells or pebbles.
eyes represented with cowry shells.
other
these
varieties
of
eye
triangle,
an
shapes are found among the works of all the different tribes. The nose may be thin or inverted
thick,
'T' or a rectangular block.
the continuation
of
the
forehead.
dramatically depressed at the bridge.
long
or
and
Basuku
figures
a
In most cases the nose represents In
concave
faces
the
nose
and masks.
is
commonly
found
relief.
Triangular
noses
are
on
It is usually described as the
nose of Cyrano by some writers. [27] Type B is a long triangular nose high
is
FIG.1.14 shows the different Nose
Types:- A is a pointed and up turned nose which Bayaka
short;
in
the commonest type of nose found
generally in African SCUlptures.
Type C is a huge projection with
the
base
It is common to Baga SCUlpture.
It is
shaped like an arrow head.
believed to symbolise the phallus, fertility and fecundity. [28] Type the inverted 'T' shaped nose is common among the Baule. by the Basuku, Baluba, Bakuba and Yoruba.
D,
Type E, is used
Type F is the long and
sharp
ridge nose which anticipates Modigliani's sculptures and was used by the Dogon, Guro, Senufo and Baule.
- 21 -
Other features shOiv an equal almond,
or
diamond
shaped,
range.
eight-shaped
rectangular tube, (see FIG.1.15, carved
Mouth
mouth
could
or
even
a
Types).
The
ears
be
may be straight or curved The
way
in
cylinders;
which
attached
or
and
usually
tube-like
carefully
or
often The arms
detached
from
the
the arms are joined to the torso makes the
shoulders square and vital, or rounded less
oval,
circular
horse-shoe, saucer, or cup shaped, (see FIG.1.16).
as
torso.
The
treated
with
drooping.
The
and
hands
blunt
are
fingers,
although among the Bajokwe of Angola, the hands and feet are carved with great
care and detail,
the finger and toe nails, (see FIG.1.17,
A
Figure, Bajokwe).
It represents the ancestral hunter and warrior
Chibinda
holding
his
gun
and
staff
elaborate hat of a chief.
The
size
of
the
physical
Ilungu
strength
and
endurance.
in hands and ,vearing an hands
and
feet
suggest
Their elaboration emphasises their
importance to a warrior and hunter. [29] The arms may be raised above the shoulders to support an object placed on head as in caryatids. The female breasts are usually depicted as which
or
small
cones
are placed high on the collar bones, at right angles to the body.
They may also be spherical downwards.
or
cylindrical
relief,
(see
represented
small
a
with
a
rounded form like a boil. his
thrusting
horizontally
or
Sometimes they are represented as by the inverted two sides
of a triangle in high
and
large
or
FIG.1.18). large
The
navel
is
often
plug or cone, or even a small
It generally expresses the link
betiveen
man
physical and spiritual origin and his unshakable attachment to
nature. [30] The
buttocks
are
usually
rendered
as
masses
jutting
out
to
counterbalance the thrusting breasts and the slightly bulging stomach at the front.
The backvlards thrust of the
strong curve at the back of the torso. - 22 -
buttocks
sometimes
creates
a
The male and female
organs
in an uninhibited way.
shown
are
It may also be a roughly
diagonal or downward pointing appendage.
less prominently represented, usually being shown attached
and
shaped,
The testicles are
as
two
small
balls
to the sides of the penis at the base between the thighs, (see
FIG.1.19).
The scrotum sack occasionally
as a hernia.
In
the
three figures of FIG.1.19 the penis is elongated and it is almost
first
as thick as the legs. the
exaggerated
The penis, for instance, may be elongated
to the level of the knee or the shin. horizontal,
sometimes
body
and
considerations.
the
The position and size of the penis in relation to legs
were
determined
by
aesthetic
and material
A penis of such length and size would easily break
off
in wood if positioned horizontally, and it would also introduce a strong element of horizontality which would break the vertical figure.
rhythm
In the female figure the
pubic
triangle
is
emphatically
and occasionally covered with cicatrices as seen in FIG.1.1.
broad
vagina itself is at times isosceles
triangle,
a
represented
by
or
inverted
vertical slit or an apperture.
the
libia
cicatrices
The
clitoris
protruding
sexual
organ
with
covering the pubis and the stomach and hands resting on flat
triangular breasts. organ
a
FIG.1.21 shows a
vertical
slit
representing
the
and small conical breasts; FIG.1.22 shows a figure with a
small triangle for carrying
little
are sometimes seen grossly protruding and parted in the
FIG.1.20 shows a figure with a
middle.
The
It is sometimes
rendered open in an attempt to show the internal details.
sexual
the
The exaggeration is often adjusted to the overall structure of
the statue.
and
of
the
huge bowl.
vagina;
and
FIG.1.23
shows
a
female
Her vagina is a large round and deep hole. is
an
acknowledgement
of
The
overt display of the
sexual
procreative
Such figures were associated with fertility rites,
powers.
organs
rider
their
and were not directly aimed at sensuality or eroticism. [31] R.H.Wilenski stressed:
- 23 -
There was sexual meaning in Negro sculpture but not sensual meaning. Even making the maximum allowance for the known and presumed differences between the white man's and the black man's erotic, it seems impossible to assume that the caressibility was a character that the negro sculptors were mainly concerned with in their rendering of the naked human body. [32]
There are androgynous or hermaphrodite figures which show the
male
and the female attributes Simultaneously, (eg.
combining female breasts
with a peniS, see FIG.1.19A).
Ladislas
pointed
figures
hermaphrodites
did
not
"indicate
believed that they are
Segy
as
out
that
these
we might think" but he
"re-emphsise the fertility concept." [33] There
figures that shmv no sexual elements at all, (see FIG.l.24A).
also
Most of these were meant to be partially covered with magical substances like
and other objects as seen in FIG.1.24B and C.
mud
Thus there t-las
no need to indicate their sex. African sculpture is characterised by frontality and head
and
the
body are almost always directed to the front without the
slightest turn to the right or left.
FIG.l.l0,
Exceptions do occur.
For
frontality
and
symmetry
to
R.L.Rogers attributed
Yet
African
brass,
stone
are
bronze,
symmetrical.
iron,
terra
cotta
and
sculptures
also
Leuzinger argued that it was a stylistic feature and
and symmetry) of African sculpture derived from the
from
a
a single block of cylindrical wood.
successful
correlation
of
curves,
fact
ir:
frontal and
would be wrong to thiru( that the repose and harmony (ie.
from
the
the axis of the cylindrical trunk of ivood
from which the sculptures vI ere carved. [34]
carved
example
illustrates a male figure with a ram's horn inserted into the
top of the head which is turned to the left.
it
The
that
frontality
that
it
was
He thought it derived
planes,
and
cubes,
of
depreSSions and elevations, vihich had been well conceived by the carver. He explained that while carving the carver turned his - 24 -
iwod
'round
and
round,
examining
concentration
it
from
all
forms'. [35J
This,
of
form
and
frontality and the others.
angles
with
an
eye
to
he
believed,
led
to
stylistic
features
like
symmetry
a
true
greater and
In a symmetrical figure or mask the left and
the right sides of a central vertical line are mirror reflections of the other.
There are few asymmetrical masks and figures,
tribes
in
Cameroon, Congo, and Angola.
found
among
Joseph Cornet pointed out that
the Congo artists were less obedient to the law of frontality than other
primitive
sculptors.
European influence ''lay,
although
His
belief
that,
"It
actual
execution
conformed
most
is possible that
them to interpret their
the
the
subject
in
this
to African taste," is
highly debatable. [36] Generally speaking,
dynamism
is
lacking
in
African
sculpture,
al though the Bangvle of Cameroon did attempt to portray movement in their dancing figures. engaged
For instance in FIG.1.25,
a
king
in rhythmic turning and crouching movements.
a huge crown, necklace and anklets, holds his pipe The
queen
holding
broken off. and
five
a
bell
triangular
the
She also wears a necklace. teeth
to
are huge shapes and downward pointing.
left
hand.
indicate
head
Her mouth
singing.
Her
Hovement is felt in the This
postures.
obvious in the body of the queen whose head is turned from the
axis to the left and upvlard. in
are
in her left hand, part of her right arm is
rings around the neck.
more
queen
The king, wearing
in
two figures through the crouching and slightly turning is
a
She has a little scallop hair style on the top of her
is open showing rows of breasts
and
The twist in the body of the l<:ing is
felt
the left shoulder' which is slightly higher and pushed fort-Jards.
The
two figures suggest of movement in a way SCUlpture.
- 25 -
rar-ely
attempted
in
African
Afr'ican sculptures are movement.
Figures
have
characterised hands
more
by
gestures
than
by
clasped to the chin or on chest, hands
resting on the thighs or the stomach, or holding in front of the body in supplication.
In
female
figures
hands
hold or support the breasts.
Figures are usually depicted in a limHed
of poses.
and
squatting, kneeling and
the
female
are
posed
Sitting,
standing with both legs parallel.
The way a person
societies
personality.
indicates
his
or
her
standing straight and firm, symbolises
life,
Both the male
stands
in
African
Proper stance, that is
strength,
and
nobility.
The carved female figure, with the hands supporting the breasts, related to many beliefs such as inherent
maternal
social group. represent
the
goodness
blessings
and
acceptance
of
,vomanhood,
implying generOSity and protection for the
A female figure with
pregnancy
and
the
hands
on
the protection of life.
the
stomach
might
Both male and female
figures standing with the hands parallel to the body indicated readiness to hear the supplicant and to act.
A kneeling figure might symbolise an
act of greeting, a request for a favour elders.
or
for
forgiveness
from
the
Seated figures symbolised responsible deliberation for the good
of the community. The surfaces of the masks and figures reveal marks of the tools are
are generally dyed or coloured or treated "lith palm
They
smooth.
oil, gums, resins, camvlOod
the
(ie.
camwood
tree),
and
sacrificial
pigments
were
used
for
cam-wood); indigo.
red
blood.
colouring,
such
powder
of
Simple
earth
as
red
pterocarpus
tukula
(povldered
r'ed and yellOlv ochres; kaolin for white; soot for black; and
Yoruba works by Leon
Africa. [37]
or
and vegetable
Traces of commercial 'tvashing blues have been found on some
blue which
or
was The
an
old
who traced it to the Rickett's commercial early
aJ.... ticle
application
- 26 -
of
of
trade
several
on
the
different
1rJest
coast
of
colours
to
one
sculpture is fairly common, especially among the Yoruba and the Dogon. Colours are often used to enhance sculptures,
yet
they
also
instance, symbolises is
sometimes
have
the
plastic
certain
qualities
ethnic meaning.
to
the
Ashanti
but it also represents the spirit world and
referred to as 'ghost-colour'.
The Yo rub a associate blue
symbolises
or
and
apply
hair and headdress of the SCUlptures. [38]
heads,
gold
the
1.J'hite, for
or indigo with the sky god Olurum, the owner of the heavens, it
of
yellO\v
abundance
represents
and
hope.
wealth
and
power,
the
while
green
Red is generally associated with life
giving energy. The surfaces of the sculpture are sometimes covered in
cicatrices
relief, or with incised or painted striations of short or long lines
either arranged diagonally or vertically. patterns,
of
triangles,
Frequently incised
geometriC
lozenges, circles and other shapes were used.
Occasionally, the surfaces are decorated with other materials like human and
animal hair, seeds, cowry shells and coloured beads.
Bamileke cover the entire sculptures with little different
colours
in
particular
patterns.
strips with striations embossed on them, sculptures.
Gold-leaf
and
Ashanti to covel some
silver
For instance,
cylindrical
beads
The Bakota nailed copper
to
part
of
their
sheets
were
also
reliquery
used among the
sculptures.
n
The sculptures are characterised by abrupt transitions between forms
and volumes.
of
the
Each major part of the figure or mask seems to have
been produced separately as a
self-contained
abrupt
There is rarely any continuous flow of one
changes
of
planes.
formal
entity
producing
form into another to create soft and smooth joints partly because of the geometriC
nature
of
the forms.
For example a triangle or rectangular
nose placed on the concave or convex plane of the face
- 27 -
will
inevitably
produce
angular
joints.
shoulders
also
creates
sculptures
that show the use of gentle flowing joints at certain parts,
as in the hips of the
Similarly, a
harsh
Baluba
a
cylindrical
angularity.
Female
neck
There
figures
on
square
are,
FIG.1.1,
in
and
FIG.1.20. Distortions have a particular Helville
signifiance
African
sculpture.
emphasised African sculpture t s "ruthless distortion of
human and animal forms."[39] Albert with
those
Negro
sculpture,
Barnes
compared
such
distortions
ancient Egyptian and Chinese art, but emphassised:
in
extensively
in
however,
\vith
the
the
resulting
body
is
altered
achievement
more
of
a
"In
freely
and
greater wealth of
striking and different rhythms."[40] There are three kinds of distortions first
in
African
sculpture.
The
type involves changes in the relative size of the different parts
of the anatomy, for figural
example,
proportions;
the
enlargement
of
the
head;
unusual
the exaggeration of the minor anatomical elements
such as the penis or the nose, (see FIG.1.19B and FIG.1.14A,
Band
C,
forms
are
respectively) • In the second type of distortion the human reduced
to
geometric
or
and
quasi-geometric figures.
animal
For example in the
Akuaba of the Ashantis, the head is reduced to a disc (in FIG.1.26), neck
and
the
torso
the
to cylinders, and breasts and the navel to cones.
Another example is the Reliquery Figure, Bakota, Zaire, FIG.1.27,
where
the body is reduced to a diamond shape balanced on a cone, linked to the huge head by a cylinder. whose
plane
is
concave.
The outline of the head The
head
formed
an
egg-shape
is crowned with a circant and is
flanked on both sides with flat arched shapes.
A cone
each
The face is covered with
of the horizontal bases of these shapes.
- 28 -
is
attached
to
copper plate into which striations have been hammered. Bakota
The sex
of
the
Figures are hard to determine although the crmin and decorations
might have originally had some significance which would this.
have
clarified
The third categor7 of distortions is the human-animal form where
stylised animal and human forms are harmoniously fused into a form.
composite
These types of figural sculptures are scarce but fairly common in
masks. [41] Ikenga, FIG.1.28, of
1873,
show
the
which
front
were
acquired
by
the
British
Huseum
figures.
The figures have antelope
painted black and
heads
profile
the javJ and the mouth protrude
in
in
Yoruba,
are animal-like (ie.
and side views of two such gray.
The
like the snout of a calf), but from the front the faces, (eyes, nose and cheeks),
look
human.
The necks are long and
The torso of the
figure on the left is a rectangular block with the left and right
sides
covered with rigdes; while the right figure has a cylindrical torso with ridges. is
Both figures are sucking or smoking pipes.
seated
on
a stool.
The one on the left
Another example of such sculptures is the mask
vlaniugo of the Senufo, \lThich combines pOirler"ful symbolic animals; such as the chamelion (considered spiritually powerful for its ability to change the colour of its skin), wild boar,
buffalo,
antelope,
crocodile
and
vulture, (see FIG.1.29). Melville argued that these distortions were not the result primitive
the
will to abstract or the result of any exercise in imagination
but were governed by various social this
of
may
be
true
field-studies,
using for
or
usage. [42]
Although
in general it ilTould not be incorrect to discuss any
of
possibility
functions
instance,
by
their Carl
imagination.
Subsequent
Kjersmeier have suggested that
artists did used their imagination.
Between November, 1931, and
1932,
to French vJest Africa, nmv- Mali, he
in
Kjersmeier's
expedition
collected over a hundred and fifty different sculptures by
- 29 -
the
April,
Bambara
people,
including
fifty-six
antelope masks called Chi wara.
Each one
was absolutely different from the other and Kjersmeier reported: had I seen such gift of outstanding variations, so bold an artistic fantasy... In the making of these antelope-masks the fancy of the artists has a free rein and boldness without compare in other Negro art. It is as i f each Bambara smith had tried to outdo the other in imagination. From village to village the shapes and the compositions vary ••• [sic] When I went to Africa I had the theory that the Negro sculpture ivas a tradition art, and that all the masks and figures had been created according to a fixed tradition 'tvhich the tribe laid down to be respected from generation to generation, though naturally with a certain freedom conceded to the gifts and personality of the artist. MY studies in the art of Bambara have convinced me that - like all Negro art this, is an individual and not a collective thing [sic].[43]
African sculpture is monoxylic, which means that it is carved one
piece
of
Olderogge:
'\wod •
This has puzzled European writers such as Dmitry
"it is difficult to understand how they
carved
them
piece
of
out
wood
from
of logs. without
could
simply
have
African scupture is usually carved from one
parts
being
stuck,
nailed
or
wedged
on
afterwards."[44] This is the case even with very complex sculptures like the Wooden Throne, FIG.1.30, from Bamileke, Cameroon, now in the British Huseum.
Elaborately
carved,
the
chair
diameter, and 3 feet 10 inches in height. Rev.F.Christol,
who
under the French
Mandate,
justice,
other
or
on
obtained
it
was
approximately
This
throne,
3 feet in
according
to
in the late 1890s from the Cameroons
used
specially
is
by
a
chief
when
administering
important occasions. [45J The figures
forming the back of the seat represent the chief vlith his wives on 'tvhose heads
his
hands are resting.
the other holds a horn cup. authority. base, is
The
The
length
of
his
arms
indicated
his
portion belO1iv the seat, and betvleen it and the annular in opemwrk
and
The figure on the right holds a bowl and
conventional - 30 -
and
shows
elephant's
a
series
heads,
some
of
alternate
human
of which rest on a
crawling leopard.
There are masks of an even more
carved in .Q. 1908, by a traditional Nigerian helmet-shape
seated
on
mask
horseback
composition
The intricate Epa mask, (FIG.1.31), 54ins high,
from one piece of wood.
The
complex
supports under
an
carver
named
Bamboye.
the disc on iv-hich are mounted a chief umbrella
flanked
on
both
attendants and warriors holding matchets and flintlock.
sides
by
Such masks were
painted to pick out the forms and it indeed shows traces of
red,
blue,
or
figures
and iv-hite. In a fei'; very exceptional instances parts of the masks were carved separately and put together. movable jaws, cane teeth and (raffia)
tusks
An Ogoni mask, (FIG.1.32), has
painted
white.
are attached to the base of the head.
Vegetable
The technique of making
parts of the sculpture movable has been attributed to the Arabian
and
European
carpentry.
fibres
influence
of
For example Fagg argued that Wooden
Figure, (FIG.1.33) "lith moving limbs, collected by Stuhlmann in 1899 vlaS influenced
by
the
Arabs iv-hose presence had been very strong along the
whole of the East P£rican coast for many centuries. of
the
Ijo,
Nigeria,
(FIG.1.34),
British
The Funerary Screen
Museum,
is an example of
assembled articulated figures.
The Ijo people, according to Fagg,
been
European
long
in
contact
vlith
ships,
for
they
have
were
slave-traders; the development of their funerary screens therefore might derive from their knowledge of European carpentry. [46] The sculptures were not only carved from single pieces of wood ,iTere
also
carved
directly,
sketches on the wood to be of direct carving).
vlithout preparatory models or preliminary (See FIG.1.2 which shows the
stages
The technique is an analytical operation consisting
of cutting away superfluous material until the desired form is The
but
exposed.
mental image of the sculptor is immediately concretised in the iwod
without being diluted through preliminary studies. - 31 -
This
is
why
many
African sculpture to be so sure and pure.
who
observed that these aspects (especially sureness), pervaded the works of African
sculpture
not be added. that
stated:
" ••• nothing appears to be there that should
The work is complete in itself."[47J Andre Salmon
agreed
he had no conception of the purity of pieces of Dahomian sculpture
although he had an idea of their 'savage beauty'. "Since
1906
He, however,
purity has been visible in the black statuary of the Ivory
Coast, Dahomey, Senegal and the Pacific Isles." [48J 1rlerner emhasised
stated:
Gillon
also
that the purity, simplicity and spontaneity were the marks of
the best African SCUlpture. [49] The technique of direct carving from one accounts
piece
of
for the great respect accorded the material.
wood
¥any artists and
writers like Henry Noore, Epstein and Stanley Casson have the
African
sculptor's
respect for his material.
commented
on
Casson for instance
stated that "the sculptor did not carve ivory as i f wood
possibly
it
Ivere
stone
or
as if it were ivory; in his bronze-work he achieved flmling lines,
as befitted the nature of the material; and in wood he carved shapes desired
\vithout
forgetting
that
he
vIas
he
carving wood."[50]1r]00dis Generally,
physical
wood
possible, with the grain, although some
was
'tvorked,
as
far
as
properties.
the
treated within the limit of its
details might require vlOrking against the grain. hard
but
is
fibrous
and
even the densest woods like ebony and Lignum vitae are not as
structurally homogenous as stone or iron. African
It/ood
The
wood
available
to
the
sculptor ranged from a soft and light wood like the silk-cotton
wood, to a hard and dense
wood
like
ebony.
Generally,
hOvlever,
he
preferred a medium hard wood like camwood, Sese (Halarrhona wulsbergii), and Ofrumtum (Funtumia elastica) in the ivet or green state, when it easier and quicker to carve.
Sometimes he even soaked vlOod that ivas too
dry or seasoned, to moisten it before carving it.
- 32 -
was
The
disadvantage
of
this, hOl-lever, was that the completed carving might crack when it dried. Such cracks are visible in some old pieces seldom
occured
to avoid any
(eg.
Cracking
FIG. 1. 10).
because the wood was chosen after a careful study of it
natural
weak
point.
Oiling
the
'1-lood
also
prevented
cracking because it sealed the pores and prevented excessive evaporation of wood Tt-lo factors determined the choice of ivood for the
'1v-ood I s
physical
properties
like
colour,
a
particular
densi ty,
durability derived from the belief that trees were occupied which
gave
them their spiritual powers.
work:
strength and by
spirits
The efficacy of the power "Iv-as
determined by the size and medicinal value of the
leaves,
bark,
seed,
fruit and the root of the tree. Fagg was the first scholar to relate the formal characteristics African
sculpture
to mathematics.
He did not suggest that the African
sculptors i.Jere interested in mathematics or knowledgeable about it, implied
of
but
that they seemed to apprehend certain facts of nature which are
defined mathematically.
He
emphasised
particuarly
the
mathematical
significance of the curves: The most important of these is perhaps the curve of grOlv-th, which 'tv-e call the exponential or logarithmic or equiangular Curves of this kind such as the horns of rams and of antelopes, the tusks of elephants and the shells of snails, are among the most obvious manifestations of growth or increase in the African world, and that their significance is not lost upon the priests and the artists is made perfectly plain by the constant use of these excrescences in art, either by actual incorporation (as when a horn of buffalo or duiker antelope is inserted in the head of a Basonge figure) or by carved representation. [51]
Fagg further suggested that the relation between many
exaggerations
of
human and animal features and those features themselves can be explained in terms of exponential
co-ordinates.
- 33 -
He
argued
that
although
the
exponential
curve
might
not
directly be in evidence, it nevertheless
supplied the principle of growth which produced the sculptural form.[52] He
also
explained
that
philosophical concepts sculpture
they
may
although
did
not
mathematics
provide
the
and
its
motivation
on
construction,
The
rather is
for
African
assist Europeans to understand elements of African
dynamism.[53] In African sculpture, emphasis is pi aced
organisation
concomitant
based
than
on
the
anatomical.
on
principles
by
practical
considerations.
parallel
between
the
the
plastic
structural
aesthetic
These
features
led
Kjersmeier
inspiration
behind
the
Bambara
and
to draw a masks
and
engineering: These stylised sculptures of the Bambara belong to that form of Negro art which is most appreciated by the generation that saw the beginning of Cubism and Expressionism. These geometric and constructive carvings are like the daring work of engineers, and are born from a spirit analogous to that \vhich has made our century an era of motors and flying machines. [54]
A Chi
wara
Antelope
(FIG.1.35)
epitomise such spatially open forms.
of
Bambara,
on
like
creature
in
space.
the left seems hoisted up by the arched shape.
weathercock.
supported The
cylindrical
pole
The
lmfer
The kangaroo
the
thin
downward
sharp
pointed form with the saw edge adds
suggests
vleight
a
suggests
This mask exemplifies the remarkable architectonic qualities
often found in African sculptures. intricate
to
on
dynamism "Thile, the small hollmved cube supporting the lightness.
seems
The top right hand figure seems to
be riding on a kind of a mechanical contraption figure
Bali,
milkpots
carved
FIG.1.36
illustrates
one
in the Swazi in South-Ivest Africa.
of
the
The jar
with its domed lid crowned with an inverted cone is held within an outer structure
consisting of four short tubular elements that joined the jar
at the neck and base, and which are joined together in the middle
- 34 -
by
a
ring.
The
ridging
that
covers
the
supports and the central vessel
enhances this interplay of space and form. milk
rituals.
Such milkpots were used
Among the Namibians milking was done ceremoniously, and
before the milk Ivas used it was stored in such pots and chief or other authorized persons.
harms,
and
thereby
safe
for
any
the
Bambara
physical
sculptures
Headrest and the Ashanti Stool, (FIGS.1.37 and B).
the Headrest the forms used in enclosing the
are
vertical
rectilinears.
horizontal.
In the stool the .vide arc of the topmost form
the
The
spaces
horizontal
in
and
such In and
is
repeated
powerful arms of the caryatid to emphasis the upward thrust and This is balanced
is described by the bent knees.
bottom
one
by
a
downward
arc
In this case the downward thrust
is checked by the flat horizontal base. the
the
of the sculpture is emphatically
the exponential curve of which
by
human consumption. VI [55] Another
example of architectonics is found in P£rican caryatid as
tested
These rituals of milking and testing
it give VIa blessing to the milk, making it free from ritual
for
The upper runcs
by a strong cylindrical torso.
the torso is echoed in the cylindrical hands
are
linked
to
The vertical effect of
and
the
ridged
fingers.
The strong arched brows echoe the arcs of the knees while the triangular nose echoes the shape of the space between the legs.
In both sculptures
the caryatids are androgenous figures with flat broad feet. The geometric quality of African sculpture has major
been
seen
as
the
contribution to modern art. [56] Although applying geometry to art
is not exclusively African, never had geometry been used in so pure unmodified
a
form
with
such
African sculpture.
However,
sculptor
more
had
any
consistency and to such an extent as in this
knowledge
does of
not
mean
that
the
African
geometry than any other race of
SCUlptors.
His use of it is attributed to the fact that certain of
qualities
enhanced
his
- 35 -
and
visual
its
representations of certain concepts of
life. Geometry in its simplest term is a branch of mathematics that deals with
the
properties of lines, pOints, solids, and surfaces.
different types of goemetry, but
only
three
graphic
Plane
geometry,
and
plastic
Descriptive geometry. and
rhythm
arts:
can
be
There are
applied
Solid
to
the
geometry,
and
The great need for order and balance and
measure
in all art calls for a kind of mathematic organisation that
reflects these three.
The application of
consciously
often
or
more
than
knowledge of geometry, not as a
not
pure
geometry
to
art
is
either
instinctive, for an instinctual mathematical
concept
but
as
a
surfaces
bound
by
commonsense is "deeply rooted in man". [57] Plane geometry comprises of regular
or
irregular
flat
outlines.
and
In
curved
African sculpture the planes are
narrow or broad, horizontal or vertical or slanted, rugged to
capture
or
smoothed
or
reflect
the
intensive
tropical day light, the strong
moonlight or the
flames
of
the
camp
fires
emphatic
use
of
planes in Atfrican sculpture and
fascinated
by
the
remarked in a letter to Vlaminck, Q. 1906: outdoor
light.
This
at
"the forms
Derain
issue
from
was
full
is the thing to which we should pay attention in
terms of what, in a parallel way, we can deduce and
night.
from
it."[58J
British
European artists itlere influenced by the planes in African sculpture
This is seen in the use of
broad
planes
and
facetting
in
works
by
artists like Jacob Epstein, Henri Gaudier-Brezeska, Picasso, and others. Solid geometry, cubes,
pyramids,
concerns
cylinders
three and
bodies enables us to analyse them
dimensional
spheres. in
any
bodies
like
cones,
Our familiarity ,\'lith these spatial
orientation.
This
quality is most suitable to the purposes of African sculptures, of which most "Jere used in movement especially the masks.
- 36 -
The sculpture of numerous tr-ibes provides an extY'aordinary of
solid
geomety'y, representing juxtapositions of almost disassociated
geometric forms. is
(FIG. 1.38)
For instance, half
a
the
spheroid
head
of
a
is
a
Bagirmi
Doll,
Chad,
,·,hose surface is cover vlith intricate
striations and it is symmetrically placed on a body
display
cylindrical
neck.
The
cone decorated with linear patterns and a small slit in the
centre front represents the
vagina.
breasts
rectangular horizontal blocks represent the
while
t1oJO
almost
small
cones
represent
the
arms. At the same time, t1oJO dimensional geometric forms circles,
squares
and
polygons
purposes in African SCUlpture. sculptures symbolic meaning.
are
extensivelly
like
used for decorative
They had various meanings and
gave
the
For example, the triangle is often used as
symbol of fertility by many tribes, especially the Yoruba. isosceles
triangles,
The
upright
triangle may represent the penis and the testicles, inverted,
it represents the vagina.
circles
symbolise
the
sun
and
pOlver and it is called Adinkra hene by the Ashanti.
This does not mean,
hOlvever, that every little sign possesses a pOvlerful
symbolic
Sometimes
such
content.
ornamentation is used vJithout thinking of the ancestors
and the gods. Jl.frican
sculpture (eg.
sculptures
differs
Oceanic,
Pre-Columbian), although symmetry,
it
in
many
Eskimo, shares
vlays
from kerican
North
characteristics
and the bent-knee motif \vith them.
primitive
like
Indian
and
frontality,
African sculpture ,vas the
first primitive art to attract the attention of the English avant-garde. Paul Wingert suggested that:
"African sculptures could be aesthetically
enjoyed independent of their inner qualities
of
motivation,
function,
and meaning more easily."[59] He attributed this to the use of geometric forms which
universally discernible. - 37 -
Fry had emphasised the clarity
of
lI..fr'ican sculptors
did not co-ordinate the most complicated forms
as the Hayan artists, in "incoherent luxuriance".[60J In other words the African
sculptor
did
not
use a picturesque style of decoration which
emphasised demoniac forces while overwhelming the viewer and his contemplations,
as
did
the 11alanesian, Polynesian, and Oceanic works.
These may be some of the reasons 'i-Thy the African objects collections
formal
the
in
made bet"leen 1906 and 1919 by some artists and connoisseurs
outnumbered Oceanic and other objects. [61] The stylistic diversity of African sculpture is
also
outstanding.
Fagg suggested that the stylistic variety in lI..frican sculpture surpassed European sculpture at any pe:ciod. [62] And Guillaume observed: masks,
unlike
those
of
other peoples, there is rarely an emphasis on
exaggerated facial expression. face
with
"In negro
is enough expression to relate the
salient human experiences, never to approach melodrama."[63J
He also pointed out that African sculpture is more diversified than other
art
in
his
the
catalogue published in 1917.[64] African
sculpture is conceived as a whole and not as a
of
bas-relj.efs
placed back to back and loosely intergrated. These differences may explain why it was less Surrealists.
As
Elizabeth
believed that African concerned
with
art
rendering
Cowling
"las
too
has
interesting
suggested:
terrestrial
in
to
the
"the surrealists its
themes,
too
the hUBan figure in a more or less realistic
way, and "lith beauty and perfection of form." [65 ] Yet it was these
qualities VIhich inspired British ar·tists,
a later commentator wrote: NoVI, in its aftermath African sculptur<e can be appreCiated more clearly for itself. Sculpture wherever and by whoever it is created, makes its effect by the subtle balance of shapes and volumes, by the counterpoints of its components, by the sweetness of a line or the strength of a profile. African
- 38 -
as
sculpture does these things as r'ichly and as skillfully as any. But has, in addition, a particular characterristic that makes its exploration a continous excitement. [66]
- 39 -
CHAPTER 2 THE CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF AFRICAN SCULPTURE When European avant-garde ru"'tists discovered African Dresden
and
sculpture
in
in Paris (1905), they initially did not set out to explore
or understand its contents.
Even if they had wanted to there was little
documentation
African
available.
poorly displayed and objects.
wOl"'ks
in ethnographic museums were
considered primarily as
religious
or
ritual
Jacob Epstein pointed out how poorly this art was displayed in
/ " de the Husee d t Ethnographie du Trocade:"'o, (1'10\'1 Nusee
l' Homme)
and
mass
of
primitive
sculptUl"'e none too \vell assembled. II [1] Vlithin a decade or
two
critics,
British
dealers
Huseum,
and
describing
artists
the
for
who
"a
of art, and attempts
according to regions,
to
discover
were
These later approaches interested
influenced
the
foundations.
their
appreciation
mm
of
anthropological
vie't"ls
this and
Yet
art.
ethnogI'aphical
recent bias
,vill
try to establish the
Fagg
conceptual
appreciation of African sculpture.
chapter
writers,
like
works;
mostly
vdth
and "lHllet, have
foundation
in
the
This school of thought still
has not actually accepted the position of the This
and
such undel"'standings vlere irl"'elevant to their
ahlays stpessed the significance of the proper
conceptual
However, their limited understanding did not playa major
role in the influence African sculpture had on their tastes in
British
by this art form and their views reflect
some understanding although not a total comprehension of the
and
the
which they vlere created, and to explore or understand its
conceptual foundations. artists
as
had made it an accepted
vlere made to classify the purposes
exhibits
the
artists
unconditionally.
discuss the African conceptual foundations and \rJill extent
to
relevant to some British artists.
- 40 -
vlhich
they
..1ere
understood
by
and
Religion and creation
of
philosophy
African
were
sculpture.
the
fundamental
customs and culture.
for
the
The African's beliefs and philosophy
were woven into a tight system that formed organisation,
motives
the
basis
for
his
social
African philosophy was based on the
concept of force which Placide Tempels called "vital force",
and
Edwin
Smith "dynamism". [2] This philosophy considered the idea of 'being' as a process of progression rather than as a static state of existence. 'being'
included
inanimate
objects
as
manifestations
This
of forces, or
energy, rather than of matter. [3] This philosophy offered a rational and comprehensive
basis for the tribal laws and ethics; it also provided an
understanding of the mysteries of nature and brought them under thereby
control
protecting humanity against misfortune, disease, and death, and
also establishing unity among the living and the dead. African religion comprised a belief in ancestors,
spirits
and
magic.
considered as a triangle.
The
a
whole
Supreme system
deity, of
in
the
belief can be
(See Diagram below).
Ani mals, Plants and Inanimate Objects
THE STRUCTURE OF AFRICAN RELIGION At the apex of the triangle is the Supreme deity.
Along the
left
side
are the natural spirits and lesser gods and goddesses; on the right side are the ancestors and the ancestral progenitors of the base
are
the
animals,
- 41 -
the
tribe.
plants and the inanimate objects.
At
the
Man is
enclosed in the triangle because he "las influenced by these dependant
on
them.
The
forces
interrelated ,;v-ith each other.
forces
and
represented a hierarchical order and
Han had to co-operate constantly i-lith all
the forces either jointly or independently. [4] The Supreme Being, God, was the creator of the universe, who all
forces
judge.
and
He "IaS
ominiscient, and
determined therefore
considered
ominipotent
descriptive
the course of events. by
a
names,
because
His
of
For
by the Dogon.
To worship Him the African did
Parrinder
number
of
tribes
eternal
and
thing.
referred
of
not
build
temples,
nor
He could not be confined to one place
Everythj.ng
bore
"Ii tne ss
to
Him.
Dr. Geoffry
to a carving of Ha1rlU, the Supreme Being of the EVIes cOEmunal
Him was very rare; it existed only among the Dogon, Ashanti
and Kikuyu where shrines have been found. the
be
intrinsic
of Ghana and Togo as the only one he had ever seen. [7] Regular worship
to
instance He was called Nyame by the Akan, and .Il.m.mon
any representations of Him.
or one single
He was the ultimate
and ominipresent.[5] He has numerous personal
attributes. [6]
make
moved
The usual
practice
VIas
for
individual to pray or make sacrifices to Him at any time and in any
place alone. commonest into
There
numerous myths about
explained
heaven
the
Supreme
once He resided close to the earth but moved
because
of
mankind's
requests.
According to a Ghanaian myth a woman annoyed God
disturbances
and
He
the
shooting-stars,
sun, rain,
moon thunder
Him. [8]
- 42 -
and
stars
and
perSistently
retired
where He remained unapproachable in a solitary glory. like
The
that
by hitting the sky "lith a pounding-stick.
bodies
Being.
natural
far
up
All the celestial phenomena
like
and lightening VIere taken as symbols of
The
cult \Vas based on the belief that God had given
po\Ver
to the early tribesmen, the ancestors of the tribe and the family.
They
1rlere therefore in a position of
the
creation
of
authori ty.
This
of
led
The
image
their physical manifestation vlhen the need arose.
Iver'e human figures of according
to
a number of sculptural images which served as temporary or
abodes for the spirits of the ancestors. means
belief
to
the
both
forms
sexes,
which
animal
they
and
provided The images
animal-human
\Vere believed to be.
figures, The belief
apparently did not determine the shapes of the images but the motifs and functions
of the images.
The dead and the living existed in symbiosis,
with nothing separating them so that they could other.
Shrines
were
built
communicate
Dogons
in
relief
the
village.
built their shrines in the village covering the surfaces of
the wooden doors, shutters, posts and the altars of the high
sculptures
representing
important
sanctuaries
persons
and
constituting the mythical geneology of the Dogon.[9] A Dogon Shutter
The Senufo
granaries.
also
carved
similar
Sanctuary figures
shutters
for
their
shrines
and
house.
These shrines ,vere used to solicit the aid of the ancestors
Family shrines were also set up in a room in a
appease them \vhen wronged.
into
For
instance
the
ancestors
were
the images by blood sacrifice and chanting which might be
accompanied \Vith the ringing of bells or ancestral
and
Both involved complex rituals "lhich IcJere
directed to images in the shrines. invoked
in
animals
CFIG.2.1) depicts a schematised crocodile and
in high relief.
to
each
as rendez-vous for the ancestral spirits.
These might be natural sanctuaries or set up in a hut The
with
rattles.
The
entry
of
the
into these images, it "lvas believed, could be fe=..t by
those around, and i.n some cases the image bO"lved, trembled, or rocked
as
in the case of Hinsereh, a female figure (FIG.1.12), of the Yassi Secret SOCiety of \Vomen of Sierra Leone [10], of the Ijo figures, figures
in the case of perjury.
- 43 -
and
Bukundu
In all agrarian and political clubs or
societies the encourage
Heine called upon to kvitness the
and
protect
those
them successful. which
the
drums
were
the
occupied for the occasion.
material
The Ashanti Stool, (FIG.1.37B), is an example. of
Ga-Adangmes
Ghana.
of
the
chiefs
a
prime
a
necessity
stool
on
Stools of this kind ,,,ere
among
the
Akans,
The acquisition of a stool Has
among the people of Southern Ghana.
first gift a father gave to his child. use
his
Ewes
and
regarded It was the
It vras the custom to present
A husband
would
nelV bride 't.ith a stool to make sure of keeping her.
Thus,
there was a close association betlveen a person and his or her stool. vias
believed
that a man I s
side
Ivhen
not
It
inhabited the stool regularly used by
him, and even continued to do so after his death. its
or
special occasions, for example, a deceased person was
bathed seated on a stool before being laid in state. present
deceased.
They symbolised high office and the support or
the presence of the ancestors. as
regalia
objects
Some of the ancestral
images w'ere made specially to serve as memorials to house the
important parts
to
involved against evil forces and to make
images and
ancestors
activities,
A stool was tilted on
in use to prevent someone else! s spirit or an evil
spirit from occupying it.
Stools
of
dead
chiefs
or
ancestors
were
blackened
by smearing them allover with a mixture of soot and the yolk
of an egg.
They vlere then preserved in the ancestral stool house of the
palace. [11]
There were innulnerable designs for the stool which embodied
animal, human and geometric forms representing events and overall
design
the
artists
Functionally
function.
the
and
or
stool
his
patron,
light
enough
to
be
moved
average height is 16in (40.6co). symbolic meanings. - 44 -
and
the
must be large enough to
support the weight of the average man or woman, comfortable to and
The
of the stool was not determined by the religious belief
but by the imagination of practical
maxims.
sit
on,
as a houeshold furniture.
The
The motifs of the stool may bear
some
about
Several tribes had mythical ancestors. had
such
themselves
into
snakes
in order to go on living in the spirit
festivals
of
the
out
dead
of
their
shrines
at
the
when they ,'Tere asked to ensure health,
fecundity and a rich harvest. for
instance,
They \1Tere mortal men and .1Tomen vJho
kingdom. [12] These figures \1Tere annual
for
ancestors sculpturally represented by hermaphrodite, male and
femal e, (see FIG. 1 • 19A and FIG. 2.2) . turned
The Dogons,
a dignitary died his body
vIas
left
some time in the grotto in the sanctuary next to the statues.
This
vlas to ensure safety for the spirit of
'ivere also used on such occasions. the ancestor figures 'l-lith theil
n
square
shoulders,
the
Ancestral
masks
The unusually thin and flat torsos of rounded
buttocks,
plug
like
navels,
schematised faces, blunt limbs and cylindrical necks
were not dictated by the belief but by carver.
dead. [ 13]
Strictly
the
imagination
of
the
Dogon
speru{ing, the apparent cultUral determinants are the
hairstyle and probably the elongation.
The
hairstyle
,vas
a
coiffure
found among the Dogon, who being tallish people would readily render the images of their ancestors tall. Spiritism was the belief and practices associated with spirits lesser
gods.
Some of these had once been human beings, but had become
gods through great feats pelnformed while spirits,
and
alive
vlith
the
aid
of
for example, Shango, the god of thunder, of the Yoruba.
represented
either
t•
The
as
an
Shango
armed
Sacred
thunderbolt used to invoke Shango. which
rider
or
Staff,
by
the
symbol is
(FIG.2.3),
the He is
of a
the double
Thunderbolts are stone axes of early
the Yorubas, like many
tribes, believed to have
dropped from the sky during a rain storm and were therefore charged i1Tith magic.
A staff of this kind could ward off evil and work miracles.
was believed to protect and cU!"e diseases.
The
blood
of
It
sacrificial
rams was poured on it by the priest from time to time. [14] Shango staffs
- 45 -
often depict a kneeling woman or a woman breasts,
1.Jell
on
horseback
with
pendulous
defined nipples and elaborately decorated pubis.
She is
at times seen with a child on her back or standing in front of her.
She
is believed to represent a devotee of Shango and fertility. Other gods personified natural phenomena and controlled thunder
and
fertility of men, animals and crops.
be patrons of peace,
fishing,
medicine
and
hunting,
crafts,
justice,
man, half antelope.
the
ground.
was
buried
himself
So the Bambara carved antelope masks (headdresses) to
comemorate him. [15 J These 'Vlere
used
in
rituals,
of
the crop cycle:
at
He
After men had mastered the act of cultivating
crops they became lazy 'Vlhich displeased Chi wara and he in
war,
Chi 'VIara for instance, 'VIaS
sent by the Creator to teach the Bambara how to cultivate corn. half
rain,
They were created to
agriculture,
all human activities.
the
different
stages
agricultural
festivi ties
and
clearing the land,
planting, reaping the first fruits, the harvest, and filling of the food stores.
Agricultural
African tribes. rituals
1iJaS
rituals
The basic
the
using
concept
sacredness
of
masks
are
underlying
belonged
to
these
festivities
and
the soil and the desire to ensure the
assistance of the ancestors and the spirits for land
common to almost all
a
good
harvest.
The
the ancestors and it i'i'aS maintained and protected by
them.
FIG.2.4 illustrates the most typical version of the Chi wara. long horns and the
ShOVI the exponential curves.
The
The curved tubular
neck is separated from the mane of triangular openwork by the space of a corresponding
arc.
The horns and the mane are covered with striations.
The cylindrical body and
the
a
trapeziod.
The
base
is
to
dancer.
Such headdresses were used in pairs by tivO dancers repr'esenting
male
and
cap
form
attached
the
a
legs
female
antelopes
- 46 -
by irlhich it is worn on the head of the
and
wear'ing
long
vegetable fibres.
FIG.2.5 shmvs tvTO dancers imitating the leap of the antelope to soil
fertility.
promote
The artistic liberty involved in the creation of these
headdresses was never hindered by the content or the traditional belief. Kjersmeier
has
observed
this
(see pp.
29-30).
In addition to masks
some tribes like the Senufo used carved pole-like figures or Deble which
they
rhythmically
and
fertility, (see FIG.2.6). have
important
ceremonially
Parrinder
communal
pounded the soil to induce
observed:
ceremonies
at
with
"All
African
time
of
the
peoples
sOvling
and
harvest."[16] The extensive agricultural activities as an essential part of
African
works.
culture have been related to the prolific production of art
Fraser pOinted out that
agriculture
had
secured
the
African
freedom from ,lTant, given him 't'ITealth and enabled him to turn to political organisation and elaborate forms of art.[17] There are also female spirits or goddesses like the Odudua
of
the
Yo rub a ,
and
goddesses of the matriarchal Kenya.
her
with
stomach.
offerings
Asaaseyaa of the Akan, and some maternity tribes
and
of
Zaire,
Tanzania,
and
,iere
carved
depicting
a
l'lomen
gave
FIG.2.7
shows
prayed
to these figures for a successful marriage, many
two
versions
of
Odudua.
In Zaire, Hother
and
child
figures
used as magic means of ensuring heirs. [18] The image of mother and
social
sense
of
dynamic
continUity,
of
the
interpretation of individuals, families and generations which is
root
of
African
conventionalised,
life.
The
the
child
with
images
often
of
sentimentality
- 47 -
or
schematised
or
either being nursed at the breasts,
carried on the mother I s back or other'Vlise situated. lack
Uganda
one or two children, or a pregnant woman with her hands on
child therefore epitomised the
the
of
goddesses
children, wealth and a long life. were
Mother,
Since the survival of any tribe depended on the fertility of the
soil and of the women, images mother
Earth
There is
ahTays
a
affection shovm between the mother and the
child. the
This could be related to the concept that children
ancestors
and
came
from
them
belonged
therefore were not complete human
beings, until they passed through the rites of passage to and
adult
status.
ancestor
and
the
"It is certainly true that ,,,oman is
founder
of
remoter
source,
tradition
of
'po1:ver l
governing
female
general.
This may be the l"'eason 't\Thy the
mothers
are
with
their
'spirit'
or
was
Cornet, primarily
harking
back
to
the
fertility in
slightly
aloof,
veiled eyes, and seemingly indifferent to the children they
" [19] Host mother figures This
human
the clan, but the deeper meaning of the
figures seems to spring from a a
attain
Other writers give different explanations.
for instance, explained:
to
to
ensure
a
have
generously
proportioned
plentiful supply of nourishment for the child.
FIG.2.7A which i"as acquired by the British Huseum in rounded-tip
conical
disproportionately
breasts.
breasts.
The
breasts
of
FIG.2.7B
are
planes
making
them
and
pointed
The
bodies
of
both
striated designs.
Hasks
such
as
(FIG.2.8,
Museum), were also carved to represent such spirits.
British
four
huge
long
pyramidal.
with
shows
1912,
figures are elaborately covered with the
Nimba
Nask
of
Baga,
Guinea,
The huge nose and the eyes represent the male genitals and there are tvlO betvleen the two huge flowing breasts which Boris de Rachewitz believed to represent the female organ. [20] The t'i-1O appertures served as holes
through which the wearer of the mask sees his way.
They probably
had no such symbolic significance because not all the forms of the had
symbolic meanings, for example, the pouting, little mouth, the thin
cylindrical neck, the plug-like nipples, the planes the
breasts.
The
geometric
facial
scarifications as elements of beauty. an
mask
ancient Baga coiffure.
incisions
angularity
of
related to facial
Similarly the crest is related to
The distortion and the architectonic of this
mask were dictated by the carver's imagination.
- 48 -
and
Secret societies, responsible for' the different activities spirits,
Here
formed.
The
Strict
rules
the
societies were essentially groups of men,
women, boys, and girls, bound together under spirits.
of
the
aegis
of
particular
determined the conduct of these societies.[21]
Their duties Here to organise the rituals and festivities by selecting a place
and
time, provide the leadership for such occasions, enforce the
observations of taboo and propitiation, train the youth by teaching songs
and
dances.
societies into:
K.L.Little
(a) General
training
vocational
and
groups
education
the
activities
of the secret
in
the
sense
of
social
and
indoctrination
of
social
attitudes;
(b)
Regulation of sexual conduct; (c) Supervision of political and affairs;
neH
economic
(d) Operation of various social services, ranging from medical
treatment to forms of entertainment and recreation. [22] Secret societies were
regular
patrons
of the carvers because they used carved figures,
masks and
drums
extensively.
Cornet
sculptures
Here constantly needed by the Bayaka because of the repeated
modifications in their beliefs.
cited
instances
where
ritual
Once the ceremonies i"ere over the masks
created as accessories vlere discarded or bur·nt. [23] The Afr'ica.
distruction I t ,,,as
of
masks
i-laS
a
common
might
spiritually
left
about,
or
anyone coming across them because they had
been charged 'lvith forces by the entry spirits
in
believed that since the spirits had left them after the
occasion, blood-thirsty spirits might occupy them when they
practice
of
the
spirits.
Some
of
the
remained in the masks and figures in the precint of a sh:nine to
receive sacrifices from time to time.
Once spirits had been
identified
and induced permanently into these carvings they became human-like, 'ioJith human needs, establishing relations vlith man. rituals
and
offerings.
Other
spirits returned to the mystical vlOrld
from vThence they 'i"ere called frequently.
- 49 -
This entailed
The images or
masks
of
such
spirits
might
be placed at the cross-roads, in the village, outside or
inside a family house
as
tutelary
deities.
protect and help people in various vlays. example. I1ho
They
vlere
by
it,
(see FIG.2.9).
and
guide
those
The Bundu Hask of the Bundu
society of vwmen, Sierra Leone, (FIG.2.10, in the British example
of
masks
usually
and
is an
kept for further use in the mask house.
shows a small concave and heart-shaped face placed area,
extraordinarily high fore head.
low
in
the
ShOt.lS
The head ShOVIS an elaborate The
rolls of fat around the neck - corpulence lvas r'egarded as a
sign of beauty in a ,vas
It
facial
hair style "lith a crest believed to represent an open female organ. mask
to
The Nimba Figure of Baga is an
It 'I-laS placed at the cross-roads to protect
passed
believed
girl. [24] This large and
\vorn by the leader of the Society.
a helmet, "lith tvlO
bl a cl<: ene d
n:ask:
It covered the entire head like
for the eyes of
the
'tvear'er
'\vho
1;vore
a
black palm fibre costume and carried a short black staff often decorated vlith spiral geometric designs and carved heads (see FIG.2. 11). the
sceptre
of
the spirit.
to
their
,vas
The ring at the top, middle and bottom of
the sceptre were signs of corpulence. addition
It
The other geometric
deSigns,
in
decorative functions, could have names and symbolic
meanings i-lhich at present are unknovm. Animism [25 ] vlas the belief animals
inanimate
inherent
vital
forces
especially the animal spirits
could
be
through
possessed
that
rituals
and ceremonies.
in African sculpture, they forms.
Segy
explained
objects,
of their Oim.
harnessed
Although animal
for
and
These forces human
benefit
appear commonly
much less extensively used than are human that
the
P£rican feared evil spirits and the
wrath of the ancestors more than the \vild animals: he
plants,
"Against the
latter
can defend himself, but against spirits his only defence is magic or po,vel" as
in
- 50 -
the
fetish. "[26]
Animal
forms
also
represented and as
spirits and ancestors.
symbols
objects.
or
decorative
They were carved as fetish figures,
forms
on
ceremonial
utilitarian
The animals represented often had a religious ru1d sociological
significance for certain tribes and societies. had
and
the
Agassu,
a
legendary
symbol.
The long and
figures
of
Odudua
Yoruba
leopard and its claiv marks as it tribal
parallel incisions on the cheeks of the
FIG.2.7,
in
porcupine is the symbol of the porcupine
For example, the
represent
most
the
ivar-like
two
marks of Agassu.
tribe
The
Ashanti.
The
fights by shooting quils at its predators and grOivs nevI quils
to replace those lost.
To
the
Ashanti
this
is
analogous
to
their
belteved
that
reinforcement :i.n battle. The snake is often shOim tn carvings. snakes
were
tribes
the incarnations of ancestors, (eg.
the Dogon and the peoples of Dahomey and life,
Nany
eternity,
and
fertility.
Togo.)
the Baga, the Yoruba, The
snake
symbolised
In some myths it taught man and woman
the mystery of procreation.
The Bakuyu of Congo had a
dance
in honour of ebongo, the mythical snake 1'Tho
ivhich
was
created the ancestors. at
the
Tall ivooden carved poles
anthropocephalic
of
many
tribes
especially
the Senufo vlhere the iWIllen visited a grove of the snake when they
conceived to offer thanks to the snake protection.
and
to
solicit
its
ll...mong the Nurumas it vTaS believed that a woman vlould become
pregnant if a snake enter'ed her hut. or
vlith
snake
top Ivere used :Ln this dance. [27] The snake is associated
with the act of procreation in the customs among
kebe-kebe
Some tribes believed that
stepping over a snake cause conception.
meeting
An:.ong the Ashanti, Elve, and
Yoruba the role of the python in a myth was a procreating agent, and for a
woman to dream of the snake meant she would surely become pregnant if
she had sex.
Ladislas Segy summarised the concepts connected
snake
ru1.d
cuI t
the use of snake r:lotifs as follovlS:
- 51 -
with
the
(a) The snake vlas
seen as a fertlizing organ that concept
of
fertility.
Cb)
assumed
phallic
significance
A concept
which
saw
the
snake as the
to
the
concept
residence of the ancestpal spirit which \;ras linked procreative
act
which
brought
the
tribal
thereby lilli{ing this to the ancestor cult. the
as female symbol.
sun these
acquired
conjunction vlith
male these
ancestors
of
cosmic
food,
The
attributes. in
various
Cd)
believed
to
By
fish.
regarded as the protector
to
Since the earth gro\Vs grain after rain and
order.
including
of
linked
snake
ways.
Rain
symbol
comes
of
as
which
thereby
be the abodes of
became
a fertilizing agent ,"vas, of
association
",ells,
into
For example, thunder, and
course, associated ,;rith ivater and ,\ojater was a living agent, of
the
into being and
(c) The snake is
lightening which precede rain symbolised snakes, symbols
in
therefore,
rivers
and
spirits.
a the snake ,-las
lakes.
Lakes
"Jer'e
(e) In some healing cults
the snake, as the abode of a spirit, was invoked to sunmon that spirit's (f)
protection.
In mythology the snake may appear as the protector or
of a tribe. [28] The
Hooden
Bowl,
(FIG.2.12,
Nuseum) , sho,,1s a snake carved on the top of the lid. the tail ape a man and vloman holding hands. the
VlOman
par-ts
and
the
of
snake
decorated i.li th triangular motifs which figures
and
Used
masks.
in
fertility
symbols.
By
the
often
skirt
the
of
The snake is
are painted 'IvhUe. are
British
Under the head and
Their eyes,
found
on
fertility
some sculptures to represent the female
breasts and organs, (see FIG.1.18B, and 22), they as
in
implication
the
bOlvl
usually might
be
used in
almost
all
African
from
unseen
events
fertility rites. Hagic ,vas an societies.
It
aspect of r'eligion ViaS
believed
that
in
protection
(diseases, drought, accident, etc.) could be achieved through the use of certain substances and objects in particular vlays.
- 52 -
Deliberate harm to a
person or
could also be caused by similar
activities
benefited
the
accepted and often in demand. possible occasions:
individual
and
required
carvings
Since
society
ritual
objects
such
so
on.
Some
carved
in
figures
can
Human
nails,
be
recognised
animal
Hany of
teeth,
intended
or
horns
for
torso which gave the figure povJer.
carver.
Fetish
which
were disorderly in
the
The additive materials vlere added by
medicine man after the
carving
animal figures were also carved.
impossible to identify.
the
embellishment
attached), magical substances "Jhich "Jere inserted into a cavity
the fetish priest
fetish
by common characteristics such as,
1:vhich "Jere not
beads,
Such
the style of the ancestor statues, but usually
objects added to the (eg.
magical
as carved statues or masks.
'\'lithout care, although there are exceptions like FIG.1.10. fetish
they were
for success in hunting, obtaining justice, securing
generally called 'fetish' figures or masks. are
most
There were magical rituals for almost all
love, and ensuring good healing, harvesting and acts
means.
They are usually a
cross
done
vIaS
by
the
They are strange and betiveen
a
dog
and
leopard, and sometimes have a head at either ends of the body.
FIG.2.13
sho"13 different kinds of fetishes ,-lith carved ,veoden figures.
The
fetish
are
the
most
common ones in P£rica.
nail
They were first
imbued with power by the deposit of magical substance in the cavity into
the
abdomen.
Then
they
knife-blades, and pointed objects. VIas
to
victim.
were
studded
,vith
nails,
The purpose of these
nail
inflict sickness in turn upon
cut
fetishes
caused it in the current
Another purpose of na::l driving vIas to injure the
evil
spirit
\vhich caused the illness and, thus, by reducing his power, to lessen the virulence of the disease. [29] The flnee and easy use of the fetishes all
purposes
accounted
for their 'ivide distribution throughout Africa.
The Congo region has produced an amazing been vie"\ved as a characteristic of their art.
- 53 -
for
of fetishes.
This
has
Sorcery and techniques
\vithcraf't
,,1hich
"Iv ere
,ve1'"'e
common
practices
socially disapproved.
on
magical
Anthropologists who have
w·orked in Africa have distingu:;:'shed between the conscious
based
t"lw.
Sorcery
is
the
practice of "magic that is illicit or is considered immoral",
while "I·dtchcraf't is a manifestation that is inherent in persons having a "supposed
psychic
emanation
from
witchcraft
substance",
material, thought to be present in the bodies of certain may
be
diagnosed
a
harmful
persons,
that
by oracle in the living and discovered by autopsy in
the dead. [30] For the fear of i,ricthcraft some secret societies like Gelede,
Epa,
and
Egungu
of "the Yoruba, performed annual propitiation
rites to placate the "lvitches and women or They
used
They
are
the
mothers
masks as dance accessories in their rites.
are hemispherical.
They
characterised
with
the
of
the
tribe.
The Gelede masks
worn on head or at a slant on the forehead. by
large
open
eyes with round holes for the
pupils, complex hair-dress, receding forehead, lips
the
protruding
jaws,
thick
corners cut off vertically at the sides, and an amiable
expression, (see
FIG.2.14A).
Even
in
more
complex
ones,
the
top
features forming superstructures epitomised the exercise of the carver's imagination, anecdotes
where
he
combined
from daily life.
symbols
scenes
with
Gelede Hask, FIG.2.14A, for example Sh01vS a
bunch of bananas as a superstructure and t'lvO snakes. bananas
"lere
The mask with
the
carved in one piece but the snakes v[ere separately carved
and nailed to the mask. snakes.
representing
RachetvJil tz
Decorative triangular motifs are painted on the intel"preted
the
super
stl"uctulhe
elements because such masks ,-Jere used in fertility
dances.
as
a phallic The
three
hOlnizontal scar·ifications on the cheeks of the mask represented marks of Agassu. ,vorn
SOffietimes they
vertically
indicated.
Gelede
by men dressed as "(vomen "lho w·ent once a year into ever-y village at
the festival of gl"o,rlth at "\vhic11 fertility Ivas sought, evil and
masks
driven
a1rlay
"tvitches placated. [31] Epa masks are monuIilental and they enclose the - 54 -
head of the i'lith
like helmet.
They are often Janus-headed
vJide mouth and protruding large bulbous eyes.
vlith tOiver'ing superstructures of daring compositions bright
colours
(see
FIG.1.31).
face
They
superposed
often
painted
in
Some Epa masks iveigh about 140lbs and
about six feet in height.
Egungu masks
are
characterised
by
large hare-like ears and tension drum motif ,,[hich resembles an hourglass on top of the mask, (see FIG.2. 14B). rites
Apart from the annual propitiation
the Egungu masks were used in contacting the dead.
the spirit of a dead person took possession of the masked spirit
then
the
passage
The
of the mask.
Rites of Passage comprise man!s
dancer.
dear ones alive and made his or her vlishes
known to them through the
marked
In a ceremony
varioUS
rituals
and
ceremonies
\vhich
from one stage of life to another, that is, from
birth, puberty, marriage and death and then starting again
with
birth.
Some of the ritual ceremonies were done on a family basis like birth and giving names to the child, and observed
by
the
>vhole
most
community.
marriages;
but
the
others
The ceremonies had much religious
meaning, and through their observations religious ideas were perpetuated and passed on to the next generations. Birth vms physical
as the change from non-physical existence to the
existence.
A nevlly born baby came from the ancestors, or was
the reincarnation of them. because
the
Vlhen children died the ancestos 'iv-ere
child was considered to belong to them.
iv-ere perfopmed seven or eight days after birth.
blamed
Naming ceremonies
The child
was
brought
out of the birth room for the first time; it received a personal name to mark its entry into the family, and the break of bond betiveen it and the ancestors.
The gods were thanked for the safe arrival of the child into
the physical vlOrld. poured
on
the
Prayers for good heal th ,",ere offered and
liba tions
ground vlith iv-ine or milk or water for the ancestors and
- 55 -
Earth. mother.
The rituals of b:Ll"th actually began T/lith pregnancy of the
Pregnancy is received with rejoicing and precautions were taken
to ensure normal
gestation
medical and
and
delivery.
attentions.
the family gods and ancestors
The
precautions
included
Thanks were given to the Supreme God, sacrifices.
the health of the mother and the baby.
Prayers
said
Protections against dangers, and
help "Jere derived from fertility, ancestral, fetish and goddess representing
the
relevant
spirits.
figures
Figurines in some cases might be
carried about but the big figures might be placed in the Ivoman.
abode
of
the
After a successful delivery, sacrifices might be offered to the
spirits di.J"elling in the figures as a sign of Female
FigUl"e
"lith
Bowl
of
gl"atitude.
The
Kneel :l.ng
Baluba, CFIG.2.15, in the British MUSeUl'TI.
since 1905 and often called Hendicant Figure) is an example of a placed
spirit
at the entrance of the house of a pregnant woman.
believed that gifts (eg. put
for
It is
cosmetics, incense, medicinal oil, etc.)
in the bOld held by the figure by visitors.
help needed by the pregnant "lOman.
were
They were the matelnial
Hagical or medicinal pOt.J"der could be
put in the bm·ll to be used by the vloman.
The elaborate coiffUl"e on this
figure represents a hair style found among the Baluba women. Infant mortality, especially in the case of twin, gave rise to Tvlin
Cult
and
subsequent
production
of
sculptill"es of tl'.i'in figures.
Tiv-ins lv-ere believed to possess special defensive which
I'Jere
and
and
offensive
allover I'Jest and parts of East Africa.
died a human figure was carved to replace it, to keep company
to
house
the
spirit
the
of the dead twin.
the
pO"Ter's
If one tvlin living
twin
This figure was
treated in all respect as the living counterpart till the living reached puberty. Child,
01"
it might be kept as a memento, given as a doll to a forgotten and discarded.
If both ti'1in died,
hTO
figures
were
provided which the mother treated in the same manner, for some period as
- 56 -
custom might demand. [32] The Ibeji
Figures
typical
Ibeji figures in the British Huseum).
examples.
(FIG.2.16
of
the
Yoruba
tribe
are
They show different elaborate hairstyles covered with striated patterns. These
figures
can
be
considered
as
quasi-portraits.
resembled particular children but commorated them. bought
directly
from
the
sculptor
tribal marks of Agassu are seen decorations
on
the
for example, the
on
They
They 1"lere
or from the market. the
cheeks
of
never usually
The parallel
these
ones.
The
various figures might not necessarily be symbolic,
elaborate
hair-dresses
could
be
the
carver's
own
childhood
and
adolescence
into
creation to enhance them. Puberty muturity
1-laS
and
the
passage
fr'om
adulthood. [33] It is of spiritual significance because it
represented the borderline betueen the this
stage
and
i"orld.
At
the child became sexually and spiritually significant.
The
essential principle was to make the child into an him
or
her
to
sex life.
adult
adult
and
The stage vlaS marked by a series of complex
initiations, rites and rituals for both males and females. of
the
initiation
ceremonies
could
although this happened very rarely. initiated
cause
At
the
puberty
the
rigours
adolescents
For instance,
in
were
In many cases Sierra
Leon,
(Hen! s society) and Sande or Yassi (vlOmen' s society) organised the
male and female 'schools' respectively.
Here the young members
tribes were subjected to hard tasks, exercises and games. "Jere learnt. slept
at
Disgusting foods vJere eaten at times uncomfortable
places.
These
patience, and obedience in the initiates. of
The
death of an initiate
at "Bush schools" run by priests or magicians.
the secret societies were responsible. Poro
introduce
sex,
religion,
ethics
- 57 -
to
the
Co-operations they
sometimes
instill
humility,
Instructions in the mysteries
and
Songs, danCing and some crafts like
and
of
law basketry
and
and custom ,""ere given. pottery,
laying
of
traps
were
learnt.
In the case of girls personal hygiene, childcare,
home management, live
to entertain the opposite sex and
guests,
how
to
food
and
vlith cO-\lives in polygamous societies vlere parts of the
Among the lbo, girls were secluded for months, fed
on
their
became
bodies
anointed
Ivith
oil,
so
that
they
fatty
as buxom as
possible.
Plump girls and women were the most beautiful in many P£rican
societies.
This idea is seldom reflected in African \lood carvings.
The initiation ceremonies often began tv-ith practised \v-idely over P£r'ica.
circumcision which
is
The operation loias done in some areas by a
masked person or in his presence as the representative of the
ancestral
spirits. [34] There are tribes 'I",'ho did not and still do not Circumcise at all.
Others practised it just after the naming ceremonies on the eighth
day
after
birth.
The
of the Ashanti are not to be circumcised
because it "as a taboo for them to be touched by scarred.
Circumcision
is
the
knife
to
Oln
be
also noticed in African scultures that have
exaggerated male organs, (see FIG.1.19).
This might
symbolise
manhood
in some cases. Clitoridectomy or the mutilation of the labia vlaS practised in many parts
of
Africa
as
an
equivalent
of
circumcision.
There
is
documentary evidence for comprehensive reasons for this practice perhaps
to
make
girls
gestation and exaggeration
[35]
of
the
brave
and
HOlv-ever,
no
except
prepare them to endure pain during this
practice
accounted
for
the
clitoris and the labia in some female sculptures,
(see FIG. 1.20 ) • The period for passing out of the 'Bush schools' varied from to
tribe,
nevertheless,
the
occasion
was
marked
by grand communal
celebrations accompied by drumrring and dancing and masquarades.
- 58 -
tribe
is the logical result of the puberty rites. spiritual
It had little
significance
because
without
marriage, sex and procreation
could take place betvleen
people,
since
the
spiritual
and
sexual
individual
had
attained
significance and had been prepared for sex life.
It vlaS primarily a social matter except for the ancestor I s blessing the couple.
In some areas marriage might be accompanied by masquarades,
drumming and dancing. belonged
to
secret
The masks and drums used on such occasions
often
societies
with
invited
to
mark
the
occasion
The Bundu Hask (FIG.2.10), and the masks of the
entertainment. Epa
for
and the Egungu are examples.
Gelede,
In Ghana the bride vlaS given a 1iJOoden
stool as previously mentioned.
Bawongo women were presented with carved
'Iwoden
vJOoden
lids
for
bovlls, each bearing a symbol or a
scene 'fhich expressed a certain situation or a Leizinger
explained
wish.
that if a Bawongo ,wman carried the food bmfl 'Ilith
one of these lids on it, her husband kne'i,," "lrlithout her was
FIG.2.17)'
(See
complaining about.
saying
"lrlhat
she
They can be considered as a sort of ideography. This
He cited an example in the Nuseu d'Etnologia do Ultramar, Lisbon.
provelnbial lid shmfs a boa constrictor entwined round a man lying on his back ';'lith his head in the serpant I s n::.outh;
this
signifies:
said "Yes" 'Ivithout ever having seen for ourselves'. [36] As adults men and women were concerned to acquire 'Ivealth, pm'ler and fame to make them worthy ancestors after death. secret society to attain some status. B"lrJami
The individual joined a
The Balega men and 'iwmen
the
Sect acquired figurines and diminutive masks calnved from ivory or
wood as emblems of symbolised
some
rank. particular
These
miniature
events.
The
figures men
tribes used highly polished carved 'Iwoden cups for Nost
of
of
these
cylindrical.
cups
are
anthropomorphic
The cups
had
distinct
- 59 -
in
and
masks
often
of Bashongo and Bakuba drinking form
prestige-vanity
and
palm-vline. others
are
significance
as
aesthetic forms, (see FIG.2.18 - Types of Bakuba vlooden Cups.) Among the Igbo and Igala of DIigeria, the men use the Ikenga, (FIG. 1 .28), as a mark of masculine achievement in public life. At death, the individual attaj.ned his or her' re-established automatic.
their
former
link
with
the
highest
status,
ancestors.
Solemn, time consuming and extravagant
and
This was not
mortuary
were performed to enable the deceased to gain this status.
ceremonies Insufficient
ceremonies rendered the vital force of the person local and earth bound. He
became
a
haunting
spirit
or
a ghost.
This practice ensured and
marked the conquering of death.
Nortuary ceremonies were conducted vlith
prescribed
masks
sculptural
images,
and
drums.
The
sometimes buried with the figures or placed on his
grave
deceased to
,-las
symbolise
the tribe's or the family's esteem for the dead, of things liked or done by the deceased the
und er'\v
spirits.
alive.
1d •
Some
of
They also assured a successful the
The Hbulu Ngulu, (FIG.1.27, Bakota
Reliquery
in
kept
to
guard
At regular
times
in
cel'''tain
the
it
vTaS
and rubbed with materials that ensured the continuance of their
spirit povler. [37] Hbulu Ngulu ::neans "the guardian of the spirit dead" or "image of the sp:l.rit of the dead ll •
unlikely
that
it
"\-las
of
the
The significance of the use
of the lozenge for the body of this figure is still uru{nown.
It
seems
by the shape of the skeleton, since the
skull was not schematised in
a
similar
manner.
The
Grave
Post
of
/
in Trocadero), is an example of figures placed on
Hadagascar
(FIG.2.19
the grave.
It depicts a man and woman with
probably
the
It is believed to be inhabited by strong spirits
who protected the skull. cleaned
figure
The Bakota placed this figure on
the basket in I"hlch the skeletons of the dead and the spirit.
to
figures guarded the grave against evil
British Huseum), is a typical example.
bones
journey
a
jar
on
her
head.
It
represented the dead man being accompanied by his wife or maid
- 60 -
on his journey; and the jar fOl' water to be drunk when itTere
used
at
thirsty.
Hasks
the end of mOUl'ning in many parts of Africa to limit the
period of deep SOrrOitT by announcing irlith ritualistic
approbation
rnan I s
right to forget death. Drums played significant roles in They
are
the
alnost
all
African
rites
and
conmonest musical instrument in Africa and
represented the voice and the
of the ancestops.
only in shape but also in artistry.
They val'y
not
They ape car7ed from one piece of a
tree trunk or branch that may be betitleen titJO and
six
diametep
Sone drums retained the
may
vary from one foot to four feet.
shape of the ,olood from 'iolhich they "iolere taper
at
feet
carved,
long.
others
The
may
one end to look conical, some have human or animal figures as
caryatids; others have tripod stands or four supports at the base. FIG. 2. 20 for Drum Types).
(See
They are hollowed and one end is covered with
the hides of animals like the antelope, the buffalo, the leopard, deers, goats
the
cow
and
so
on.
The cylindpical surfaces of the drums ape
often decorated with reliefs depicting designs.
FIG.2.20A
female breasts.
from
mythical
animals
and
symbolic
Ghana, for example shows tlVO huge protruding
These might represent the breasts of the earth goddess,
Asaaseyaa, and symbolised fertllity.
The rest of the surface is covered
with symbolic designs in relief.
They are composed of leopards, snakes,
tortoises,
birds
siamese
crocodiles
triangles and rectangles.
and daggers.
There are squares,
They could represent talismans.
These
"".rere
supposed to protect the drums and the drumoers from the evil forces that might be attracted by their sounds. series
of
them to form an ochestra.
A single drum could be
used
are
sacred
a
Drums are used for entertainment,
for various rites, for sending messages in times of limr and peace. drums
or
Some
and they are played only on special occasions and by
specially trained and authorised persons.
- 61 -
Such drums are played at
the
funeral
of
a
king.
There
drums, fetish drums and so example,
in
Ghana
the
are
on.
"lar drums, talking drums, ceremonial They
have
their
local
names.
i·lar drums alne called fontomfrom.
All types of
drums can be found among the same tribe.
S.R.Rattray listed over thirty
different
individual
types
of
ivith
their
names
among
the
Ashanti. [38] Dance is a passionate act in Africa and it accompanies almost every occasion, both sacred and secular, Ivhere the drum is used.
It comprises
vigorious and graceful body moveoents, rhythmic footsteps,
and
arm and hand gestures iolhich are symbolic. of
the
culture
sculptur'es
are
hardly
complex
It is perhaps the only aspect
that
is
often
used as accessories to the dance or costumes and
carried about or used as a
depicted
in
the
sculptures.
The
of focus for all movement.
It is difficult to separate religious sculptures from non-religious works
because
the
spiritual
secular in African
philosophy.
direct
or
indirect
approval
cannot
entirely
Secular of
be
objects
required
the
the spirits and the ancestors.
Such
objects could also be banned by the fetish of
them.
Despite
these difficulties
three main categories:
separated from the often
if
they
disapproved
Trrnvell has established
(a) Spirit-Regarding Art, (b) t1an-Regarding Art,
and (c) Art of Ritual Display. (a) Spirit-Regarding objects iiere directed at They
"Jere
to
harness
the
povlelns
of
the
spirit
the spirits to help the living
members of the tribe. [39] Examples are the ancestral and spirit like FIG.1.11 and FIG.2.7.
- 62 -
forces.
figures
(b) Nan-Regarding sepved l.iving patrons and reinforced prestige.
They
often consisted of
cast, and Here made to please. [40] presents.
the
social
articles, the perequisite of Such
objects
'lilere
also
given
as
Examples are the wooden bo;·;ls ,vith proverbial lids and cups,
(see FIG.2.17 and 18). (c) The Art of Ritual Display served purposes.
These
objects
are
both
religious
the
benefit of the tribesmen.
spiritual
and
intended
and had decorative and expressive qualities.
examples are
the
Epa,
Gelede
fOl"ces
They are also Eran-regarding in that
they Vlel"e designed to appeal to an audience, display,
secular
spipit-regarding in the sense that they
ieJere used in ritual ceremonies to attract and control fOl"
and
and
Eg;ungu
masks
for
public
The most obvious
and
the
Chi
,vara
Secular' objects uere produced to satisfy the desire
for
aesthetic
headdresses.
expression
and to assert personal prestige.
socio-economic
status
independent
utilitarian aspects.
of
of
their
owners.
Host of them indicated the Aesthetic
For example, the anthropocephalic
wooden cups of the Bakuba (FIG.2.18) had elaborate
relief
shapes
Secular objects 'lilere
that
did
not
contribute
to
their use.
carved in all forms and shapes in the round and in relief. from
household
utensils
designs
They
and
ranged
like bo;vls, jelivel and snuff boxes, ladels and
spoons, combs, ornaments, insignia and regalia.
They ru"'e in
of musical instruments, architectural decorations (eg.
the
forms
reliefs on door
posts, shutters, panels, caryatids and decorated house poles) and
other
luxury objects like tobacco mortars and pipes, cosmetic containers which could be in
anthropomorphic
or
The
zoomorphic
Door
Frame,
FIG.2.21, is an example of carved ru"chitectural decoration from Bamileke palace in Cameroon, nOiV' in the Bri tish are
The front and
covered Hith bas l"'eliefs of figurative images.
- 63 -
the
back
It is hal"d to guess
the pur'pose of the overt display of the male and female beside their probable meaning of
organs.
they contribute to
the overall rhythmic patterns of the cOEposition. is 77.4in, (200cm) high.
sexual
The
I"hole
structure
Definitely their decorative impact overshadovls
their function and any symbolic meanings. Some erotic largely
may be considered as secular.
unexplored
because
they
emblems, or allegorical ethics.
are
usually
regarded
been
as fertility
designed to enforce sexual morality
and
Hmlever, erotic figures made of bronze or brass found among the
Baule and the Ashanti were used as goldweights. often
They have
form
a
decorative
part
of
the
Wooden erotiC
chief's
carvings
furniture and ritual
objects.
They show human beings or animals copulating and were probably
associated
with ritual intercourse to stimulate fertility and to arouse
desire in ,"wmen.
These figures uere possessed by a feitl pOl-lelnful
in
or
the
society
society depict
by
animals
the
secret society.
copulating.
people
Some masks of the Gelede
Eroticism was,
however,
mostly
expressed in dances designed to release sexual and emotional tensions in connection courtship
initiation
and
certain
known
as
purification
Togo,
and
Nigeria.
These
rites in some African societies, ego There
ivas
license
of
sexual
are
also
in Ghana,
behaviour.
For
a young "'loman could strip herself naked except for her 'catch
sex I (a type of native challenge
and
dances and games vlere often alloi'led in many African societies
during the time of plenty or "rites of
instance,
Erotic
festivities.
of a man.
"I"hich looks like a modern bikini) at
a
There was also license of vulgar speech where even
the gods, kings and chiefs could be insulted:
o king, you a fool He ru""e taking the victory out of your hands o king, you are impotent He ru"'e taking the victory out of your hands. [41] - 64 -
The
for such license i'las explained to Rattray in Ashanti that the
ancestors
opdained
a time, once a year, l'lhen ever'y man and i'loman, free
man and slave should have freedom to speak just vlhat vIas in his mind
to
release tension. [42] The runt of body decoration is also foundations
of
complimentary
African sculpture.
aspect
of
the
conceptual
the sculptures vlith the
It
elements
of
symbolism
and
directly
and
indirectly imposed upon or
These
were
connected
treatments
and
values
welne
applied
the
living
body_
to
an
aesthetics.
'ltlith
Aesthetic
social,
religious, hygienic and sexual demands and, therefore, sometimes assumed secondary symbolic meanings as well. believed
there
is
no
Because
this
of
decoration in African art.
many
scholars
Professor Segy,
for instance, stated: On many African carvings there ape inclslons or relief carvings vlhich form geometlnic designs... A i'lestern observer may see these designs as pure decorations, but to the African they functional and meaningful. The small tncisions or relief patterns often indicate scarification marks. The circle-dot symbol indicate the sun (male power) and vital energy (dot); i t increases the pm'ler of the... carvings. [43]
However, the present ''lriter belives that there alne 'pure decorations' in African
runt.
They
have a universal function, to please or arouse our
aesthetic emotions. Body decorations took various forms but can parts:
the
be
grouped
into
t,<JQ
body and its part that can be modified; and the attachment
of foreign elements to the body. (A)
Decoration
of
the
body
involved
processes
painting, scarification, tatooing to aesthetic mutilation.
- 65 -
ranging
from
Skin painting: directly
to
This consisted of application of colouring
the skin in rectilinear or cur'vilinear patters.
shapes like the Circle, lozenge and others
also used.
matters
GeometI'ic
The
colours
ranged from "ihite to different shades of other colours 'tV'hich could be in pOiV'ders and solutions from animal and vegetable sources. and body.
creams
from
Oils, perfumes
animal and vegetable sources were also applied to the
These substances may be classified as cosmetics.
cosmetics
served
various
purposes they purposes
purposes
as mentioned above:
used to invite or drive a,iay
they
were
On the body the for religious
spirits;
for
preventives and curatives, they protected the skin
from insect-bites, rough weather and restored damaged skins; used
hygienic
SOCially for prestige and vanity.
they
were
The application of cosmetics to
sculptures served similar purposes in addition to
their
technical
and
decorations
that
aesthetic purposes outlined in the previous chapter. Tatooing, scarifications and Cicatrices are body vlere
interpreted
in
the
SCUlptures.
made by incisions and grooves as noticed
FIG.2.22A.
Tatooing and scarifications are in
FIGS.2.7A
pubis
of
(FIG.2.18). are
seen
in
Cicatrices, on the other hand, are indicated by cutting out
the backgrounds of the designs vlhich alne left in relief the
8 and
and
in
FIG.1.1,
shaped
Bakuba
In life cicatrices look like keloids.
The
the
on
sculptures
the
human
as
noticed wooden
best
have
names
and
cups,
examples
of the Bene Lulua, (see FIG.2.22B).
designs and patterns on the sculptures could
on
The
meanings
vlhich are nOVI
The skill and the patience vlith IV'hich these body
markings were rendered
on
writers including Roger Fry.
- 66 -
the
sculptures
impressed
several
vlesten'l
Aesthetic mutilation was an accentuatuion of parts of the reshaping
them
through
Cranium mutilation many
tribes.
The
r2assaging it. Three
means
for
aesthetic
the most noted of all
the
body
cranium
was
shaped
from
means only.
mutilations
infancy
shapes are commonly observed:
and oblique tubular. They
These
were
practised by
sometiwes
straight tubular, round the
Baule,
Ashanti
practised in their
in African sculpture.
common
among
other tribes.
the
and
as "Jell. of
head
There ·fflaS also dental mutilation in vlhich
the teeth of people "Jere carved or filed to pointed tips. 117as
in
by pressing or
These practices had also contributed to the several variations shapes
by
In some cases the head i'laS bandaged to the shape desired.
different
r':Ta.ngbetu.
artificial
body
Bakongo,
This
Barnum, Basongye, Baj olCirle, and several
Their sculptures sometimes ShOI17 this, (eg.
FIG.1.25B the
Queen figure). (B) Beauty aids or body accessories: (earings,
,Jigs
and
in
the
beauty.
sculptures as vTell.
Often
these
'\"ere
For example the big ring around the
neck of Odudua (FIG.2.7A) is a bangle and the rings around the the
jewelry
ring, bangles, neck-rings, necklaces, beads and anklets etc.)
i",ere attached to the body for sho"m
costumes,
second
figure
(FIG.2.7B)
are
also bangles for beauty.
arms
of
The male
figure in FIG.2.2 is also "learing an In several African societies wooden combs, hair-pins of i17ood,
and
metal
and
objects I",ere used to fashion elaborate coiffur-'es v1hich
had sometimes been copied in the sculptures, (see FIG.1.1; FIG.2.7A
and
2. 15) . The functions of African sculpture as derived from the so
far
clubs
can and
be
classified as:
societies);
Political (administration, leadership,
Economical
- 67 -
discussions
tur'e,
trade,
impliments);
Hedical (healing, sympathetic magic, preventive and curative medicines); Religious (worshipping, rituals, and cults); and
Educational
(establishing
dissipating tribal values and ethics); Entertainment (recreactional
activities); Psychological (ensuring security, safety, reducing
tensions
and
releaving
fears).
continuity,
and
These classes overlap each
other and therefore cannot be taken as absolute.
A sculpture may
serve
one pur'pose only or may ser've all the purposes simultaneously. The preceeding discussions have outlined the conceptual foundations of
African
sculpture.
It
explains
subject matter of the
the
aims, the functions and the
and some of the symbolic
meanings,
but
not the l"easons for the ,vonderful formal and plastic richness of l1..frican sculpture and its unique geometl"Y like the conical breasts,
cylindrical
or diamond-shaped torsos, cup-like ears, tubular eyes, and so on.
It is
impossible to find reasons for
all
the
plastic
qualities.
All
fieldwork
provided
solutions
to
problems.
to
date
has
GuHlaume and Hunro, l1..frican
sculpture
not
therefol"'e, might
observed
that
these
anyone
interested
the
in
be interested also in the subject, and in the
sort of people that made them:
how the African lived, ivhat god or being
he
vThat
intended
fetish. these
to
portray,
in
strange
rites he used the mask or
For the art was intimately bound vlith facts,
art assumed.
no
the
rest
of
life
and
doubt, had largely determined the forms the African's
They concluded:
"But just hO'O-l these influences vlOrk is
a
tremendously intricate question; one can only guess at it."[44J The British avant-garde artists and critics that were influenced by African
sculpture
and
i'ihose
,-n'itings
cultural context are Roger Fry, Jacob and
Noore.
the
two
Epstein,
Henri
Gaudier-Brzeska,
Epstein's understanding Ivill be discussed in Chapter
Five vlith the influences of African because
shOi'i some understanding of its
issues
- 68 -
are
sculpture
closely
related
on
his
taste
and
art
more than of any other
artists. Fr'y Vias the first Brj_tish art critic was
i..rhose
aesthetic
taste
influenced by P£rican sculpture and his writings reflect this.
His
writings on the subject have been considered as soree of the best on some aspects
of
the
al"ticle,
I
KeJ.'l..neth
Clark I s
subject
and
have
often
been
quoted. [45J His first
Negro Sculptur"e I and the second article which vIas published in Last
Lectures
Roger
..Qy
Fry
in 1939, although they
primarily discuss its formal qualities, do deal with some aspects of the cultural context of African sculpture. Fry noted that African sculpture P£rican
lived
in
an
evironment
is
where
extremely
cOJ.'l£rontation
poisonous
might,
His
art
with
therefore,
dominated by animal forms and personification of zoomorphic
forms are fei..r.
wild be
,-dId
beasts.
beasts
and
expected
to be
forces.
Yet
natural
This suggests that Fr'y kneii that the African
regarded cosmic forces as more dangerous than the mere of
The
the forces of nature could be
devastating and life a continous reptiles.
paradoxical.
physical
The same Vie-iiI lias reiterated by Prof.
Segy who could
have been influenced by Fry's opinion. African
sculpture
consists
Fry
vIas
figures.
this
predominantly
anothel
of
African "had passion unequalled anywhere else for dances
ShOlrl
an
intense
feeling
for
the
body."[46] The African sculptor had great of
the
human
body
figures are characterised by a reSignation,
gestwnes
and
individual
profound
face
the
plastic
resources
opportunity
strange
emphasis is laid on the head and express
and
sense
and
l-:is
dynamism
of
the
studying
the
for
of
But African
discouragement
and
Fry
that
the
characteps or create portraits.
- 69 -
dance,
to do so.
melancholy. although
human
He observed that the
paradox.
n
small-scale
continued aim
was
not
to
The sculptupe aims
only at expressing the vital essence of man, "that energy of life
vlhich
of
inner"
manifests itself in certain forms and rhythm."[47J \"Jhat
failed to mention are the practical factors which size
the
the
statues.
determine
the
small
They needed to be portable for their ritual and
secular functions. Fry observed that Afr'ican sculpture vlas spir'itual
because
it
expressed
an
narrOiv-ly
of
the
dead
exclusively
intensely animated religion \v-hich
to the acts of spirits. spirits
and
tribal ancestors.
These
'iv-ere
largely
the
According to Fry, the need to
placate and satisfy these spirits accounted, to some extent, for one the
most
extraordinary
characteristics
of
African
sculpture,
extlneme freedom with Iv-hich the actual forms of nature are Although
"the
tInea ted. " [48]
Fry had some understanding of the content of African sculpture
he never found it significant in ahrays
of
saw
art
as
offering
the
us
appreciation
of
this
art.
He
multiple choices of appreciation and
comprehension and he asserted that grasping the meaning of art
did
not
involve
For
Fry
accumulating
understanding to
the
an
erudition
past
experiences.
therefore lies simply in open-mindedness and alertness
arrangement
of shapes, lines and colours.
embrace the underlying cultural succinct
of
,"v-ay:
"Everything
matrix.
Picasso
This to him did not put
it
in
a
more
needed to knO\cJ about ll.frica is in those
I
objects."[49] Gaudier-Brz eska 's vievls formed
during
his
about
primitive
visits to the
art,
in
general?
Huseum between 1911 and 1914.
He pointed out that there ar-e rich aesthetic traditions in the the
iiere
work
of
primitive people which need to be discovered and used by the modern
artists. [50] On
the
boredom
in
seeing
European
sculpture
other
hand
Gaudier-Brzeska
primitive
sculpture
seen
the
- 70 -
in
same
in
a
once
complained
of
large quantity lv-hereas
quantity
interested
him
infinitely. [51]
This
could
be due to the poor' display of these i,wrks.
Arnold Haskell, '1'111.0 sa,v over 200 African and Oceanic figures of
Epstein's
and
isolated
beauty
complained about the
could
piece
that
understood. [52]
Gaudier-Brzeska also
by
the influence upon him in 1912 of Rodin's
in
static
art.
poses,
misunderstanding of them. sculpture
This
frontality
and
in
the
SCUlpture.
initial
symmetry
than
a
movement
in
rather
synthesized and
form and content of
tOi-lards one from
taking
sculpture.
can
be
realised
in
sculpture:
"Vortex", published
his in
keen
The extent of
Gaudier-Brzeska's understanding of the conceptual foundation of sculpture
This
Gaudier-Br'zeska' s
For he later explained that the positive,
vIas
ShOi-lS
African
end. [53] HO,vever, these dislikes did not prevent him interest
individual
motivated
movement
in
their
dynamism
concept of
African
be
by
of
was
for
piece
lack
complaint
dislike
masks
collection dumped together in 1931, explained that it vias
only vlhen they i'lere character
and
African
concise historic account of world the
British
magazine
Blast in July 1914. Gaudier-Brzeska stated that the Africans and the Oceanic pulled
the
sphere
lengthways
and
Islanders
made the cylinder i'IThich became the
"VORTEX OF FECUNDITY", and it had left us with the masterpieces that are knovm
as
love
charms.
He pointed out the environmental conditions of
the African:
that the soil was hard; materials were
from
nature;
storms
Hell.
These had perpetuated the "VORTEX OF FEAR"
creation
of
vlere
frequent
fetish masterpieces
difficult
to
and fevers and other epidemics as i'IThich
motivated
"the POINTED CONE".
African:
"and
WE
moderns:
Epstein,
Brancusi,
city,
have
of
Archiperu<o,
Dunikoitlski, Nodigliani and myself through the incessant struggle in complex
the
He concluded
that the hardships of the avant-garde in a itlaY corresponded to those the
win
the
likewise to spend much energy. II [54] These indicate
- 71 -
Gaudier-Brzeska v S of
knovlledge of the conditions of the environment
the African, his fears and beliefs which resulted in the creation of
fecundity
and
fetish
figures
and
n:asks
geometric
their
characteristics and sybolism. In his article 'Primitive April,
published
in
the
The
Listener,
1944, Noore sho",ed some understanding of some of the meaning and
reasons for the creation of African sculpture.
Of "i'ihich he stated:
For the Negro, as for other primitive peoples, sex and religion Ivere the t",o main interacting springs of life. Nuch Negro carving, like modern Negro spirituals but without their sentimentality, has pathos, a static patience and resignation to unknOlvn mysterious pOvfers; it is religious and, in movement, upward and vertical like the tree it was made from, but in its heavy bent legs are rooted in the earth. [55J
r'loore! s explanation of the heavy bent legs already
indicated
in
the
previous
is
presumptuous.
For,
as
chapter, there is no satisfactory
explanation for this. The under'standing of the conceptual foundation of African sculpture by
the
British avant-garde artists and critics cover the main purposes
of this art '\'Jhich lias to convey religious feeling understanding
may
be
short
affect
appreciation of
SCUlpture.
All
that
summal"'y explanation.
and
meaning.
Their
of an in-depth knowledge but this did not nor
mattered
their
being
influenced
by
African
to them was reiterated by Moore in his
Hoore explained that primitive art, and, for
that
matter African sculpture, is a mine of information for the historian and the anthropologist, but to understand and important
to
look
at
it
appreciate
it,
it
is
more
than to learn the history of peoples, their
religion, and social customs.
Hoore pointed out that such knm;Tledge may
be
to
useful
in
helping
us
look
more
sympathetically,
and
the
interesting titbits of information on the labels attached to the carving
- 72 -
in
the
museum
can serve a useful
by giving the mind a needful
rest from the concentration on intense lookj_ng.
Hoope added:
But all that is really needed is response to the carvings themselves, Hhich have a constant life of their olNn, independent of 'i'lhenevep and hm'lever they came to be made, and they remain as full of sculptural meaning today to those open and sensitive enough to perceive it as on the day they finished. [56]
Although the sculpture
by
the
of the conceptual foundations of African artists
Has
limited
and
not
essential
appreciation of the sculpture, it is nonetheless of some the
influence
of
importance
in
sculptur'e upon the artists.
The
role of this understanding Hill be reflected in the influence upon some of the artists.
- 73 -
to their
discussion
of
the
CEAPTER THREE Th'E DEVELOPING INTEREST IN AFRICAN SCULPTURE evidence shOlvs that Afr-ican art had in
the
19th
century.
in
"A lj_ttle Afr'ican material" lVas
pl"'ivate collection ,'lith \"lhich \'Jilliam Bullock established Ituseum in Liverpool in 1801. [1] This and identified collections
because
1'1hich
Huseum had 't"loman s Stool, In
1825
Capt.
Aflnican
1809
Bullock
dispel"'sed
in
il'l
,vel-'e
I
F
Fredelnicl{
in the the
eal-,liest
cannot be traced
moved
to
London
\-lith
his
1819. [2] Since 1820 the Br-istol
pr'esented by a husband on Harryat
Britain
(1792-1848)
rr:ar'!"'iage!,
a
naval
Ghana.
officer and
novelist gave the British Nuseum a small collection fr'om Africa, r1exico, Australia the
and the Arctic. [3] One of the wost fascinating early items is
YOlnuba
presented
Equestr-' an, to
the
(FIG. 3.1)
in
the
British
It
brother'S Robert and John Lander by the king of Borgu
Village of Kaiama in Nigelnia in 1830, Hith a "\'lOoden stool. of
hJO
the
,vas
carvings
published
The draHings
in the 1833 edition of the Journal of
Richalnd and John Lander shovl the l>iide brim of
the
l>J:del I S
hat
n
intact
v1hich is nou broken off. into
Britain
by
miSSionaries, sailors, soldiers 7 adventurers and colonial administrators mostly as mementoes; trophies of military, ecclesiastical success. [Lf]
The
carvings
thr-ough donations
op
and
economic
that found their ivay into the public museums
purchases
became
the
subject
of
ethnoglnaphic
interest. collectors they back";
"native
called various names: cur-ios":;
"the
\'lOdcs
lithe stuff the sailors blning
of Savages" [5]; "r.:.anufactur-es of
unbaptised mankind" [6]; "fetishes"; "idols"; etc. second
decade
of
the
It -,vas not until
the
20th century that aesthetic interest in .l\.f';:>ican
sculptupe began in Blnitain.
- 74 -
The development of J:nterest in African
alnt
can
be
divided
into
t'l;JO
parts:
(a)
Ethnographical (b)
Aesthetic • The ethnographical interest of African sculpture developed from the 17th of
?
century British tradition of voyages of discovery and the creation cabinets
of
curiosities!
by
from
exotic peoples.
\'leal thy
individuals
Such
1'1ho
collected
some of Hhich
exquisite artefacts, weI>e displayed in a cabinet or rooIr.S set aside this
for
The arrival of large quantities of curiosities from the
South Seas in Britain in the second
of the
the
Cook
three
voyages
of
Captain
Janes
18th
century,
(1728-1779),
Ividened the
possibil:5.ties of collectors. Al though the Pacific and Oceanic collections ser'ved as for
the
interest
in
African
curiOS,
the
an
impetus
latter became more i'liidely
collected because of the expansion of colonial
in the
early
19th
century, the rediscovery of the interior of Africa and the activities of traders, misSionaries, military personnels and CUl ios 1
to Britain. [7] In addition contact vIas easier because Britain is
closer to Afl"ica than to the Oceanic and the Philips
obser'ved:
active px'oduce
years,"[8]
Pacific
"ReliCS from these
obtain than those fr-om Africa, uhich
to
'I'li11.o brought the
Islands.
Steven
and more difficult to
i'liaS
physically
and
had
and missionary sel"'Vices and indigenous peoples conve1"'ted traditional Collecting
of 'I'laS
and
artefacts
Ulltil
stimulated
by:
the
of many Benin
and
fr'om
the
bronze and ivory
sculptur-es
geographical
ethnographical
and
sponsored by the British
recent
art
'Iwrks
missions
GovernRent;
the
Congo
in
Britain;
into the interior of Africa development
of
public
and
private museums irlith ethnographic sections in the cities of Britain; and enthusiastic
in Afr'ican
- 75 -
and othe1 plnimi tive art. 1
In Feb?uary 1897 Benin city in a
punitive
measure against its ruler and over tvlO thousand b?onzes and
ivory in
sacked by the British as
from the palace ';vere seized.
In lIarch these
London, and many found their ivay into the
African ar't: the
the
on sale
great collections of
r,1useum; the Pitt-Rivers HuseuD in
Berlin NuseUill.
The Liverpool
2nd
also able to acquire about
vIaS
one hundred of the bronzes and ivory carvings at the same
time. [9]
study
Antiques fr'om
of
these sculptures resulted in briO publications:
the City of Benin, London, 1899 by C.H.Read and O.l"l.Dalton; and
The
Antiaue
Hode of Art fpom Benin London, 1900, by A.L-F.Pitt-Rivers. Betvleen 1850 and 1910 carvings and textiles from Central Afrj_ca,
especially
the
Belgian Congo arrived in
and
The British
Huseum purchased items from the explorer Emile Torday betlveen the 1904
and
sponsored
1910.
In
expedition
others. [10]
The
1841
David
to
Central
i'li"itings
of
Livingstone Africa
that
C.Hose
his
first British
folloHed
by
Stanley
explorers,
stated;
VI • • •
administrator consists in a study of customs ... "[11] that
Has
one
the
to cuI tures;
dying
It
study
to
country,
their
these
al.,ts
some
!
in
manners
and
A.C.Haddon
and
civilised art?
vIaS
iLlportant function of the
barbaric'
?
they
because
j_nsight
prinCiples which underlie the evolution of deco?ative art. that
and
missiona?ies and
Such study vIaS extended to
it
years
led
colonial administrators stimUlated ethnographical studies. this
East
into
the
He suggested
savage art' should be
studied. [12] The establishment of the Ethnographical and Anthropological Societies
in
the
interest in the study of primitive peoples.
of
the
London
in the last tvlO decades of 19th centur'y reflected At the
meeting
Institute on 27 November 1900 in London objects,
including a carved stool (FIG.3.2) Here exhibited and
- 76 -
discussed.
They
had been collected by HI'. Alf=.-'ed Sharpe, Assistant and sent to the Institute for study. [13] became
of Uganda
Anthropology
disciplines in Cambridge in 1904.
and
Although the official
to such study vvas ambigious, it ivas generally corollaI'Y
to
administration.
ethnography
accepted
Hissionaries,
and
as
a
colonial
often pr'ovided data for' the academics 1-]ho stimulated them to
activity and helped them Tflith publications of
such 1913
,-]as J .R.Roscoe. i;Jith
the
Oi'm.
One
He vlO:"ked in Uganda betT,leen 1888
and
Society, supplying facts to BrItish
experts and eventually donating his
collection, including
T{;Qod carvings to the Cambridge University
[14]
The ethnographical collections of major the
'cur'iosity
cabinets!
bequeathed
by
rr:.useums the
Huseum I s collection ,'las built on that of acquired
a
wooden
drum
probably
nobility. John
l;Jho
had
taken
his
The Br'Itish
Sloane i s,
1;;Jho
tr'aditions
unfortunate
British
1888 and 1889
In
Nuseum.
gave their collections of African By the end of the Eanchester,
London
began
engineering
contributions
i"iith the
Dempster
he
Bristol,
Liverpool,
from
the
Arnold
Steamship
Liverpool
RidyaI'd, Company.
an For
his retirement in 1916, Ridyard collected nearly
three thousand objects coast,
in
For instance in 1895
receive
to
twenty-one years,
the
respectively.
and Ips'l;Jich had become great repositories for .wrks
collected in Africa and Huseum
museums
apt! to
John Kidc and H.H.Johnston
to the
19th
Negro
'l'lith him. It [15] In the 1860s Sir
Augustus Hallaston Ft'anks presented his collection of the
had
collected in 17503 ]_n Vilnginia, liof
undoubtedly Ashanti type - the ,wrk no doubt of some slave
out of
the museUlli.
From Senegal
established a net1ilork of
administrators and Aflnicans 'I',ho rl8.d access
- 77 -
to
Angola,
along
and friendships ,'lith to
the
hinterland
and
'i,ere
to
goverfl..ment officials Commissioner
for
collect
like
for
him.
He secured the interest of
r-::r.A.A."\1jhitehouse,
Southern
Nigepj_a
vlho
fifty Ijo masks and figm"es
seized
dm"ing
the
Eastern
Divisional
in 1903 gave the museun about a
punitive
expedition
to
Island. [16] The museum collections 1-1ere often haphazal-'dly displayed 'iJith little docucentation.
Horks vJeJe'e usually labe2.led Hith the year of acquisition
and the provenance and an indication of pl"obable use. frequenlty
had
little
knovJledge
HuseU!.ll
directocs
or inter>est in them although B:;'''itish
collections acquired bete-1een the 1800s and the
1930s
LVere
of
a
high
finest
and
the
largest
aesthetic quality. Undoubtedly the British Huseum collection
largest pm"t.
The museum has about 77,000 African ,,'lOl"ks pI us
of
primitive
the
the
ethnographic
amount
in
has
"wr>ld of which 1I..£'1"ican v70dcs form the
vlOl"ks from other sou:"ces.
further fifty museums vlhich possess mOl"e
than
a
the
same
In Br>itain there
a
hundred
works
often
amounting to a few thousand African artifacts. [17] (See Appendix III). British
interest.
ethnographical
collections
reflect
German
and
Portuguese.
those
on
Blnitish
ar't
belonging
to
the
This colonial bias, houever, is not a
significant factor in the study of the aesthetic sculpture
colonial
They contain large quantities of African sculptures from the
British colonies in Africa, but ve17 fel'l fe'om French,
Britain's
and al.,tists.
influence
of
Bet,,"leen 1910 and 1930 British
avant-ga.:::-'de artists Hho appreciated African
sculpture
other
public collections in Paris,
parts
of
Africa
in
private
and
saH
vlOrks
Hunich, Berlin, Dresden and Hei/l YOl"k.
Jacob Epstein, for instance,
and
Paris;
collected
African
sculpture
in
illustrated Baule and Fang sculptures
- 78 -
from
Fry's
fr'om
Sal\'
Vision and Design collection
in
Paris ,,1hich
the first African sculptuY'es Henr'y Hoore sa"l.
Betueen the second half of the 19th century and the
20th
of
(See Appendix
One
of one of the Illustrated Catalogue of Ethnographical Specimens
published in October 1900 by 1'T. D. and
beginning
century dealeps sprang up 'I17ho produced illustrated catalogues
of items for sale, and bought and sold items. example
the
collectors.
Hell
knoim
They dealers
supplied
included
the
'I'1illiam
Uarehar::.
Leicester Square, London; Steven of King Street, Covent Garden, H.O.Oldman
and H.D.1;iebster.
museums of
London;
l'iebster, a London dealer betVleen 1890s and
1920s, was one of the first English ethnographers in England to
realize
that African carvings and artifacts had an intrinsic beauty and were not merely
n savage
curios".
interesting items that British
acute, nOv1
he
possessed
in the Pitt-Rivers Nuseum, Oxford and the
There vlere also paim,
junk
and
antique
shops
vThere
African sculpture could be bought, such as those on Fleet Street and the Caledonian Road
in London in the 1920s.
The development of an aesthetic interest in Britain
and
its
sculpture
in
impact on the contemporary art scene bett;een 1910 and
1930 is associated vlith Roger Fry. this
African
A discussion of
Fry's
interest
in
art and his manner of promoting it involves examining his writings
on the formal aspects of Afr'ican sculpture and non-European art; his tHO Post-Impressionists
exhibitions;
and
his
organisation
of
the Omega
i"lorkshops. Hhen Kenneth Clad:: edited the Last Lectures .Qy Roger Fr7 in 1939 he emphasised the importance of
art for Flny:-
rJegro art provided in concentrated form the qualities w"hich Fry most admired, to him these nameless, dateless, i17ere as near as anything could be to his I ideal ' , a perfect, 'Iwrk of They have, he says, the same control of expressive elements of plastic fopm
- 79 -
as the mUSlClan has of the relations to his notes; they have delicate tact and restraint; they have sensibility and vitality in the highest degree. [18]
Clack is not the only critic to ackna.dedge sculpture
on
F::,y's
aesthetic
exhibition of tribal also
pointed
out
the
taste.
influence
of
African
Keith Robert
from NeH Guinea and
an
in
1964,
he
if
[19]
that these ",Jere vel7 much to the taste of
Such references indicate the extent
to
1,..rhich
Fry
was
interested
in
interest
Ivas
in
1917.
is
African art. The fipst documentation of possible
such
It
that Fry was inspired by the non-ethnographic approach of Paul
Guillaume and Guillaume that
because
s book
Negres
published
on 4 April 1917 he Krote to Rose Vildpac concerning
his intention to publish
in
The
Burlinp;ton
Hagazine
an
article
on
African sculpture: For a long time I have been looking for a Irlell-illustrated article on Negl"o sculptupe. If you going near Guillaume il'ho deals in it, IrJould you ask hi:n if he could arrange to get photographs and an article? There is an iI..merican artist, he has a French name Hhich I forget: he is one of the moderns and has a collection of Negro sculpture and he might produce an he is velJ T intelligent. [20]
Salmon's
'Negro
The Burlington Nagazine in April 1920.
At the
Neither
able to concede to Fpy? s
Art'
published
in
Andre
sar1e time in The AthenaeUL1, F:cy Irlrote his first article 'Negro at
The
Chelsea
Book
sculpture shOim \"lfith exhibition
Club I .
"\vOl"k
by
its
four
an exb.ibi tion of African young
Bl"itish
aptists. [21]
This
Irlas extr'emely i.mpOl"tant fOl" it was revieI-Jed by othel" critics
- Clive Bell, R.H.1Jilenski and J of
This
The lattep
"In spite
and remoteness thel"e is a considerable chance of its
becoming an aesthetic battle-ground of the first importance."[22J
- 80 -
Fry's article formed the basis of his lecture on the probably
behleen
is
in
sculpture sculpture.
rich
1929 and 1930.
precisely
He
in
all
to
European
plasticity from the starting point three
those
According
dimensional
form
as
a
of
subject
In it he argued that ,African qualities
Vlhich
pertain
plastic freedom as a
form in three dimensions. 1ac1:ing
same
Fry,
to
concerning
this
freedoLl
had
been
sculpture
had
approached
the
bas-relief,
and
conceived
of
back
and side
combination
front,
bas-reliefs.
Hriters like LoR. Rogers and Elsy Leuzinger attributed this
to
that
European
blocks of
,'lood
the
fact
glyptic or
African
stone
sculptures
were
on
dravlings
"hich
produced
from made.
\"i'ere mostly produced from
tr"unks or branches
FIG. 1 • 3 ) [23 ] 1
thout any p:rel j..minar-y dra,Jings, (see
the geometrical format of the material contributing to the effectiveness of the three dimensionality of the finished sculpture. be
remembered
that there
some Afr'ican sculptuJ:'es that are produced
from l"'ectangular blocks of ,",wod, like 1',1hich
the
the
Hm-lever, :Lt rr:ust
the
traditional
relief-like approach.
begins Ivith a cylindJC'ical log of
Ghanaian
stool
Yet in this case, too, and
r'educes
it
to
a
Inectangular piece before the Generally speaking, the African sculptor' right fl"'om
the
beginning
conceived his form in three dimensions, producing the finished vlOrk from his mental iDage
'tii thout
any
prel ininary
01'"
model s.
observed that complete plasticity came to European art only after it had attained a high degree
of
strange
sculpture
that
P£rican
reppesentational
attain complete plastiC freedom. torso
are
concieved
as
had
and
the
that head
the
it
neck
and
the
is conceived as a
mass and suggested that it had taken Eur'opean
- 81 -
found
not gone through this process to
He observed
cylinders,
Fry
accuracy.
a
feT.,-]
centuries to
the
shapes
fOl"IDs.
also observed the concavity of ll..frican :1asks differentiated
as
African sculpture from European.
another
feature
Fry explained that the
European emphasis on forms is not determined by plasticity preferences for forms ,·,hich
African
but
He noted
the
that
s choice of forn 1;JaS more clearly dictated by his
feeling for the pure plastic design.
This uas
l"eflected
"\,ith
natural
proportion,
i"lhich
by
physical symbols conveying certain inner
qualities such as thoughtfulness through a pensive brow. the
that
h::'s
al"t
depa;."ted
f:r:"om
in
the
ease
arbitrarily
altering the thickness and length of natural fOl"ID to achieve plasticity. Fry Has also fascinated by the exquisite taste shO"lrm by the Afl"ican sculptor in handling his materials. in
executing
tatoos,
and
the
incisions
the sur'face.
He noted the patience and dexterity
laborious
surface
treatment
of
cicatrices,
vlhereby the background "l1fas cut a,fay or cut j.nto
Fry felt that this must have
something
to
do
vJith
the
enormous
pleasure 1r/hich the sculptor derived from the mar'Vellous finish
of
vwrk.
his
Europeans,
1rlould
these madcs. subtlety
Fry
speculated
have
found
that some
other
artists,
refinement
of
the
less laborous methods of rendering
He noted that the surface treatment added
and
especially
taste
comparable
to
the
"iwdc! s
to
the finest
Oriental craftsmanship. In his second al"ticle VNegi"o Ih"t v '"lhich vIas form
and
published
conceived
the
belief that the power to
He attpibuted
comprehension
of
the
savage
African.
For
the
of
"the
capability
Europeans
unj.maginable that certain anony::aous Africans could possess Because
this
expressive plastic form vTas one
of the greatest human achievements and therefore beyond and
lecture
by Clark in 1939, Fry briefly examined i"lhy African
sculpture had not been readily accepted in Britain. to
in
=..t
v"JaS
such
extreme freedom viith '"lhich the actual fOl"IDS of natmne
- 82 -
are treated" in African sculptur'e, Fry observed that there Has no set of rules to
form (even faces) and the sculptor was free to choose
any fOl"ln for his purpose provided i t created an illusion of the life the
spirit
I"hich
the African believed.
sculpture "laS not a "ias
not
Yet, Fry stressed African
of the \'lhole concept of life
narrative.
For
the
bulging
salience
balanced by the arrangement chin.
of
b'laS
supported
the eyes and the prominence of the nose;
of
the
protpuding
mouth
I·lith teeth, and the
a complete understanding
expression
of
b'Jhich had enabled the
vrithout resorting to exciting forms.
The
the
language
an area '\\There, according often
ending
to
Fry,
the
control
modern
of
such
expressive
from
Greek
Eur-opean
art.
I S
European
general isa tions
pecognition that African sculptures "Jere produced and
that
even
sculptor
had
by
sensibility
'I7hich
"jere
on
based
different
portraits,
yet
a
tribes
considerable stylistic differences existed bet'l'leen them.
instance, he noted the presence of individual that
This "ias
Tllith producing only decorative arrangement. 'Fr-y
suggested that such failur'e \\Tas due to the derived
of
to create a human head
plastic elements 'I'Jas equal to the musician! s contlnol of notes.
failed,
it
line of the base of the nose and the horizontal
The head
plastic
and
instance, Fry pointed out that in the Spir:Lt
Head, (FIG. 3.3), the dome-like dominance of the forehead by
of
For
observed
these 'I'Jere created '\dth "a feeling for for continuity of its
plastic lnhythns
0
"
Fry did not discuss the influence of Afr'ican sculptupe on
Eupopean
apt, but concluded: As it is art Ovles more to the Negros than to any othep tradition, and it is to the credit of alntists that they '\,;ere the fir'st to see its inportance, the fir'st to look to it for a clue to that purer, less contigent plastic language of I"hich they have often dpeamed. Negro art must, I think, ahrays remain '\-lith us. [24 ]
- 83 -
Fry! s "to
on
take
the
sensibility in the 't'Jorks of different
and countries. n[25] In his
African sculpture he had presented African art as a supreme
alntistic achievement. indicate
presence
him
absence of the qualities we call
on
of
enable
or
article
note
non-European art forms "Jere to
to
"lhat
Ii brief examination of his
extent
11..:frican
sculpture
other
i'Jrit ings
,rill
influenced his aesthetic
taste. Fry's 'The Art of The Busli...men' published in Halnch 1910 "las a revie"l of
Helen Tongue's Bushman Dra,vings, Oxford, 1909. [26] Fry observed that
the dra'tvings
,,7hich
depicted
hunting,
fighting
decoration,
revealed different degrees of skill.
and
dancing
He explained that the
'artist does not seek to transfer a visual sensation to express
a
paper,
but
to
mental image i"hich is coloured by his conceptual habit.· [27]
On drai'ling in general? Fry argued that theIne draivings
c'lithout
and
different
types
of
each expressed different concepts; and that they 'tvelne all
important for the modern draughtsman. dralvings
important
the
In
other'
"lOrds
all
types
of
development
of
the modern artists
including the Bushmen dravTings.
This
arguement
hit
at
notions
this
time,
such
John
Fothergill! s IThe
at
of
dravving
at
Principles of
Teaching
Dra'lving
'Elementary
Propositions
in
the
Dl"avling
as Slade
School'
the
the
1907
of
and
and Painting', 'tvhich Henry Tonks
t"Tote 1vith Sir George Clausen in 1909. [28] Tonles, at
accepted
of
Slade saH no J:'eason to regard the Bushmen draidngs as something
of great
quality,
and
"don't
you
think
might
find
sorr.ething
more intepesting to T;lrite about than Bushmen, Bushmen!!
[29 ]
found the dra,"ings Inemarkable not only for theil realism, n
for
their
freedom
characterised Egyptians.
the He
from
the
dra\Vings
then
delineation of
primitive
in
but
also
profile 1"1hich generally
peoples,
and
the
ancient
compared the Bushmen dralvings to those of AnCient
- 84 -
Greece, Assyria, Egypt and Paleolithic Hith the drawings
exception
of
of
expression of sensibility than the others.
full
more
Paleolithic
contrasting the Bush.'TIen noted
that
the
Hith
latter
remained
Fry
Egyptian
found
and
the
Assyrian
Bushmen In
art
Fr'y
intensely conceptual throughout, and
there Has no serious attempt made to give greater verisimilitude to symbols
employed.
the
He praised the extraordinary draughtsmanship of the
Bushmen I"hich he found compar'able to He
considered
Japanese
that
both
dravlings
retained
in
skHl
and
the
'ultra-primitive
and
rapidity of
transcription,
that
is,
directness
of
vision I . [30]
In
Fr'y
argued that the appeal of Geek art "liaS
thr'ough corroecting and revising accepted conceptual images. [31] In the
to the exhibition of
1910,
Fry
argued
many
influences. [32]
Hellenistic Byzantium. Chinese
that the
Hohammedan
TheIne
,Jere
t;:"aces
of
Then
there
vlaS
Nohammedan art, accoroding to Fry, Indian
arot.
influence
on Hohammedan art.
often rigid, unvarying and became
the
source
Hohammedan designs. adaptation
to
of
frequently
the
of
the
once
wide-sproead
constant also
vlaS
>ii th
influenced
by
as
striking
examples
of
The palmette ornament vJhich vIaS lifeless
in
Greaco-Roman
art,
flexible and infinitely varying systems of
revealed
skilfull
different
purposes
and it had perpetuated a '\oJell-knOim
designs
intervleaving
Hellenistic tlnaditions Here seen composed
bending into series of outlines
in
This
style - the Arabesque. as
r:runich
He cited the cloisonnee enamel technique and
style and the Groaeco-Roman palmette ornament European
in
r·:Iohammedan arot was a meeting point of
traditions.
and
art
Indian forms.
schematization of forms with
- 85 -
in
and
subtle
Hohammedan
of classic vases from lihich sprung stems Some of the an:i.mal bronzes shm-red faint
Assyrian figural sculptures with aggressive deep
linear
incisions
also
anticipated
t'lohammedan
art.
The
aniDal
fj,gures
sometimes appeared in stylistj_c
lryeliefs Hith feeling for mass and grandeUln. extl'aOl"'dinary
aptitude
but
The
human
fi_gures
,vas pegettably abondoned by the r-':ohammedan
artists in the 12th century.
Hovlever,
continued
potter'y decorations but it vIaS
as
designs
for
ratteY'" than naturalistic. of
continual
the
use
of
the
human
figU!:-'e
many
pl"oofs
the
Chinese
China of
Hhich
Fry pointed out that one of the
interchange
betiveen
the
Nohammedan
and
civilizations 'liaS seen in the examples of an
sholled
example l'laS shovm at the exhibition.
There \',e1"e also bronze mirlnors
viith Zodiac designs in relief '(",Thich I'Jere del"'ived from Chinese mirrolrys. Fry
asserted
developed
close
in
artistic
on
the
'l-1hole
contact
and
harmony
in
and C!'afts as Hell. beauty
that
the
mediaeval
I!ohaIllll1edan
f10hammedan
and
during
period.
European
art
the great period of
In
this
respect
some
he indicated? I"las characterised
by
and delicacy of outlining patterns; harmony and purity of design HOVlever,
rendered '(clith cosummate mastery of draughtsmanship. not
indicate
any
al't;
nei ther
did
sensibility
of
influences of he
indicate
Hohammedan
apt
any
advance
over
European
OP
superiorj_ ty art
Nohammedan
sensibj_l_ity
shar'ed
a
ce:",tain
of
the
as he 'ioIaS bold to
Fry I s impl"'ession
rathel"
did
al",t on Europeal:
establish in the case of Afl"'ican sculpture. art
Fry
'.-las
that
i"iith European,
Chinese and Indian art. on Ancient subser7ient
to
art in 1918, [33]
found Hexican
l"'eligious demands but did not find it (especially Hayan
art) characterised by the mechanical pepetition of religious that
typifies
Egyptian
art.
of
Chinese
symbolisD,
He consider'ed that it displayed a highly
developed and self-conscJ"..ous aesthetic sensibility 'ilhich that
art
"i'laS
close
sculptUl"'e and that among the finest examples of
- 86 -
to
scu:r..ptupe iJeI'e those of
iJegras, of i-lhich casts
he:r..d
by
the
Fry considered modern artistic responses to Aztec and Eayan sculptures to be a l'esul t of the general aesthetic al'Jakening Hhich followed
the
revolt
against
the Gl'aecc-Roman tradition.
He detected
strong stylistj.c similarities bet";;-reen Inca and Hayan that
but
felt
the Incas displayed their ambition more effectively in arhitecture
and \,Then Fry began to ilJr,:::.te on art his interest Has in the Old He
often peferred to them as Primitives not because there is any visual
similarity vrith the prim:.tive art of Oceania, Africa, Australia and ./1.l11ericas,
but
because
they
shaped
tmJards the simplif:'cation of fopms and aspect
of
the
art
the
a striking similarity of apppoach formal
design.
It
ivas
this
of the Old r'1asters vlhich Fry fcund interesting but
reglnetably lacking in the rueot of his contemporaries.
He explained:
It i·Tas an innate desire for this aspect of ac'"'t v111.ic11 dl"ove me to the study of the Old t"Bsters and, in particular, those of the Italian Renaissance, in the hope of discovering from them the secret of that architectonic idea 'I-111ich I missed so badly in the \vorks of my
F:"'y's study of Giovarlni Bellini pub2.ished in 1899 established him leading
scholar
in
the field of Florentine art.
in 1903. that
He
and
1900
also became the co-editor to The BU1"lington r<Iagazine
His intension ,JaS to help extend its
Britain
a
This secured him the
position of art critic on the Pilot and The Athenaeum in 1899 respectively.
as
needed
a
scope
because
he
periodical that could educate the public about
art: England alone of all cultural European cOill1tries, lacks a serious per:'odica:r.. devoted to the disinterested study of The Burlington Hagazine vIaS to fill this ancient shameful '\Jant. [35]
- 87 -
felt
It "lms due to
that some leading
and iClen of lettel"'s such
as
nagazine. As Cur-ator of Painting for the
1906
Huseum in Nell York from
to 1909 Fry acquired Old I'Tasters rather than viOrks by a:>tists or non-European ax't.
was
no
Al though he
that
there
modern art capable of satisfying his predilections, his concern
vlith the
Old
collection
'iJas
so
that
it
motivated
by
a
desire
to
complete
the
represented a coherent historical developnent.
This desil'e coincided "'lith contenporaI'y
because
at
that
time
American collectors, dealers and museum curators were enthusiastic about the Italian Primitives. [36] because
Pre-Columbian
of studies by
ru.,t
came
to
"ihich
against had
a
of
denounced
those of r'Ionet, Ce'zanne 9
Van
decline
of
Imppessionisn. [37]
Gauguin
,Jere
Pl"oto-Byzantine
!
the
the ,wrks of Hatisse as infantile and
Gogh
and
Fr-y! s
a finer and more scrupulous
Gauguin
as
representing
the
reply
assey'ted that Ce'zanne and
than
neo-Impressionists
and
sense I • [38 ] to
use
mode::-n vision vlith the constructive design of the Old Hasters".
He
even indicated that C,{zanne had solved this p:"oblem of combining vision uith the sensibility of the Old Hasters [39 J.
mode:;:cn
He began to
that a nelJ PUl"pose and methods of painting uel"e emerging. he
is
Society
At this time F17 Vlrote that h:_s imrr,ediate concern "as "hOH the
This
o
protesting
displayed
art.
that Fry urote to The Burlington r1a.gazine in Hal"ch
suggested by a
exhibition
notice
scholars, and it undoubtedly contributed
to the development of his general interest in primitive
1908,
Fry's
Subsequently
'" published 11aurice Denis's essay on Cezanne of September 1907, in The
Burli.ngton Hagaz-;ne in October 1909.
- 88 -
He emphasised his intention:-
for the benefit of a of English This Hould them the opportunity of observing the nei'J tendencies that had manifested in the modern French art in the last feiv years. [40]
To achieve his aim he needed the assistance of Rutter, the organise?' of the Allied
l:..ke
Association[41], and Hichael
Sadler t-Jho translated Kandinsky!s Concerning the Fry
in
get
and
produce
something? [43]
artists
to
the
British
pubJ.ic.
Post-Impressionists The
j,n
paintings
the
London
Exhibition October
vJaS
held
the
Grafton
to
January 1911.
TJ::e title
1910
Impresssionists.! [1.1,4]
in
to
'they
He prefaced this "lvi th
Banet vJaS an accepted and Inecognised artist
and
"HaS
I
r'fanet! because
regarded
in
"""ide-spread interest in
the
ShOi-J
and
their
the
by
hJenty-tHo
oil
i>1orks
paj.ntings
oil
paintings;
The
t
of his Tahitian paintings; Cezanne
paintings
including
the
Picasso
represented
by
sane
dlnavlings
pictm"es
of
1907-9;
Derain by
Bathers
Natisse
and
!1adame
Cezanne; "
and two pl"'e-Cubist vJod::s; by
three
oils,
tvJelve
and eight bponzes; Vlaminck by nine pictures from 1907-9.
- 89 -
Van
/
Hatch and a
by hlenty-one vJaS
a
including his SunflO\>1er, and Pieta
UU'ter Delacroix) ;Gaugu:'n by thirty-six paintings including Keeps
inspilned
sculptm"e.
Banet i'Tas l"epresented by one pastel and eight
dra'i-lings
as
painting in Britain. [45] Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin
,>Jere prominently featured
That
came
/
father of
Gogh
French
This happened when he organised the
Post-Impressionists! Has chosen because,
after
of
in October the same year.
Post-Impressionists
Galleries
fossilised
A fee-J days later Fry
his intention of shovring the most recent
I
[42]
to Uilliam Rothenstein on Janua:'y 2, 1910 that he felt 'a nell
hope altogether about art and all those who care and are not Dust
Frank
The
Fauves, Friesz, Herbin and Other
represented by one
each.
items listed in the catalogue included potter'y by f'1atisse,
and Vlaminclq drai·Jings, lithog:naphs 1 bronzes three statues by r'laillol - one in
by
various
artists;
and
cotta and tvlO in bronze.
HacCarthy t S preface in the catalogue vIas based on the notes made by Fry.
He
later
related that Fl:''Y handed
to him "uith a feiv notes,
the ticklish job of Hr'iting the pr'eface to the catalogue - the IV
[46]
HacCarthy,
presumably
simplification, rejection of
follo\ving
Fry,
The
exhibition
emphasised
:"'epresentati.ons in the
their affinity lj·lith and exploitation of
unsi.gnec the
ljwrks,
and
p:t'imitive al"'t.
provided
excitment
for
the
people
of
London. [47J Fry repeatedly received abusive letters and parents sent chilcish scribbles vlhich they Cezanne. [48]
Fry
defended
lj'Jel"'e fa:::, supel"'io:(" to the ,vorks of the
exhibition
in the Nation, in
1912.
He argued that the artists \-Jepe in fact
because
they
uere rejecting the photogpaphic vision of the 19th century and had
stumblec upon the principle of primitive cesigns. misapprehension
,vas
He believed that
the
due to the insulari.ty and provinci_alism of English
art Ivhere imagination iJaS limited
by
excessively
detailed,
painting. Natisse' s Eyes,
"\·;ere the lea.st appreCiated.
1909, (FIG.3.4),
of
The
Hith
Green
everyone \-Jith its b:::'ight coloUl"'s,
the exaggerated form of the elongated neck and the sloping shoulders and the
decorative
nature
of the composition.
Fry did not point out that
the eight bponze lj·w:cks he exhibited possessed
affinities
sculptur'e,
1966, emphasised that the
although
Alfred
African influence on general
and
Bapr
Jnr.,
sculptures
in
bet"IVeen
1906
with
and
Afl"'ican
1908
Has
,vell assimilated. [49J In other 'iwrds, Hatisse employed the
- 90 -
African principle of design, and his sculptures vlhich
excluded
specific,
purely
Hatisse one of those modern formal
designs
in
a
,'lay
close
to
reflected
formal
artists
.Jho
African
similarities.
F17
"Jere
for
children r s art.
Natisse! s studio in Nay 1910, he 1iJrote to his vIife
the
looking
Uhen he visited
comparing
Natisse! s
iwrk vi:l th the vlOdc done by his seven year old daughter: He vlent to Hatisse's studio. He's one of the neo, neo Impressionists, quite interesting and lots of talent but very queer'. He does things very much like Pamela's. [50]
Equally
had
indicated
pl'"'imitive
"..hen he had vll"i.tten on Bushmen al"t.
to identify the influence Afri.can
primitive
sj.milarities
and
values
art in modern
bet,Jeen
of
any
children I s
art
and
Fry \<las not concerned par'ticular
OceaniC
or
Rather, he Has interested in the
genel"al primitive outlook that contempOlnary artists vrere using in
their
iwrk as a source of inspiration. The Post-Impressionist exhibition had institutions
impact
on
British
like the Royal Academy of lkt, and especially on the Slade
School of had
an
Sickert regarded the exhibition as 'an evil
thing
that
seduced the most gifted of the Slade students, those very ones that
Tornes had relied upon to continue the tradition of Turner, Gainsborough, and
Constable,
vlith
a
thought
nOilJ of rlHlais and of Hunt. I [51] Paul
Nash, then a student, recalled that the Slade
1;.,as
seething
under
the
influence of Post-Impressionism, and noted that the virus of the nel'l al"t ,.,as at vlOrk and that Tonks ,vas "panic stl"iken", t"lould
imitate
Hatisse.
in
case
the
students
"He could not p:revent our visiting the Grafton
Gallel"j_es; he could only wapn us to stay a"\<ray. "[52] Tonks himself seeing his former student.s joining the
l"et:larked, "l'lhat
an unholy bl"ood I have rai.sed up." [53] Some of the teaching also
affected
by
Post-Impressionist:l,
- 91 -
notably
staff
1-Jel"e
Frede:..nick Broi-Jn, Slade
Prafessar.
Frs reparted:
I was much gratified that Fred Brolm, the Landan Slade Prafessai." vlha had ahlays been antaganistic to' By ideas and began by scaffing, Hrate Be a saying that he had campletely canverted to' the ideas embadied in these pa:I..ntings. [54]
I'illen the exhibitian clased, the This
i:'esulted
in
the
discuss ian
cantinued
far
publication af books on Past-Impressianism, fOl'
example, Notes on Past-Impressionists Painters, Landan 1910 J.Halmes;
Past-Impressianism
Rutter's Revalutian launched
In
by J anll
"RHYTHH is •.•
\-leeks.
Art.
by
Charles
Landan,
1911, by C.Lev1is Hind;; and Frank
Rhytbm,
an
avant-garde
magazine,
vJas
in the suc.mer 1911, and the edi taI"'ial declared:
the ideal af a neli art, to' "llhich it
'lill
end eav aur'
to'
sUIDilled
up
give expressian in England." The
effect af the exhibitian an the
i'TaS
by Quentin Bell Hha declared that 'Fr'y had de strayed the the carr:.far'table falsehaad an
'.Thich
pr'apriety
H.C.l';'ees, an the ather' hand,
and
[55]
that
age
had
tissue af
based
its
beauty, the
impact 'i-Jith that af the palitical issues af the time: 'r'lanet and the ••• might nat be like the 'Suffragettes', 'Black Friday' ar Carsan's attack an Hame Rule. As it aut, h011evel a Van Gagh, a Gauguin, 0'1" a L'1atisse araused as vialent a public react ian as Little Lentan ar a Sir Ed'i;J"apd Carsan. [56] n
,
Ten years later Fry suggested that the upraar "I'laS caused by
peaple
felt
Hhile their-
instinctively
that their culture "\las a social asset.
could not rival them in appreciating academic
art?
"11110
by
theil
selnvants
cauld surpass them in appl"'eciating madelnn ar't -;;-1hich uas
naive,
childish
and
n
primitive.
The
accusatian
of
r'eval utianalny
anal"'chism levelled at the shal" Llay had been due to' sacial pather than to
- 92 -
aesthetic prejudice. [57J aIilong aesthetic taste.
the exhibition brought
a
public
,-;11.0
began
'co
Fryts enthusiasm for modern
increased
The
Fry's
name
be affected by his particularly
al"tists
to
'Vrere
French
credited
\-Ji th
discovering and assimilating Afpican sculpture, as Clive Bell the exhibition "sent the more aler·t not only to Pal"is but to lLuseums and col:_ections I-There they could look
at
primitive,
Oriental
Fry later found himself surrounded by a artists,
and
savage
of progressive
young
most of 'Ivhom Here familiar ,-lith the latest French painting and
had even lived in Paris. and
Hyndbam
for instance had lived in
Ginner lived in Paris from 1904 to 1910.
Etchells, in 1909
had met Hodigliani, Picasso, Braque, Natisse and others Duncan
Grant
'Vlho had been to Pa:"':i..s in 1906
in
Paris.
movement. II [59]
These
intellectual
contempOl"aries.
and social centl"e.
/
The
Cafe
lktists
Royal
Nelv
Age
group,
one,
Cumberland
The
history
RevievJ
group,
group, the IElagist of
these
groups
is
a
because of divergent opinions, overlapping of memberships
and intel"nal schisms. composed
English
the Egoist gpoup, the
group, and the Vorticists group. complex
became
group, the Grafton gpoup, the London gr-oup, the Slade group, the
Fl"'y gl"OUp, the Le,-Jis gl"'oup, the John group, the the
SOl,.,t
formed into groups
such as the Camden Tmm gr"oup, the Fitzroy Stlneet g-20UP, the Iifarket
a
young artists brought vIi th them to London the
lj_fe style of theil'" Parisian theil"
As
"this viaS really a
::::loment ';1hich had bl"'ought all the young painters in England into of
Pm"'is
The
intellectual
mainly of discussions.
Cave-dwelling, etc.[60]
The
- 93 -
of
these
artists
r'la.l"k Gelntler attended such discussions
and remad;:ed that the follmving welne ar"t,
activi ties
discussed:
Neo-J-IDpress:Lonism,
Cubism,
life-style
from
adopted
Paris
, and
the
enthusiasm
by the young British artists, according to
John lJoodeson, Has described as a II'Paris:"an Co:'ossus'
'\1ho
emasculated
almost an entire generation of British In 1912 Fry organised the Second the
Gr'afton
20.
In the catalogue
Hork of the
Exhibition
5 and closed on Decerr.ber
Galleries 1:1h1ch opened on
v Old
at
Fry explained that having
shmJl1
the
.
.".
I-1asters of the modern movement such as Cezanne, Gauguln
and Van Gogh, he nOli Hanted to sh01:J
developments, j.n
the
beinG
home of
and England i-,here it
mindful of Der Blaue Reiter and Die Post-Impressionist
,;.yi1en
schools
he
that
flourishing,
Austro-Hungary and particularly in developments
Fry li,as
in
in
Svritz erl and ,
but chose to concentrate
England,
France
responsible for the French, Clive Bell for the
the
and
Russia.
English
and
Boris
on
von
for the Russian sections. Cezanne,
Bonnard,
Rousseau,
Seurat,
Vuillard,
Rouaul t and Redon \,Jere an represented as Liell as and a large group of
8
",hich
included
his
Friesz,
Signac,
(19 paj.ntings,
cove;:'ing the
period
1900-12
Picasso (13 paintings and 3 dra\lings
Fauve
including examples of African Cubist Hodes, (see FIGS.3.5 and 6); L 'Hote by
12
paintings;;
Vlaminck
by
8
paintings; 6 De1 ains; and 4 each of 1
Less
llarchand and Braque including Fauve and Cubist 1:lOI'ks. alntists
like
Herbin,
Von
\Vere also 1:7ere
Dongen, Fr'y
1:Jell-knol,rn
Chadan, that
all
Puy and these
artists
to find a neH pictorial language but the public, convinced
that painting's purpose Has to iDitate natural forms, '(vas not
receptive
to these new ideas:-
but
these mntists do not seek to give what can, after all, be a pale reflection of actual appearance, but to the
-
91.[ -
conviction of a and definite Ineality. They do not seek to imitate fm"1l1, but to cpeate fOlnm; not to ir:1itate life, but to find an equivalent to life. By that I mean that they 1;·;ish to make images 'VIhich by the cleapness of their logical structure, and by their closely-knit unity of texture, shall appeal to our distnterested and contemplative imagtnation Ivith something of the same vividness as the things of a.ctual life appeal to practical activities. In fact, they aim not at illusion but at reality. [62J
Fry cited Picasso! s arralytical cubist work Buffalo Bill 1911, ,'lhich a head of a man (FIG.3.7), as an example of a portrait that did not
Has
'set out to make a dtrect imitation' of the actual model. the
affi.ntty
of
Natisse! s cor..tinous flm! of
lines and colour
scheme to Oriental ar..d Chinese art.
He also observed the
Picasso
Fry
on
the
younger
artists.
pointed
out
influence that
the
of main
dj.fference bet,'leen the English and the French
at the
Ivas
Fry at this point
the
markedly
'Classical spirit' of the latter.
'Classicism
'VJas trying to evolve a ne1li aesthetic concept art! 9
Ivhic!::
he
,'las
applying
to
exhibition
in
modern
the French Post-Impr'essionists.
He
explained that by Iclassical', he did not mean dull, pedantiC tradition, the
painting
of
themes
defined the ne,;v on
associated
as ideas
as
I
fr'om
classical' because their I'lorks did not
Romantic
mention the specific influence of I'Jatisse's
Some
Ivorks.
Realistic
Afric2J."'l.
did. on
rely
He did not
Picasso I s
or'
sculpture.
Hatisse's
La
Serpentine
seen
in the dramatic deformed and
elongated torso, arms and legs; the
rigid
cylindrical
noticeable
neck
which
is
from the front; the thick and heavy looking legs that end in
flat splayed feet. shoulders
influence
In
is
1912,
the
and
He
of the vwPics especially of Picasso and Hatj_sse
shot,;ed affinities to ll£rican
(FIG.3.8)
ancient Greek or Roman history.
and
they
The small conical seem to
out of th collar-bones.
elements ape comparable to the Seated Ancestor
- 95 -
are placed in l:1.ne of
Figupe,
the
These fOlnmal
Bambara,
r"lali,
"\vhich
(FIG.3.9)
Hatisse
had
difficul t to say exac1 ty iihen probably
in
his
possession at that time.
Natisse
a1 though
It is it
vIas
1909 because that year KahnHeiller repmnted that f'latisse
had about hl'enty pieces of ll..frican sculpture. [63] The English section vlas
by
Etchells, and
his
sister Jessie, Stanley Spencer, Hyndham LeTIJ:is, Duncan Grant, Henr'y Lamb, GOlne, sculptm"es
Bernard
by
Eric
Adney,
Roger
Fpy
and
Gill I"Jere included.
Vene ssa
talented of the group.
His
six
Tdorks
as
seen
in
The Queen of Sheba, 1912, (FIG.3.10) to
as
in
the
The
Post-Impressionism brilliant
in
Seven
considel'''ed the most
Vias
vary
Bell.
Danceps,
style,
1912.
ranging
Simplification,
colours and decorativeness dominated his ivod(s.
The Queen cf
Sheba shoHs the Neo-Impressionist approach to painting vlhere is
painted
Portrait
of
Pamela
Fry.
In
A similar technique is seen in
both
cases Gr"ant 1 s dark and harsh
outline had been softened by the pointillist method. Henri
1912,
Doucet,
painting
it1hich
'i-lobbling' .
everything
in small touches of pure colours v1hich blended optically to
produce the sh-immeping effect of nature. the
from
It
he
and and
Byzantine Venessa
In
and
Seated
po]:,trait,
Lady 1912, is seen a technique of innovated.
They
is a rich decorative marbling technique.
paintings, the Dancers
his
lrJoman,
1912,
reveal
called
it
His last t,170 the
tightly
hatching blnushstr"okes of Post-Impressionism. vath the remarkable Bell
of the 1910/11 Exhibition in mind
that there ,vas no need to be defensive about the
one: The battle is VIon. r,-1e all nOvi, that any form in Hhich an artist can express h:.'J:tJ.self is legitimate, and the Llm"'e sensitive pe2"ceive that are things vlorth that could never have been expressed in traditional forms. [64]
- 96 -
Clive
Bell pointed out that the their
choice
sought truth
in
their
subjects
of form "was determined by the need to express it.
and
On the
other' hand he acknOl1Tledged that the British ru"tists uere indebted to the French
for simplification of
and bright and plastic designs.
that the British art ,-1as British
to
the
French
because
the
did not go directly to the root of the inspiration Hhich
was primitive art.
Bell concluded that
the
British
artists
intended
neither to please, flatter nor shock, but to express great emotions. [65J On 16 February 1913 Fry lectured on 'Post-Impressionist Design' the
Sandon
Studios,
Livel"pool
and
he
Hlustrated
Picasso's Head of .§.. r':a.n 1912, (FIG.3.11) "\-;hich had exhibition. audiences form.
been
his
points 'l1"ith
shOlm
his
He complained to Gertrude Stein that the English
painting
built
up
of intersecting lines and planes ioTaS a
complete departure from the European tradition of setting the and
at
not responsive to the painting, and had no sensibility of
The
time
at
space
years
by
image
the use of perspective and light and shade.
in
Three
pictures like this, 8hOll1"ing an affinity to
and
primitive
art,
still
baffled the British.
In August 1919 Osber-t
Situell Olnganised The Exhibit-von of Hodern F:nench Apt at Heal's Galler-y, ,,[hich
included
and
%'m'k
by Picasso, Hatisse, Derain, Vlaminck, Hodigliani
A self-styled
!
Philistine'
,",lrote
to
the
editop
of
the
Nation: The Cubist school: These are the gentlemen I suspect of pulling my leg. Do they see things like that, op are they trying it on to see hOi"1 much the and the public lJill stand? I have tI'ied the picture f:::'om eveT'y angle short of standing on my head, and to me they absolutely meaningless. Granted it is a neu convention, can the base of this convention be stated? I should like to be able to appreciate the pictures, but that I despair of it - is it possible to UJ."'lderstand the convention they used? [66]
Fry had been
explain:Lng
- 97 -
the
basis
of
this
convention
and
hOlJ
to
app:ceciate
it
since
1910.
Despite such pemarks the impact of the t,w
Post-Impressionists Exhibitions on the artistic life in Bpitain had been tremendous. In his promotion of modern apt and Afr-'ican sculptur'e in Britain realised
that
necessa:'y. and
1912
some
support
system
for
artists
He expressed these ideas in 'The reprinted
as
'Art
or
patl"onage
State'
Here
published
in
and Socialism' in Vis"on and Design[67]9
in response to an invitation to contpibute to The
State, a
compilation of Essays edited by H.G. Hells and others dea12.ng vrith social
lu though he
progress in all spheres of }_ife. !
a
socialist'
Fry
expressed
h:ts
the situation fop effect
and
belief that less ostentation? '\lould and
plutocracy had on art at
near future.
the idea of being
designeps.
He
by
manufactured
iJOuld
be
artefacts,
consur;:,ption of an iIilmense mass of art. the aptist j_n
the
time and l'las likely to have in the
He concluded that the creative impulse
atrophied
discussed
crushed and
the
He also examined the pos:'Ltion of
society and kied to find hO,l the Ideal State might
s
malce the best use of the
the
by
public
a11d
tl1.e
state
commissioning the artists on a la,::'ge scale. [68] Fry's urge to ameliorate the plight of young artists and his cOIiJll1itment to cOIlTTIunity
prompted
him to establish the Omega Uorkshops announced in the 5 Appil 1913 issue of The Chponicle and officially opened at Fitzroy Squa::oe on 8 July 1913. The Omega
Limited ='.nto
one form of
English aI't.
:I:.alee
a
It
had
blO
aims: -
To
help
living by providing theE vlith a regular job and to
educate public taste. of
of
It viaS also one of the bases of
ppoTIoting African sculpture in Britain. to
absopption
Fry intended to
modern art :.uto the art of
the decorative and design and by this extend the
influence of Fine art into everyday life.
- 98 -
THO conditions l'lorkshops.
In
set up fOl" the aI'tists Hho Horked at the
the
first
place no
Has to 'tlOrk on the premises
illore than thpee and half days a \leek, so enough
time
fop
that
he
more serious creative i-lOrk.
In the second place all Or;:ega
sought
and
earn
more
cou::'d
have
"loJeek OI' 7s 6d
day.
,,,rere to be sold anonYlliously undep
This uas to guaY'antee that no
thepeby
she
As one of the conditions
each artist vIas I'las to i"eceive 30 shillings
the Omega Stamp.
Omega
than
the
paY'ticulaY'
others.
aY'tist
This also gave the
artists the f;.needom to expe::'''i.rrrent Hith styles they might
not
attempt under their oem na.mes, enabling them to explOl"e altel"natives and extend theil" am stylistic ho,;>izons. artists
i1any
joined
Cuthbert
the
Hamilton,
,;wrkshops John
Turnbull,
eska \'Jho ;;'las the only sculptor Barron
and
l'lcKnight rCauffel" did not
at
LeioJis,
Hilliam
the
Bomberg Horked ocassionally.
Etchells,
Roberts
i'lOrkshops.
on the
the:::':" textile designs for exhibitions. David
including
Phy::'lis
but subm:7.. tted
Gertler,
Paul
Nash,
There
n
that Houcha
to
is
a half-Russian and half-Spanish paintep,
Ediml'd Holfe and Bernar>d Adeney also "iwdced there. opened
and
Doucet, Jessie Etchells, Nina
Hamnet t and her husband Raold Kristian iJel"e l"egulal vlOrkers. evidence
and
The
I'lorkshops
\'Je:ne
all artists, especially those with aims and tastes CODEon to
Post-Impressionism. Omega pT'oducts included painted
toys,
painted.
ti'ays, potte!""y, lampshades and any conceivable creative items that could be hand prj_nted. vlorkshops. The
Textiles iiere designed by aptists and Co:m.missions of a decorative natul"'e
Exhibitions of
products
I
ivod<: l'Jel"e held by
simplicity;
decoT'ation rather' than on the structu:::,al aspect of
- 99 -
undertaken at the time
to
emphasis design;
time.
laid
on
freedorr:.
of
surface
application; exuberant
colom"s? less emphasis on precise
finishing thereby avoiding machine-made deadness and
achieving
at
the
same tiille the quality of flSrican art. The interest of the Omega artists in African above
all
in
the
Hay
sculpture
I,as
sholjvn
they embraced the principles that gover'ned the
of Afl'ican artefacts.
FrjT explained in an undated
cata:_ogue
of the If you look at a pot or a Hoven cloth by a negro savage of the Congo with the crude instrument at his disposal, you may begin to despise it fOi" its ',Jant of finish. If you put them beside a piece of r:::oder'n Sevres china or ave::' vet bl'ocade from a Lyons factol"y, you may per>haps be congl"atulating yourself upon the iwnders of modern industrial and think I·lith pi ty the poor savage. But if you \vill allou the poor savage! s handii-lorks a longer contemplation you 1ilill find something in it of greatel" value and significance than in the Sevres china or Lyons velvet. It "'Jill become appal"ant that the negro enjoys making his pot or cloth, that he pondered delightedly over the possibilities of crafts and that his employment finds in many and as these become incl"easingly apparant to you, you share his joy in creation, and in that forget the roughness of the result. [69J
Fry
that modern factory products were made entirely
vr::. th
no
othe:"
skill
1-1hich
disinter'ested
joy
made
for
than money making coming into their creation. them
delight.
is
adrr:irable,
but
it
cannot
delight
in
Fry concluded that the artists uorking at Omega
making of objects for everyday use.
spoil the expressive quality of their shop
finish
pl"oduct. ",hile
or
trying
to
attain
the
needs
cultivated man. [70]
- 100 -
and
play
to
They refused to
by sand-paper'ing it dO\m to a the
elegance
They tpied to keep the spontaneous
satisfying
The
cOrDl!lunicate
ieJe:'e \·mrki.ng on the same princ::'. ple as the Negr'o, a::'lolving fr'ee their
profit,
expressing
of the machine-made of pr'imitive
the
feelings
of modepn
The influence of artists
.las
ltfi'ican
sculptuT'e
largely derived in one
of Picasso, Derain, I\1atisse,
on
the
Omega
and
or' the other'
Hodigliani,
Brancus:'
the influence and
Braque.
Only
did the artists attempt to Hode from specific examples of sculptui'e, to directly assimilate the vlOrks, as Picasso and Because
of
had
this, the iwrks of the Omega artists often
lacked the immediate impact, vigour and vitality
of
ft..f:('ican
sculpture
.lhich charaterised the Horks of their French
Vanessa Bell
co;:::plained of this in
She deplOl'ed
the
"English
lettep of 12 August 1912 to
siiieetness •••
because
I
have
been
seeing
all
Per'haps they look so bad by comparison .lith Depain, etc. n [7l]
Natisse
.Alnost
all
(especially
in
museums
in
Brita:'n,
G11ant
had
seen
pieces from
riatisse ! s
African collection of cope than If 20
places." [72]
hung
depicts curves
at
the
elongated fu"1d entHined ape
painted
panel
first floor level outside the Omega l'iorkshops. dancing
figures.
The
thick
It long
compalnable to those seen in Picasso! s r;ude i'lith Raised Ar'ms
1907 (FIG.3.13) and the Nude peflections
of
the
Ion.;
Hith
Drapery
1907
nap p 0"1
almond
shape heads in Grant I s Hork.
Grant had seen some of these or s Stein's
and
For instance in 1909
Duncan Grant!s Couple Dancing 1913 (FIG.3.12), is a lJhich
F2:"ance
the British Euseum and the Trocadej:"o)? and in
the collections of artists like Picaso and others. Duncan
Picasso,
the Omega artists had in one i/lay Oln the
seen African ,wod sculptu::"'e in Ger'many,
those
Hodes
(FIG.3.14)
by
Picasso
One
sees
in
collection in Paris. [73] Gr'ant!s Head of Eve 1913 (FIG.3.15) is
(FIG. 3. 16)
vras
con:missioned by Clive Bell for the Contemporar'y ihnt Society.
The lattep
a study
a
painting Adam and
Eve
1913
,vas damaged in the Tate Gallery flooding in 1928. and
VigOl'OUS
- 101 -
sj.mplification
The Head of Eve shaHS of
fonn.
The
curved
and the little
nose
::i:.nto
:celief
by
hatchings,
round mouth, and the kidney shaped ears correspond to the impact
of Afr:'.can sculpture.
Grant I s cr'oss-hatchings and
sinplification
by Picasso's African Heads 1907 CFIG.3.17 and 18).
influenced
cylindrical neck "'"lith angular shoulders and the huge
The long
breasts
that
placed slightly high is also reminiscent of African sculpture. and Eve, a painting Grant Adam
called
standing on his pOl<le:,-'ful
legs up.
"thankless
The Adan
offsprings",
Adam is separated from Eve by a tall stylised tree.
There
by
uhich
8ho,,18
is
Eve's torso is distorted,
the thighs are ipS1ated, the right thigh larger than the left. painting
are
hands Vlith his tlVO thin elongated
similarly gecorative tree on the left of Eve.
early
the
a
Another
affini ty to l\Srican
sculpture is The Tub 1912, (FIG.3.19), The African influence is noted in the simplified and distorted arms and limbs; the snall heal"t like shaped face beaping a tube-like nose that runs dovm the length of the
face
to
the base line of the chin; hlO strands or locks of hair enclose the face to
accentuate
considerable
its
roundness
smallness;
and
the
hips
show
a
caused
by the short thick thighs that tapper
dm-m into the aloQ.ond shaped tub.
The ttW pOlverful thighs, SUPP0l'"'ting a
short
replaced
th:l.ck
enlargement
and
torso
have
almost
the vagina.
tried to
indicate the firmness of the stomach by using shopt parallel hatchings, figuroe Natisse's
,-,hich
the tvlO
Baga
collection.
!/[attise in 1909. that
rather suggest scarifications. Figures might
horizontal
The sturdiness of the
(FIG.3.20)
vihich
a2.so
have
them
he visited
Similarly the Baga
seen
ShOl-1 short and
thick
in
legs
to the feet enc::"osing spaces of triangular shapes, and shoy't
and thick torsos.
The Tub seems to
have
inspired
LevJis I
Design
for
in The Cave of the Golden Calf 1912, and Indian Dance 1912,.
(FIGS.3.21 A and B) The figures in both paintings have common traits derived from a similar soupce as The Tub. - 102 -
stylistic
Grant epitomised for painting
v'lith
its
all that he admL--ed in contemporary
influence
from
primitive
African sculpture and other art forms on
Grant
"One could catch
The influence of has
been
observed
by
to Byzantine mosaics, to
Hatisse, to African sculpture, to early The Harguetry Tray, FIG.3.22, designed by is
an
of a
'\rJOoden trays desigr:.ed by hi.J.-n and Grant.
It depicts hlO angularity
vThose body moveL1ents
of the composition.
undoubtedly clear.
It
planar'
of
tl°eatnent
1913
in
noted the
accentuated by the
The stylistic indebtedness to Cubism is in
the
angular,
com.posi.tion.
and
ilere
achieved
by the
adopt:i_on of the cubistic conventions of slant:',-ng lines
the
figm."es
and
flat planes.
Apparently the methods and materials used at Omega in
producing such
trays and panels
The
demanded
a
cubistic
approach.
designs involved cutting and pasting of
In the next according
stage, to
veneers
the
shapes
of
different
piece
of
,·woden
shapes
of
papers.
Hood
""Jere
Another method is by drmJing on
board.
gauges about half an inch deep into the ,-lOod forming an Egyptian sunk-in
Pieces of different shades of irlOod
in the out
of
Hood
,-7hich
cut and laid
easier" to use than :1ound and cu:cvinG
Gaudier-Brzeska r s t11ay
African-inspired
cubist
sho'ds
some
sim.ila!"ities
to
Picasso! s
painting Dryad 1908, (see FIG.3.23).
There is
no evidence that Gaudier-Brzeska ever saw this painting. coincidence
:'cS
not a mean one, but shotlS hml
p11inciple of Cubism. VIas
relief
The Omega ai'tists definitely used straight and slant cut
pieces
forms.
cut
of papers and then glued to a flat and broad
piece of ""lOod imitating the paper ',Jork. a
These
simplification
produced
H01:leVe1 ? 1
the
he had undel"stood the
Gaudie1 -Br'zeska! s ga1 den ornament Bird Bath, 1914 1
1
in the Oc.ega \<,Jorkshops 7 commissioned by Fry for his house
- 103 -
in Durb:'n.
It is a bmil, suppor'ted by hunan caryatids.
b-lO
vie"Vis
of
that
reflect
supposed
the
Bird Bath 11hic11. is composed of sharp angular planes
P£rican-inspired
to
FIG. 3.24
represent
a
cubist
influence.
The
is
caryatid
squating figuT'e I'lith tuo heads and tl-lO hands
supporting a bmJl but due to excessive distortion and simplification
it
is
It
impossible to cleaply distinguish the other fopms of the f:i..gure.
looks like a lump 1riith pleasing facets.
hacked a,'lay to reveal shapes ,-lith
The t,-JQ hands seen in FIG.3.24A, are boldly simplified
into broad and angular fm'!:1s and ended in blunt figures. the
fingers
and
similar to those of the car'yatid fiGure of the Central
AfT'ican capved stool, (FIG. 3. in
the
might have
British Iluseum.
"\-;H,h
FIG.3.24A
almond
shaped,
shaped
boldly
curved
mouth,
AfT'ican
elements
to
i-li th
Hasle
seen
the
OEs intet'est in Afr:Lcan carved bmJl s
be fully discussed
reflecting
The hands
in
Chapte:
n
6).
The
head
in
coffee bean shaped eyes, a lozenge eyebr01Js
and
a
block-like
nose,
all
discussed in Chapter 1, and it sho,\-ls some ,
CFIG.3.25),
Dan?
"I'lhich
,\ias
The second head, seen in
FIG.3.24B, :.s similar
than the
It shm'is a snaIl pointed cl'dn but
schematisation
to
the
particular Afr'ican mask
or
figu::'e
They
bear no affinity to any
they
Ineveal
fj_rst. but
the
generalised
Fry I S
onJ.y
African forns that had influenced the cubists. A similar sty1istic ca,:'ving,
and
approach
can
be
seen
Bath.
derived
the
SCUlpture.
1rlOod
Chi1dl"en of 1913, (FIG.3.26) vlhich vIas done a fe,,]
months earlier than Gaudier-Brzeska! S Bi:cd Cubism
in
rather
than
At this point F7§ had
from not
become
Fry's
direct involved
approach
study of African in
liJit11 Afr:"can sculpture but he r.ad partially
Cubism derived from African
- 104 -
sculpture.
vIaS
the
total the
:"nd:"cate
a
conscientious study of this art as his lilritings proEinently
advocate and inspire.
For this
pr'actising
had been pron:oting :.n modern art.
uhat
he
reason
he
has
been
accused
Hatisse,
Picasso
and
Stein
and
The
epitomised
TilThich shoi"JS a kneeling
his
and
cub:"st
facetting
affectionately cuddling t1'l0 standing naked and
the
faces
of
the
irregular
them.
in
is
Hell seated
The
heads
figures are highly schematised with the barest
ind:"cation of the featUlnes like the eyes 1 noses and mouths. are
contact
had been collecting and
dealing in Picasso's cubist paintings. in
not
His
';-0"ith Cubism dates back to 1910, during his trips to 1'lith
of
The
heads
shape because of the emphatic planes used in shaping
The bodies al"e also
in planes. CFIG.3.27)
displays
the
influence
of
Cubism.
The interplay of curvilinear and
lnectilinear fm'1.l1 is similar' to that in Les Desmoiselles by
also
d I Avignon
1907
The execution of the marquetr:i..es involved cut-out papers.
Picasso.
This process might have motivated Fr'Y to pI'oduce his first collage Essav In
Abstl'act
Design
of
1914
Al tho1.!gh he al so Olrmed
(FIG.3.28).
Cubist collages by Picasso and Juan
Fr'Y
tickets
The tickets can be identified
to
his oil painting on plYVJood.
as tickets for the No. 88
issued
bet\oleen
attached
t1j-Jo
18,
December
real
bus
1913
and
1911f, ,111en the No. 88 bus puote uas changed and extended to s Bush. tiiitcham
and
The 5d.
ticket liIaS
night have been issued to
a jour'ney
from
Picadilly
to
himself on one of hj_s visits
to Hitcham vJhere he \lent to throu pots for sales in the Omega. [75] Fry's undated
study
of Tennis Playelns (FIG. 3.29) ShOllS the
hatchings seen in Grant 1 s Coupl e Dancing. apparently
to
the
FutUlnist
The
left
principle
obser'Vable in the ,wd:::s of Balla 0:::-' Duchamp, (eg.
- 105 -
curvil inea1" figure
of Girl
path
of
Running
motion On
A
Bal cony
1912
by
Giacomo
Balla
vIaS
only
Harcel Duchamp).
attecpting
appropriate
This skecth Has probably done in 1912 in t'elation
Hural
Game
Tem1is
the
the
composition.
of
of
find
the
.£
pa:ct
to
position
of
hind
Nude Descendinrs ! Stail"case 1912 by
by
for an effetcive
Grant
in
the
London.
Grant i S
the
same year', vlhich l'jaS
38
cOJl11l1issioned by Adrian Stephen and painted in his l"oom at Square,
to
BpUl1s1;lick
mural ,'Vas influenced by Na tisse ! s strong and
floHing 1:i_nes seen in Hatisse's Dance of 1910.
Grant
saw'
and
admir'ed the Dance \lhile 11atisse lias Horking on tt in his studio in 1909. I-Ie also saH the finished Hork at the Loncon
:i.n
Exhibition
in
undated dra"oling by Ft,y, FIG.3.30,
Anothel"
1912.
Post-Impressionist
191 Lf ), of a reclining nude
penc1ered
Elo::' e
siIl1ply
1
and
precisely
than
FIG.3.29 affinils a di::."ect assimilation from Natisse. Lampshades and painted screens Here Cor1l10n features of Levlis
the
Omega.
designed nine lampshades and painted a fe"vJ screens, including the
Cil"CUS Scene, (FIG.3.31) vlhich S1101'IS a sl:i1l11ittle aCr'obat balancing the
broad
shoulders
of
a
strong
Next
man.
l·lOman ';lith a vlhip and a cloim small
pointed
"\'lhich resemble painting
that,
significant
beyond.
to them is a standing The
Fry
masks. tI
r'emadced
to
an
inter'vievlep
have
Let'Jis'
Omega
geometriC ,lith almond shaped heads and
Lettedlead
torsos and distorted angular and LeHis I S pa::Lntings in
1913
His f:Lgur-es al"e
faces,
cylindrical
through
his
l:i1l1bs. from
Fry and the Omega
an ai:Tareness of African
schematised
this
A11t is a
1
n
as
about
hO\l much 'i'lit there is in these figUl es.
(FIG.3.32) also shot-ls some :i1l1pact of African SCUlpture.
development
figures
faces, thin elongated noses, small round eyes and mouths
defol mity."[76]
association
on
1910
and
bl"ief
to the end of 191 L[ reveal
and it may have been a factor
in
his
one of the foremost figures of the British avant-garde.
- 106 -
Lei-lis claimed that his interest in
pceimitive
dated
back
to
his
In 1947 he urote to James Soby:
student days.
"(-Ie have in the British 11usetL.'1l some vels
fine collections of NeTt; Island masks, Island monoliths and othe:e varieties of Pacific and South American stuff. Even uhen at the Slade I i"as to the Room at the and to study the dl aHings of Raphael and riichaelangelo. I had ahlays to pass betvTeen cases full of more savage symbols on my \vay.... In an ea::-ly sketchbook the day full of Leonardo's old man I"ith sHollen underlip and Hichaelangelo i s heavy vTeight I came across Pacific Island masks. [77J 1
Lel·Tis attended the Slade from 1898 to 1901, so interest
in
prinlitive
French artists. this.
implies
that
arose
independently of the influence frOB
are no
,,,orks
of
his
Slade
School
pepiod
Ita
great
deal
In the eai ly days Leuis
of African sculpture in
talked
1
about
masks and the curious
earth coloul1s and brick-red of the early Derains".
[78J
The
influence
on Le,-lis viaS der-ived fr'om the
influenced ,-lOdes of Picasso such as Les Desmoiselles d I Avignon. in
to
:::::n the sa;:r.e letteI' to Soby, Lellis acknovlledged that the
C. R. W. Nevinson
noticeable
his
art
Polynesian influence occured all along. to
this
This is
his Theatre Hanager 1909, FIG.3.33. [79J Lei-lis's painting
shov1s figures vlith mask like heads, strong aquiline noses v1hich at look curious
phalliC,
11esemblance
and to
tubular N-imba
arms.
The
Headdress
of
some
bears a Baga,
FIG.3.34
by
the
neck, ridgeless pointed nose, the short forehead, the :r'idge at the back of the head, and the tubular
arr2s.
shoulder
diffe::'ent
terminates
in
The faint zigzag lines along the arms correspond to the
decorative inCisions that character'ise NiLlba tiVO
that
ones
painted this picture.
at
They
varieties about the sa;:r.e time.
the
in
Headdresses.
l-lere
in Paris at the time that Lev1is in 1902
and
190 1.\
and
the Zurich, Basel and other German museurrls
Leviis '\v::Lth his acclaimed enthusiasm. for
- 107 -
There
primitive
art,
flight
have
noticed
them during his travels in Paris and Germany
just after leaving the Slade School. be
due
to
his
The African influence
tentative involvement
attention. [80J
Picasso
as vIas
"lOrl{s by the Nimba Headdress in example
v1hich
was
similar
to
the
one
FIG.2.8).
In 1914 Le"lis demonstrated his
qualities
of
in London.
the
only
artists
and
he
also
in
the British
knov1ledge
possesssed
of
an (see
the
aesthetic
the intlnoduction to the
Art exhibition at the Tvlenty-one
Of the
in
also influenced in his
Hhen he
catalogue of the l'!odel'n
also
Picasso and Hatisse both of
liJhoID he singled out in an unpublished Pa!'is
could
Gallery
of the Ger'mans 7 he said:
This is Afl'ican, in that it is cutting through evelJ time to the monotonous '\-7all of space, and intense yet hale: perr.1eated by Eternity, an in 1I1hich only the black co;;"e of Life rises and is silhouetted... The quality of the 1j'lOodcut is rough and brutal, of the senses, cutting and not scratching: extraordinarily limited and It is one of the greatest tests of fineness. [81J
Hhen Lei/is o,:"ganised the entl'eated
that,
"the
X exhibition in e:;cperiments
the last ten yeal"S should be utilised
in general terms Place
At
40
Hilton
Crescent,
the
mid-1920s
alld
developed
1913-14, tlilO
and
duping not
lightly
An example is The Fir·e designed fo:" Lady
pl"imitive
totemic
figu:ces.
om.Jards LeHis began to draH compleJ: f01ThS of hULlan
sopt
of
totemic
and
at
poles VIith
times
Cil"cular
fOl"ms
depicting
looks.
Tl::ese are the result of deep assmilation and har'nessing of
stylistic
he
FIG. 3. 35,
figUlnes which irere full of stl"ong cUie'vilinem"s some
London
by all over
derived influence.
Drogheda I s dining rooID, 101hich reveals Fr'om
1920 in
and manacillg the
of Cubism. and Afr:Lcan sculptu:c'e to his OvIn unique ends.
- 108 -
exemplified
in
his
letter
to
Hoel
"I
in
picked up a piece of JI..fr'ican sculptuC'e, 15.ke they have HuseUD.,
108.1
for
:'::t gave ::rre a
in
the
British
delight and it is like my
\wrk. IV [83]
Host of the
designs of the Omega
of
and
cm'"'v:'.lineap
hatch:"ngs
for'I:ls.
composed
FIG. 3.36
designed by Grant.
Sl":OTilS
plates 1:lith
iIe had been :i:.nfluenced by
Picasso I S striated dra'\,rings many of 1:1hich Grant sai1 in in
I S
non-three-d-irnensional
peC"'sistent
use
of
decorative
purposes,
s shop
striations?
most
often
fo:"
can
be
compared
to
the
Standing Nude and 11 Study of Foot 1909 (FIG.3.37)
by
Picasso
for
its
effective
use
of this technique.
Picasso 'ioTaS influenced by the Bakota
Reliquery copper-covered Figur'e fl:'OEl Gabon - FIG. 1.27, It is obser'ved by HHliaID Rubin that:
Stlniation hatching is a v:l:sual convention, a of linear' signs on a flat surface signifying the shadings of relief. Its advantage to the modern painter is that unlike modelling, it does not necessarily lead to an illusion of volume. [84]
The
technique
is
apparently
the
ffi1
hatching
exploited it betueen 1907 to 1909.
(FIG. 3.5)
and
old
Picassso
one. in
Afr>ican
Picasso! s
sculpture
Head
of
£.
diagonal
brush-strokes
infl uenced Grant and other's. and
1·; Oillan
Eead and Shoulders of £. 118.1'1 1909, (FIG. 3.6)
title,
FIG.3.38A
deillonstrate
Etchells I s and
tvJO
this
emphatic
technique
paintings
1909
lent by The
Kahnueile2" to the Second Post-Impl"essionists Exhibition. ,
and fully
of
,-,hich
the
B, emUlate Picasso's tilO paintings.
Etchells did not only exploit the hatching technique but also strove capture
same
to
the simple blocked-out effect of the features and the slit-eyes
- 109 -
derived froB "/as
sculpture by Picasso.
essen'Gia::'ly
a
fOl"'E
should London
of
sculpture 7
and
considered that
pottery
that
and its
the artist! s sensibility.
DU1-'ing
his
visit
to
Derain in 1919 Pi.casso 'L,as fascinated by the Omega pottery
"lith
and according to Spalding, Picasso
i_nfluenced in his Olm
The activities of the Omega began to diElinish as ';·.Jar'
and
in
the
decopative
First
January 1919 the Horkshops \;Tent into voluntar-y
liquidation. FryVs interest in African sculpture and his significant
elements
denonstrated in his cp:.tism.
revieHing Pound? s book on "the
reBarlced:
Fr>y
understanding
in
The
of
the
deformity
of
In August 1916, r·Iagazine)
legs
by
the
elongation of the tOl'''SO \il'h::ch 'ile found in the Dancer and 'Imp I to
the
influence
nagazine Fry
of
revielied
Nine
n[86J
Dobson I s
sculpture
and
'J..
ll"S
gJ:'eat
'1laS
due
in the same related
the
artist I s
confinement to purely sculptural plasticity to the 'compleJ: and richness of the detect
of the lTegro.' Yet in the same
failed
to
a similal' influence in Epstein's ,'Jo::'k and u;:'ote, "One rc.ight even
concede that Hr. more
Fry
vivid
Epstei.n expresses in solid fm1ll a rich
iBaginative outlook, but
invention
and
all that he is not playing the
same game. n [87J
t S
difficult
enthusiam led to
him.
to
collect
It
A.fr'ican
establish exactly when he began, but certainly during the
early h'!enties he Has in fr'equent
touch
1:Jith
Paul
Guillaume,
Picasso? r-Jatisse, Derain, Vlaminck, Stein and other dealers in Paris. [88J FIG.3.39 is an 1924.
He
is
mask he bought in
Joseph and in
it j.n a letter to Josette Coatuellec in Paris as 'a
- 110 -
beautiful thing of "Jh:Lch I am vel"-y sculptUl?es
collected
by
Fry
lS
The
u [89]
numbel
Af:':-'ican
not knovT11, but four of them. including
this mask, a:ce no\-, in the Courtauld Institute
it
of
n
in London.
Fr'y's influence on
life in the 1920s Has even greater than
:1ad
Those TJJho r,ad earlier' disagreed Hith hiB
been
befo::,e the Hap.
began to give in. "No
sooner-
do
I
see
the
feet
In
of
1923
Sicker-t
Fry on the r:::ountain than I
bleating to sit at them. II [90] Tonks confessed Fry! s
confessed,
that
he
feared
influence because he vIas a gifted man and a splendid advocate and
fffiv young men could resist him.
But
to
Tonles,
\'las
a
shocking
judge. [91] Fr-y's article on African sculpture in Vision and Design of 1920 had a
gI'eat
influence on
and on artists l:.ke Henr-y
HepHor-th, John Slceaping and
It
mope reJIl3.rkable in the
case
of Hoor-e ,"1ho pead the book :'n the Leeds School of Art L:l.brary in 1920. Clive Bell also publ:l.shed an article in 1920 :l.n The lJegro
the 1923.
of
the
that
[92] in 1920.
Such
no\-j to be seen in the
enhancing: cousins
the
prestige
relics
of
a
Cunard,
by
civilization
also published
the
lor.g
pointing
out
they
helped to
in
to
the
stimulated an interest in Afr'ican sculpture that
in Britain immediately after the ,var. Nancy
vis:.ting
once abandoned to
and colon:'al stay-at-home
nm-,
r:useum, and t.hat fine lad:'es,
younger- painter's and eJ:quisite amateui"s rooms
and
reprinted in his Since Cezanne in
Bell observed that the cu::' tivated public 'Ivere collection
AthenaeUhl
Hoffat
and
:Lts aesthetic value.
- 111 -
otheps
Hany people
began
including
to
collect
Afr:Lcan
pointed out,
"Apagon
and
I
came several times to England in the mid-tvlenties before the Hour's to rake through the English
ports
and
and Ever
London.
since
pl:otographer, had stimulated my around
1921,
had
1.
found.
the
Goupil
sa.TJle year ,rished
England
to
and be
an
Oceanic
excellent
art
hunting
an exhibition of IJegro Ar't \las
held
Hoore i-lho had arrived in London in October the that P.f:nican sculpture
to
Ii[offet, the artist and in
.••• II [93 ] In 1921 just at
of
"lms
being
apppec:Lated
and
he
collect it, and added that a good Afpican sculptur'e cou::"d. be
pupchased
10 pounds in the Caledon:_an Hapket. [9 11]
IIuseums in Britain became responsive to the opganising
exhibitions
of
study African art at first exhibition
interest
by
African
sculpture so that the public could
hand
an
on
aesthetic
basis.
Since
the
of Negro sculpture at Chelsea Book Club in 1920 at least one has taken place each year in Britain, (see
Fr'y continued to travel
II).
France
and
Bpitain,
until
the
end of his life.
He
continued to paint, but his art did not influence
anyone.
the
"I-Tar'
had experimented ,-Jith
organis:1.ng
he
exhibitions,
had
a
and
var'iety
of
sty:"es,
Post-Impressionism, particularly Cezanne. a naturalistic sty:"e. Fry, the eneBY of very
often
!
and
.ll.fter the vIar he r'etul"'ned
Critics such as P .G.Konody Hei."e disdainful:
l"eppesentation! and champion
pu::-'ely
lectur'ing,
because
r'epI'esentational
express." [95] After' his one-man
of
at
the
is
he
has
nothing
to
Independent
Galle::-'y
in
of the gall ery, to give up painting.
- 112 -
"t1r.
self -expl"ession
London in 1923, 1:Jhich ffiooused bitter criticism, Fry Has advised by Turnel" 1 the
to
Fry gave a
of talks
of Pictw:'es'.
the Radio
in
These \-Jere later
1929
entitled,
'The
in The Listener.
Fry
having, I have
got
noted hio.self that, "Certainly if influence is that;
and
certainly
understanding of elected
a
I
have
accomplished
England. "[96]
in
For
a
his
great
deal
for
the
achievements,
he
'lIaS
Fe:::'lOfiJ" of King's College? Cambl'idge in 1927.
A later critic
I have been trying to think if there
irlaS any other English critic vrho has stood in clarifying and stimulating relation to contenpo:;:"ary ar't and yet possessed such iJide expeI'ience of of othep ages: I have found no one to set beside him. He has influenced pr'ofoundly our approach to the visual arts, and contributed bore than any critic to of a vocabulary by Hh:Lch attention can be directed to different aspects of aesthetic experience. [97]
Certainly
helped
to
create
aesthetic horizons in achieved
this
Horkshops;
by
by
atmosphere
and influencing it
opganising
irlriting
the
and
exh:'.bi tions; publishing
by
his OHn taste. founding
sculpture
for
tuo
decades.
the
and books.
bases he irlaS able to promote and sustain genuine aesthetic Afpican
uidening
The
impact
of
He
Omega these in
that aesthetic
interest led to the subsequent influence of African sculpture on British art and artists.
- 113 -
CHAPTER 4 DEFINING THE INFLUENCE In 1912
the Spipitual in Art, Hassily Kandinsky indicated
that
prcgressive
that \Vas a
artists were passing thrcugh an imitative stage
step to'iv2.rds fr'ee::Lng themselves cf
the
Eurcpean
traditicn,
representaticn); and that these mcdels
frcm
all
in
places
frcm
the naturalistic
(ie.
'scught to' emphasise gccd art as
and
times ' .[1]
sculptures se1"ved as mcdels
Indeed
African
and Oceanic
the Brucke, Blaue Reiter, Fauve,
and English avant-garde artists.
Cubist
Yet the influence cf P£rican sculpture
cn these ar>tists has still nct been prcperly studied 0'1" understccd. In the earliest publicaticn cn the subject vJhich appeared in Haroius
de
Zayas
did
althcugh he stated: African
NegrO'
nct examine the precise
!l0f all the arts cf
cf this influence races, the
cf the
savage is the cne vlhich has had a pcsitve inlfuence upcn
the art cf cur epcch."[2] He ccncluded that NegrO' sculpture had intO'
mcdern
brcught
tithe means to' express cur purely senscrial feelings in
regard to' fcrTI: cr to' find nevI
fcrm
in
primapily
the
ccntrast
precccupied
loJ'ith
cur
evcluticn cf the NegrO' and cf the Eurcpean. 1·;as
1916,
incapable
cf
any
ideas. IT [3] bet'iveen
de
the
Zayas
i'las
intellectual
He asserted that the
NegrO'
intellectual sentiment and that his a.."'t vIas the
lcgical Inesult cf the ccnditicnal state cf his brain 1:1hich, acccrding to' de
Zayas,
'-ras
lithe first state cf the evcluticn cf the brain cf man".
Even cn this grcund he failed to' establish heM the NegrO' I s art infl uence the Eurcpean 'Ivi th the Lack influence
cf
prcper
I
came
to'
cf
the
supericr I brain. [4] and
insufficient
study
cf African sculpture cn Eurcpean mntists, in the first place,
has given rise to' scme ccntradicticns and ccntrcversies.
- 114 -
Fcr
instance,
stated: thesis of direct •••• "[5]
Yet
flI must, once more, dispute the validity of the
influence
of
African
art
on
Picasso
and
Braque,
the most authoritative account of the direct influence of
African
on Picasso, and specifically his use of
cylinders
to
represent the holloH of the guitar in some of his paintings and reliefs, in imitation of the representation of eyes by Hobe
masks,
had
been
given
by
cylinders
in
since
1900,
capable
of
He
even
been
in
had
\'lhich so much inspired Picasso. [7] He also
pointed out that, Hatisse, vlith his intelligence and was
and
himself. [6]
Kahnweiller
illustrated the rare Grebo mask from the Ivory Coast that the
Grebo
appreciating
acute
sensibility
these sculptures for their true artistic
value but neither his painting nor sculpture
any
signs
of
his
admiration. [8] This is quite misleading and contradicted the expositions by
Barr, Pier:ce Daix, Guillaume Apollinaire and
discuss
the
influence
'ivTiters Ivho
of Aflnican sculpture on Hatisse I s iwrk,
especially his In the second place, ar'tists African and Oceanic sculptures. Picasso for using
Afpican
had
been
Y'eproached
for'
imi tating
Gertrude Stein, for example, reproached
sculpture
as
a
crutch. [10]
Some
British
critics perSistently abused and reproached Epstein for imitating sculpture.
As he put it:
enthusiasm
for
have,
tiT
because
of
my
apppeciation
P£rican vlodc, been accused - as i f it Here a crime - of
being influenced by it. ff [11] In the early 20s Hep..ry Noope I s dravling condemned
by
a
Professor
at
infl uenced by AfrJ:can sculptur"e: garbage
anyone
the
Royal
tlThis
College
student
of
has
Art
been
vIaS
for being feeding
on
can see that."[12] Attitudes such as these implied a
lack of creative originality angered
and
vision which so embarassed and
modern artists that they began to deny the influence of African on their Ivork.
Some
- 115 -
artists
even
went
to
the
extent
of
destr'oying or modJ:fying advised or African
that looked too African in appearance; and
iJarned
sculpture.
their
Picasso,
collegues one
of
against
the
the
influence
of
main disseminators of this
influence, at times denied its lllpact on his art.[13J In
1914
Brancusi
who had often advised his colleagues against submitting to the influence of African sculpture, destroyed those of African. [14] sculptor,
Although
acknm'lledged
Umberto that
his
Boccioni,
African
v10rks the
sculpture
vihich
looked
too
futurist
painter
and
had
helped
European
artists to free themselves from classicism, he was against the emulation of it and w'arned that ::'Lt Ivas harmful to the development of a
completely
ffiodern plastic outlook. [15 ] There leJ'ere certain their
embarassment
accusations the
Ivho
and
anger,
reproaches.
African
and
sympathised attempted
lvith
the
artists
to free them from such
Instead of explaining the
significance
'Ivriters
even
vlent
the van
that to admit to such a concerned.
Some of
to the extent of absolutely denying any such
influence upon the ivork of these ar-tists. believed
of
influence upon them, they rather praised those i1'orks ,""hich
revealed the pure European tradition of realistic represention. these
j_n
In
addition
to
this
they
influence 'Iwuld discredit
For instance, in 1920 when the composer
Bernard
Dieren published his book on Epstein, he not only praised Epstein's
i'lorks but also categorically denied any Afl'ican influence on and condemned those who sau any.
the
wodes
van Dieren stated:
But by the aid of these superficial observations and umlarrantable conclusions Epstein I S ,,1Ork has been, to the satisfaction of a great many vlho are ready to have thinking done for them like their laundry, proved to be aboriginal, Polynesian, or at least, as an favourite of technical parlance has it, "arcbaic n • [16]
He added that there might be a similarity in all
- 116 -
these
manifestations,
but
to
speak
of imitation in this
"las absurd; and that it vlaS
equally absurd to believe that Epstein, after a study of such art had
accepted
their
canons and mannerisms for his m'ln.
acknovlledged the vlaS
born
and
between Epstein v s Cupsed be the day that an
African
simila:;:"i ty of ma he
explained
an
wood
capving,
but
that,
the
I
1.
attributed this to the
,'lhich vre may call the "logic of material VI.
and that certain by
For example he
of the
Thus
create the style
must appear if ,wod is logically handled
vlhether
African or by Epstein. I [17] This of couz'se cannot be
and as
logical as it seems because, for instance, we cannot compare
the
stone
carvings
of the Classical Greek pepiod, the Gothic period and the Aztec
for
are vast differences
common
material employed.
in
these
styles
Kahnweiller's
irrespective
Picasso,
(ie.
Braque
and
embarassed
others), "more and mOlne". [18] j'Vhat
these sympathetic vlriters failed to emphasize was that the artists tr>ying
to
defend
spent
African and Oceanic '\wrks.
an influence on the taste of the artists.
especially
in
the
case
a
they
personal resources in collecting
This in one respect could be
personal collections shavled
the
cited above was partly
written in this regard because he mentioned that, "Imitation them",
of
maI'ked
considered
as
Horeover the content of their
affinity
to
their
olm
'\'101'''ks;
of Picasso, rlatisse, Brancusi, Nodigliani and
Epstein. Another basic error derived from the improper study of the
subject
is the assumption that the resemblance to African and Oceanic sculptures in the works of British and European irrespective
of
place
and
time.
was due to direct influence Such
assumptions have resulted in
arbitrary and startling v:Lsual comparisons of modern never
seen
enthusiastically
by
the
compared
- 117 -
Europeans.
For
Gaudier-Brzeska's
art
>'lith
African
example,
Alan
Wilkinson
pencil
drawing
Caritas,
(1914),
,,,1th
the
Hother
Huseum in 1929, Gaudier-Brezeska). [19]
and Cie.
Children, lifo, Nigeria, about
years
have
seen
after
it.
the
artist
death
of Les Desmoiselles d,Avignon 1907 by Picasso.
could
the
in
1929.
Therefore
Picasso
could
This mask illhich is
is
patently
J.B.Donne
commented:
absurd to discuss the influence of
art on the
Cubists on the basis of pieces and even styles that the artist and
1920s,
not have seen it before
then. [20] In answer to such an erroneous approach "It
not
right-hand
in the Husee Barbier-Huller, Geneva, came to Europe ,in the late probably
of
Barr also fell into this errol" by comparing a
Babangi mask from Etumbi in the Republic of Congo, with face
the
The Afo figure illas collected by Hajor F. H. Ruxton
from Northern rageria probably in the 1920s, so possibly
by the
did
not
could not know."[21] Therefore in his essay, 'African Art and Paris
StudiOS, 1905-1920', Donne
made
a
ppeliminary
investigation
of
the
styles of African art that could be seen in Paris betvleen 1905 and 1920, and where possible the actual pieces that came to the attention
of
the
artists of the day. [22] For the proper i111derstanding of the influence of African on
British
artists
this
chapter
sculpture
will briefly discuss the conditions
under 1.o1hich the influence manifested in Britain; it vJill also define the types of influence that Afpican sculpture had upon the British artists. The beginning of British
artists
is
the
influence
linked
with
the
of
African
sculpture
development
of
its
upon
the
aesthetic
appreCiation inspired by
as discussed in
speaking
it
the
London.
It ,'las then that the African influence began to
reveal
in
I"orks
HOirlever, there
the
began
after
Chapter
Strictly
second
e:::hibition in
of young British painters and sculptors.
exceptional cases illhere some early ilJOrks of Levlis ShOvll'l African influence in 1909 and 1910 respectively. - 118 -
and
itself
Epstein
had
The influence in
Britain occurred a feT,l years latel' than j.n France and Germany because of the
prevailing
artistic
conditions
and not because the young artists
lclere Unai-lare or reluctant to be subjected to it. Until 1910 British art absolute
and
accurate
ivas
dominated
the academicians and the
choice
great
or
disliked
public.
George
that
had
to
The Academy brought
the
the
artists
th and fame by promoting
of work
Young and proglnessive artists ll.."lattached
Acaderry
thus
had no chance of being seen in
had described the Academy in 1893 as an be
the
n
popularity,
by
of
of the Academy vlaS the public T s concept
through engravings and prints. to
tradHion
Patronage of the Fine 8.l ts l.;as guided
of what Art should be in Britain. its
the
representation of classical and literary themes
perpetuated by the Royal Academy. by
by
'incubus'
destroyed before a new and vital art could develop in
England. [23] The He,.; English Art Club VIas formed in 1886, at the instance number
of young British artists tr'ained in France, (eg.
became the Slade Professor) in order to destroy such the
1890s
the
the
Fred Broun ",1'10
conservatism.
Club
The Slade became a sort
of
rules
By
nursery
from whepe young and rebellious aptists vlho rejected all
restrictions imposed by the Academy vTere recruited after probation. Club I s
a
had become a rallying ground of opposition to the
Academy and older British for
of
1rlere
flexible
and
progressive
for'
The
the young alntists:
elective juries; a suffrage of exhibi
as well as raembers; submission
of
1-l0Pl-C
nembers I
as
uell
as
exhibitors!
Artists sucr.. as John Sargent, called
and
unsentimental
Sites,
portraits
of
and the Slade
101 7 0
to the jury thus elected.
Sickert their' mean
,vorks
and
considered
interiors,
and unimportant persons.
Hilson
lOi,]
as
Steer
paintings of
music
halls
and
By 1900, hOvlever, the NEAC
lost their rank as revolutionaries and were - 119 -
uere
relegated
to
the
academic category, displaying subjects of extreme conservatism.
Some of its members even drifted. Henry
Turke,
'ihlliam
Orpen
over and
to
others
Academy. [24] Once again young artists T/lho beyond
Impressionism
Academy:
became
iiished
In a revie"\-l of
paintings
had
associates to
develop
the
rejected
NEAC by
exhibition the
Club
in
1902,
wrote
to
delight,
HUl"belnt
but
l'Jillington:
",hich
nOirl
had
failed
to
Come
extracts
to
terms
delight
the
young
remained
in
London
exhibition
in
moving
1908. [27]
In
1910
of the NEAC:
I
A glance
does
book of life.
intended
artists,
beti,een
the
Paris
hOl'V' to establish his r"'eputation as an artist, to
year
to
the
vlith the radical developments in
TirlO years later Le"\-lis I s \vorks iiere rejected by obscurity,
same
fr'om all it touches,
Europe.
relative
whose
"The Hevl English is a deplorable
leaving a for-mal dullness". [26] To Leiiis and NEAC
the
painting
Fry,
display of degradation of a function, iv-hich irIaS originally give
of
in 1893, pointed out that
British art seemed to have come to a standstill. [25J In Lewis
J.S.Sargent,
faced major opposition from the Royal Academy and
the NEAC.
been
the
Sickert
remadced
round
the
Club. and
only on
i,alls
He
ilunich, returning
the enduring of
any
NEAC
certainly not give us the sensation of a page from the
There is an over insistence on tvl0 motifs.
The
one
the
august-site motif, and the other the smartened-up-young-men motifs. '[28] In 1908 the Allied Artists Association ];'las for'hled ,\'lodcs
of
young
a:ctists.
Some
years
later
to
exhibit
Frank Rutter stated his
reasons for forming the PiliA: friends in Paris, French as well as British and Americans, used to lament at the difficulty of shovling their vlOrlcs in London, 'The cost of carriage is bad enough,' they complained, 'but to pay freight both vlays and then have our vlOdc rejected by your Academy - ah! that is too disgusting. if '\-le YJlei'V' fm"' certain that our vlOrk Hould be exhibited, then the cost of/ sending it vlOuld be worth l.hile. I They pointed to the Societe des Independents in which everyone has the right to have so many works exhibited. It has no selection jury, and each - 120 -
the
member car:. exhibit just vrhat he :Likes. I Have you nothing like the Independents in London? I vIas urged to star't a society on these lines in London, so the AAA came into being. It vias a free house, no selection jury. [29]
I...
In the summer of 1908, the Hall.
exhibition
at
the
Pissarro
vlOrks
and
by
J .D.Fergusson,
S.J. Peploe,
In
year
others.
the
sane
an
Rafaelli,
enthusiastic
appreciation of Impressionist and Post-Impressionj.st painting available
to
set
forth
the
pointed general
,-las
the
out
father
,-
Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin.
I
made
Art vIas that
programme of a neVl alnt vlhich
simple decoration and through ,·jhich he moderns:
was
readers i-lhen Julius Heier-Graefe I s
publised in English had
Royal
The exhibition, opened to all nationalities and all types
of art \¥'ork, included Lepine,
held its
Manet
pUlne and
of
the
great
s book had great
influence on the artistic thought and taste of the younger generation in England,
and
Fry
in particular derived many of his early ideas Cafter
1908) about modern In
spite
of
and
from its pages. [30] the
signs
of
revolt,
defiance
of
the
Academic
the NEAC and famUiarity vlith some French contemporary
paintings, the British artists still lacked a definite direction. Post-Impressionist
exhibitions
iv-ere
artists confidence, championed their efforts, and spirit
of
the
Fry
stimulated
avant-garde that prevailed in Europe.
and
personalities
of
the
British the
exhilarating
Paris art \wrld. n [31] Young
began to ",v-ork on the basis of group interest lnather than in response the demands of patrons or old institutions.
- 121 -
true
John Hothenstein
pointed out that Fr'y I s influence flbrought near to them the events
gave
Fry's
to
British embraced
began to emulate a French
the
formal
Cubism, that
qualities of African sculpture.
itself
The influence of
both of these on British painters lasted from 1912
to
considered
as
art.
As the painter'
Frederick
Gore
of
full-blooded
the
peak
of
i-ncote:
model"nism. '[32]
modernism in '1913-15
years
the First Horld
1915,
a
caused a loss of excitement
in modernist painting, it cannot be seen as the major cause of of
the
influence
of African sculpture.
Vorticism, had been basically
developed
by
the
the
end
Before June 1914 a neVI style, British
avant-garde.
It
"laS
a combination of the flat and linear rhythm of Cubism and the
repetetive dynamism of Futurism and was characterised by the and
period
variation
of
styles
adopted
in
the
complexity
Omega Workshops.
HOivever,
despite occasional echoes, the elements of African sculpture are discernible
in
it.
r'1any
hardly
practised Vorticism just
the
outbreak of the "Tar, but most of the avant-garde became .lar ru.,tists from
1916
to
1918.
Some endeavoured to depict military subjects and scenes
from the front in variations of the experiences
of
Vorticist
style,
but
the
bitter
compelled many of them to pevel"t to the tl"aditional
descriptive peal ism. In the 1920s with Dismorr,
Cuthbert
a
few
Hamilton
exceptions
such
as
Etchells,
and Ben Nicholson, most of the avant-gapde
\Vas producing less radical vlOrk than before the ,..rar.
Ed\olal"d
David
Grant
Bomberg,
Christopher
Nevinson,
Lel'lis
and
HadSlvorth, are cases in
point. [33] Clearly, the pre-vmr experiments had largely ceased revolutionary
zeal
had died.
Gallery,
London.
In
and
the
In Harch 1920 Lewis made an unsuccessful
attempt to revive these by organising the r,1ansard
Jessica
the
catalogue
experiments undertaken by allover Europe
X eirnibition
Group
he
during
wrote the
last
at
the
that:
"the
ten
years
should be utilized and developed and not lightly abandoned."[34] Lewis's
- 122 -
contemporary "'lOrks
(FIG.4.1)
are
such
Three
Figures
(Ballet
Scene),
1919-20,
executed in a retrospective vein recalling the spirit of
previous expeJ."iments. period
as
"'lhich
It is reminiscent
reflected
African
of
his
\-lorks
of
the
Omega
influence, \'ihich can be
elongated necks; schenatised faces that recall
the
in the
concave
planes
of
African masks; the heads depicting a combination of two geometric shapes - the circle and triangle; the limbs Shovling
strong
curvilinears
that
recall Picasso's African inspired "rorks or Vlatisse! s rhythmic archs; and the feet, l"epresented formal elements.
by
triangular
shapes,
also
recalling
African
Despite the fact that there 1'laS an interest in African
sculpture on the part of some British critiCS, certain sections public
and
of
the
some runtists in the 1920s, the avant-garde painters did not
re-explore its formal qualities. In contrast, development
in
sculpture both
demonstrated
Britain
had
betl'leen the Biddle Ages and in
as
combining
a
Sir
John
the
beginning
of
the
20th
Rothenstein
centur'Y. [35 ]
had been considered
1910 British sculpture VIas Victorian in
narrative
tradition with the naturalistic style
and
French
his
contemporaries.
The
leading
sculptors at the beginning of the centur'y were Homo Thorncroft,
Onslow Ford, Thomas Brock, George Frampton and Alfred \'1hom
consistent
This 1vas an impo::-tant
the 18th and 19th centuries
evolved by British
Since,
and
produced very little sculpture of consequence
infelnj,or to painting. [36] outlook,
forceful
pre- and post vIar Bpitain.
development, especially in the 1920s emphasises,
a
Druney,
had recieved at least part of their trai.ning in France.
most
Sculptupe
,v-as lalngely subselnvient to architecture and there I"as hardly any building
"\·,hich did not have any sculptural decoration.
of
public
Epstein arr'ived
in London in 1905 and in 1908 in his first major public commission of 18 statues
for
the
British Hedical Association Building on the Strand in
- 123 -
London departed radically from the decorated style of the
period.
figures
This caused a
were
naked and depicted all ages of both sexes.
great furore in London. the
Epstein later explained vlhy:
His
"Perhaps this ,vas
first time in London that a decoration was not purely "decoration";
the figures had some
fundamentally
human
meaning,
instead
of
being
adjuncts to an alnchi tect! s mouldings and cornices." [37] This ivork marked the beginning of modern sculpture in 1910
Epstein
began
Two
later in
to produce works that combined non-European styles
like Egyptian, Assyrian, African, and Oceanic elements. Eric Gill ,vas another young sculptor who by 1910 vJas also producing ieiork that differed radically from Victorian tradition. vTilliam Rothenstein described as 'a style so pri)l1itive. '[38] Vorticism. and
Gill
influenced
vlaS
simple
neither
by
He evolved, what as
to
be
primitive
almost art
nor
Although he was associated with Fry, the Post-Impressionists
Epstein
he
primitive art.
,vas
not
inspired
by
their vie"\vs of and interest in
His style was literary, representational and decorative.
His themes were mostly of Biblical origin and were heavily underlined by sensuousness and
It ViaS not until
began to produce SCUlptures.
His vJork had often been related to African
sculpture by Fry, but
basically
they
1916
reflect
the
that
Frank
influence
Dobson
of
the
full-rounded
forms of Aristide Haillol, a style ,vhich Dobson intr-oduced
into Britain.
Gaudier-Br'zeska on the other hand I"ho started
1912
in
soon became inf::'uenced by African and Oceanic sculptm"e.
the war
caused
a
major
interruption
in
the
influence
of
Hm'lever, African
sculpture on British SCUlpture.
The death of Gaudier-Brzeska in 1915 on
the
loss
Epstein
Front
vIas
a
great
to
this
artistic
exp::'or-ation.
sel'ved in the army as a soldier from 1917 to 1918 being l'efused
emplo:;,ment as a It'lar artist because commissions.
HOi'lever,
of
controver'sies
over
his
public
the IvaI' did not bring the dialogue "lith Afr'ican
- 124 -
sculpture to a total halt. continued
to
be
In the post-vlar era Epstein! s taste and i-lOrk
influenced
by
P£rican sculpture until 1930.
In the
earlyj920s a
generation of sculptors including Henry
Hepworth
John Skeaping began to build upon the artistic foundation
and
laid dOim by Epstein and Gaudie,:,-Brzeska.
Hoore,
the \,v-ar.
By
Bal"'bara
the
late
1930s their effort had culminated in Abstraction and Surrealism. At this point it seems
appropriate
to
examine
the
concept
and
or
form
exerts
over
nature of influence. The duration of influence another
is
one
artist
art
by the interest, purpose, and goals of the latter
1rlhich can be sustained, interrupted or bpought to
a
complete
halt
by
external
forces or pressures, by the encouragement OP opposition of apt
c:citics,
art
institutions
influence
of
Post-Impressionism
and
al.,tists. on
British
encouraged by Roger Fry and others while the involved
\-Jas
discouraged
and
and
spread
Royal
the
influence
artists vlas brought to a halt
by
a
from
Futm"ism and its manifesto.
dUl"ation
of
the
aJ..,tists
imAC.
the
and
The
of FutUl"ism on the British of
led
Lei-;is
by
This group of artists signed.
statement denouncing and disassociating themselves As a result only Nevinson remained to
SOEe extent influenced by Futurism. the
interest
group
by Gaudier-Brzeska and Etchells.
and published a
the
artists was inspired and
Academy
of
assisted
instance,
disrrupted at cel.,tain stages by the old
established institutions like the development
For
of an influence.
Other external factors can
The
liJorld
disturb
is a case in point:
its devastating effect on art and society in general is vlell-knmm. socio-economic position of the artist is another factor. Jacob Epstein, for instance, Iv-ithout a relatively modelling
portraits,
he
would
interest in African sculpture. - 125 -
have
been
The duration
regular
The
In the case of income
fl"om
unable
to pursue his long
of
influence
an
can
be
eithe1
1
shopt
prolonged
Oln
but
it is the effect Oln the impact of the
influence that counts, as historical evidence has s11oi1n. Gaudj_er-Brzeska
vIas
influenced
by
For
example,
African sculpture for a Inelatively
short period, but the nature and impact of its influence
upon
him
are
equivalent to those of Epstein and Brancusi on vlhom the influence lasted longer.
Therefore the effects of a short period of influence can be
as
dramatic as those of a longer duration. Some Hriters have identified certain types of influence. is
particularly
important
for
Oceanic and other primitive art "emotional";
classifying on
and
the
Fauves
pointed
included
out
that
Gauguin
the influence of African,
modern
"intelligent".
attitude of Gauguin and the
as
European
runtists
in
any
serious
He
[39]
pl-'imitive motifs in his ovm
painting, but neither he nor the Fauves assimilated the forms spirit
as:
Gold1lJater described the
"romantic som.e
Goldvlater
OP
theil-'
Instead he argued that these aptists
attempted to evoke an atmosphere of primitivism.
He considered that the
Fauves appreciation of P£rican sculpture in particular did not represent an admiration fOl the formal because they n
IiThether
or
not
j_ts
admired
n
they
"vork
formal qualities corresponded "lith those of other
primitive "iOr'ks IiThich they admired. [40] Theil because
any
believed
that
attitude
,vas
'romantic'
anything primitive expressed a union Hith
nature ivhich they sought to emulate. [41 ] The influence of Aflnican and Oceanic sculptures on the the
Blaue
and
Rei ter' ,"vas described by GoldHater as "emotional" because the
Gel"IDan painters used these plnimitive viOrks as exotic emotions
Brucke
and
passions
to
po::.-.tray
in as outspoken a manner as possible.
In other
iriOl-.ds they used the artefacts of
the
tradj_tional
bronze cupids.
plaster'
casts
and
primitive
forms
peoples
in
place
For eXaLlple in Nolde's
painting The t1issionary 1912, a Imeeling Yor'uba mother and child - 126 -
of
figur'e
and
Bor..go
mask
are
simply
a Yoruba figure and Bongo mask.
GoldVlater believed that by using African paintings
that
these
artists
prominer..ce the paintings
emotion behind the
physical
not conceived "'lith purely
their
the
setting. [42]
The
concerns in mind but
fundamentals
of
human
life
and
Hmvever, at the same time he discerned
the
He believed that the German artists appreciated the
qualities of primitive art. fopmal
in this Hay in
were attempting to bring into cor..scious
i'Iere regarded as expressions of destiny.
HOHever,
qualities
of Cameroonian and Dahomian sculptures in the Hork of
E.L.Kirchne:c, Nolde and others. [43] Fop example, in
Kirchneln's
the Alp Procession 1918, Goldvlater observed the
qualities
of Cameroon
vlhich the artist had seen in the
"the
outline
zig-zag
used
Berlin
by
posts and lintels; lonzenge eyes,
pelief,
r':useum:
on
door
mouth and chin." [lj.1,l]
E.L.Ettlingep carried Golduater! s argument one
stage
fUI"ther
and
suggested that the Genrran aptists never subjected pr5.ruitive capving to a formal analysis and hence did not experience the intensity infl uence
"0Jhich informed Cubism. [45] He also
the others came to aesthetic
an
of
of
that Kirchner and
primitive
al't
not
through
an
experience but through reading ethnogpaphical matepial on the
subject. [46] Yet Ettlinger also acknoHledged the influence of the formal qualities
of
primitive
stated:
"The
actual
in
the
1r1Odc
of the Ger'man artists.
influence
of
primitive
apt
all'Jays
lIaS
He only
accidental Hith Die Brucke and did not occup befope the second decade of the century Hhen the knOlm
in
II
of Negro art for Cubism
entrenched in recent years. have
taken
a
GoldvJater I s
[47]
different
vie";point
Nevertheless, there have been vievl
becoming has become
vlriters
Hho
of the notion that the influence on the
German artists ,·;as unifOlnraly emotional and natupe based.
- 127 -
'ivas
For
example,
Oska1
Pfiste1
1
11eckoned
1
that
the
emotional
transition for further progress: possible
only
through
influence Has a stage of
step on the road to progress is
the detour of such a progression. II [48] This vlaS
true of Picasso in accordance vlith Ettlinger's obsepvation. pointed
out
that
the
B11ucke! s
pesponse
to
"analytical" as 'iV'ell as "emotional VI [49]; '{"[hile stated
that
it
"'lOuld
be
"Trong
D.E.Gordon
sculpture Y.!anfred
"lIaS
Schneckenbmnger
to reduce the German Expressionist IS
reception of primitive art to a kind of mysticism, \vithout understanding
Goldwater considered the influence of African sculpture on and
the
Cubists
as "intellectual" because it involved direct analysis
and formal borrovling. [51] Yet he saVl this as emotional
Inesponse
to
priI:1itivism: But his
Vlhich
its
had
read
into
the
result
of
Picasso's
"Nevertheless, it vlaS hardly pmne
form alone that inspired him. he
Picasso
m,n
concept
simplification
of and
the
primitive
geometriC,
and
rhythmically static composition, an inner nervousness and violence."[52] Ettlinger
11eiterated
the same vie',"l pointing out that Picasso uas first
influenced emotionally by African sculpture before he began "to
1907
about
g11asp the :Lntellectual and aesthetic principles of pal ticular types 1
of masks and to
relate
Kegro
sculpture
more
s three types of
influence
are
thoroughly
to
Heste11n
but
can
art"[53]
misleading.
Firstly
inferior
'intellectual',
to
irrational.
John
they
imply
that
that
through
being
'honest
anti-intellectual
influence'
an' intelligent influence' but on the
of infl uence 1vhich is ei the1
1
not
'emotional' influence is Ol1
for example opposed Goldillate11 ' s vie,'lpoint by
Grahan
stating that some paintings bear' an Inevealed
be
"lhilst
others
all bear some S011t
'opened! or 'camouflaged'.
Al though he did
elaborate these kinds of influence he observed that one type OP the - 128 -
other
was
not
the
intelligence. [54]
Goldi:later i s
t
ef
lack
of
analysis also appears teo schematic.
is especially difficult to separate his "emotional" "intellectual"
academicism.
His
follOVler
best
as
classical
primitive
which
the
to and
his
sculpture, a
it
\'laS
underlined
'Ilith
Ettlinger stressed the academic undertone:
"Picasso studied Negro sculpture as artists
Gold"\iater
from
categor·y as noted in the case of Picasso.
the "intellectual II influence as the
of
category
It
but
searching
follOlvers
did
formerly
studied
the
German artists neVel" subjected analysis. tI [55J
formal not
had
t'eckon
Horeover
vlith the fact that the
had different interests Ivhich determined
the
primitive art vIas employed.
such as Gaudier-Brzeska
for example had clearly artists
had
pointed
Some out
that
he
and
Epstein,
myself, through likewise
to
the
spend
Brancusi,
Ar"chipenko,
incessant
struggle
ouch
in
avant-garde arts
As he put it:
"He the
DunikOliski, iclodigliani, and in
the
complex
City,
have
He have been influenced by Hhat lie
like most,
each
according
primitive
ar·ts
offered the artists three
to
his
individuality. [56]
OVln
Thus
the
and
the
(ie.
"emotional fI and intellectual") in addition conceptual
other
'.iays
been influenced by African sculpture and
according to theip av.Tn individual personalities. moderns:
various
to
the
technj_cal
elements flnOI:l v1hich they had the
to choose accOlnding
to their personalities. Secondly acadeLlic
the
avant-garde
approach
for
artists
of
approach
avant-garde
the
expression.
primitive art forms including regard
one
not
intel"ested
in
the
so long had been considered the best and
only possible means that
\'lere
It
turned
Children's
vIas to
to
avoid
the
academic
African, Oceanic and other
art.
The
artists
did
net
of influence as being better than another in terms of
- 129 -
intelligence but only as Goldvlater
and
a
means
of
personal
development.
Thirdly
Ettlinger attributed the analysis of formal qualities of
primitve art as an intellectual process
to
Picasso
and
the
Cubists.
They
then related this to the formal analysis of classical art.
other
hand
they
pointed
out
that
the
artists
On the
substituted
primitive art for the study of plaster casts of classical art.
Yet they
did not see any intelligence in their process of analysis. These confusions over the type of influence primitive upon
a.vant-garde ru,.,tists, prompted Epstein to define the term influence
from his personal point of
as an artist.
influence meant to him during a in "tv-hich Epstein stated: means
exel'"'ted
He
explained
"The wopd
I
influence'
as
I
understand
it,
it means a full comprehension of
both mind and technique, that go into the composition
of
work,
and
a
of that acco:i."'ding to the personalities of the ru.-,tists. "[57]
Epstein's
definition
influence
of
art evolved creative
the
vlith Apnold Haskell in 1930
more than a mere surface study:
tl'"'anslation
ivhat
highlights
primitive through
thought
art.
the
and
three
factors
appreciation
imagination.
Secondly
composition of these
governed
the
Firstly the understanding of the i'lOrk of of This
the
understanding
elements.
That
the is
aesthetic
involves
shapes, lines and volumes as creative elements significance.
that
prinCiples,
indentifying
and
appreciating
process
involved
understanding
the
the their
in
the
artist's
choice of shapes and lines and their sizes, thickness and volumes; their relation of one to another, the harmony of their colours and finally the treatment
given
to
the
surface.
technique, as Epstein called it. treatment
This
process
Anothel'" aspect
of
involves technique
skill,
0,,'"
is
the
of
the
artist's
medilli'TI ,,yithin its physical limitations and
according to
the
artist's
virtuos::ty.
itself
in
influence
manifests
specific ways according to the personal interpretations of a
- 130 -
specific al"'tist. dislikes,
the
The inter'Pl">etations ar'e detel"Wined by aims,
in
short
the
are:
likes
and
personality of the artists or the
pepson being influenced by the lilOPk. intel">pretation
the
The various pelnceptible
means
of
(a) 'iilpiting critical appreciation of the art
(b) collecting the IvOl">k
of
ai">t;
(c)
imitating
the
motifs
and
the
or
cri tic! s
aesthetic ppinciples of the art. (a) The influence of a Iv-ork of al">t on an judgment
Oln
artist! s
taste can be discerned in his lilritings.
a
For example, Rogeln
Fry Vlhose initial liJr'itings
influenced by
his
taste
for
the
Hasters
by
sculpture.
His
Ivritings
liJaS
late:c
influenced
therefore epitomised his perceptive Afr'ican
sculpture
as
already
African
recognition
discussed.
of
the
qualities
Old
of
Guillauoe Apollinaire, Carl
Einstein, and Clive Bell liiel"e vnnitel"'s and critics Hhose tastes 1.lere also influenced
by
African
SCUlpture.
Some
artists have also shoHn this
influence on their taste through their writings, especially Epstein
and
Henry £'loore. (b) Collecting liwrks of art, in this case pl"'imit:'ve art, regarded
has
been
as an instinctive dl"'ive but has not previously been considel"'ed
as a form of
influence.
understanding
and
Yet
appreciation
collecting as
apt
requires
defined by Epstein.
a
degree
of
The collector
H.D.\iJebster's insight into primitive apt at the beginning of the century far
beyond
pure
ethnogl"'aphic
interest.
collected Afl"'ican sculptur-e and other p::-imitive runt impact
of these arts on thei:t' taste.
Avant-garde
reveals
the
IIo1ileVel"', collecting a Hode of art
can soon become a fashionable and hence pl"'estigious activity_ true of P£rican sculpture in the 1920s and the late thirties.
- 131 -
artists
This
,-las
(c) Imitation as an essential aspect of influence has been misunderstood.
Terns
'transcribe'; 'modify'; etc. to
avoid
any
c • a .,.
such
derogatory
'study';
a
Hork
'translate';
have all, at times, been substituted so as meaning.
example, in attempt to avoid a
public uproar in 1926 against h:I.s use call ed
'copy';
greatly
of his II A Study".
of
non-European
As he put it:
motifs
Epstein
''1;'lhen I exhib i ted the
work at the Leicester Galleries, Hishing to avoid controversy, I it
"A
By
Study".
this
called
disguise I succeeded for once in evading the
critics, ahlays ready to bay and snap at a 'iV'ork."[58] H01vever, imitation in
art
requires
a
measure
of
insight
qualities.
In many circUI!2stances it also
rejection
of
the
other
personality
therefore a
understanding of the
selection
and
The selection and rejection of motifs is
motifs.
artist I s
and
plays
act in itself.
the early stages of development of
a
major
r'ole.
Imitation
is
That is 1iIhy Kandinsky related it to the
avant-garde
artists
\..rho
T,lere
being influenced by African sculpture and other primitive art. The three factors derived fron: Epstein I s involve
intelligence
and
definition
emotion.
Influence Since
cannot
the
of
j,nfluence
be
classified
significance
of
an
according
to
intelligence
per
see
influence
of
a
art
on an artist is its contribution to the
'I'lOrk
of
artist! s individual development and the evolution of art on it
is
needless
the
",hole,
to see one type of influence as better than the other.
This is an important prinCiple in the classification of the influence of African sculpture on British artists. Therefore I am suggesting that useful categories of influence (i)
Direct
Influence (ii) Indirect influence.
(iv) Conceptual influence. taste.
(iii) Formal influence.
(v) Technical influence.
(vii) Open influence.
(vi) Influence
(viii) Can:ouflaged
obviously interrelated and are not firmly den:arcated and an - 132 -
are:
of
These are can
be influenced by all of them si:c:ultaneously in different il'lays. (i) Direct influence is exer·ted 'ivhen the artist comes
contact
i1ith
an
artistic
stimulus
profound or less so, prolonged (ii)
such as primitive art.
direct
It can be
short-lived.
influence is exerted vlhen an artist is influenced
second-hand
infor'illation
about
a
or i10rk of another artist. British
into
avant-garde
artists
lIJOrk of ar·t thr'ough an An
example
is
the
case
of
the
such as Duncan Grant, Frederick Etchells,
Venessa Bell, and Wyndham Le'ivis amongst others, vlhose in
by
initial
interest
sculpture vlaS derived from the Cubist works exhibited at the
Post-Impressionist exhibition Picasso
FIG.3.38
and
by
of
1912
Etchells).
in
London.
(See
This
often
leads
FIG.3.6
by
to a direct
influence as \vill be noticed in the case of Henry Hoore lvho is discussed in Chapter Seven. (ii:J Under of
African
art
influence the alntist adopts the formal qualUies as described in Chapter One; (eg.
concaVity of plane,
proportions, quasi-geomtric and geometric forms etc.).
This category is
Goldvlater considered intelligent. (iv) Conceptual influence is vlhereby the subject
or
theme from a vlOrk of art.
adopts
African
sculpture
and
certain
For instance the themes of frank
sexuality and fertility and the relationship of in
a
have
mother
and
child
are
influenced the \"lOrk of the
British artists. (v)
hw major aspects of technical influence,
affected
the
British
carving.
These
are
artists, often
have
Truth to material and Direct
namely:
described
that
as
principles
and
have
been
discussed in the first chapter and are not limited to African sculpture.
- 133 -
Direct carving i'TaS part af the Eurapean sculptural Archaic
Greek
t:::-'aditian
fram
the
periad to' abaut the end af the 18th century, after' \'lhich
its practice ceased.
The pracess af indipect
"Thereby
plaster
ar Vlax r2aquettes "Jere repraduced in stane 01" "lOad by means af a painting machine
then intraduced.
beginning
af
revival
af
at
it.
Hark Batten believed that it
He stated:
vIas
af
Eric
twa hundred years.
stane
Very saan •••
and
It
T,Jere
alsO'
daing
it."[59J
is
Halcalm
Yal"'k,
far
Barlach
(1870-1938)
to'
different
instance, painted aut that Jahn Ruskin had
preached the dactrine as early as 1880, and that Hildebrand and
a
Epstein
difficult
establish the truth af this statement and recent Vlriters hald viel.vs.
far
In 1909 he became the first man in
madern times to' carve a figure directly in stane. Gaudier'-Brzeska
Gill
"At the time when the late Eric Gill began
the revival af direct carving, nO' 'artist' had carved in periad
the
the Tvrentj.eth centur'y uas stimulated by African sculptu;:'e
and ather primitive ar'ts. '17ha
The
had
practised
(1847-1921)
it an the cantinent.
Berlach
began to' practise direct cal"ving in 1906 i17hen he stapted using \\laad as a medium
far
his
Yark argued that in
fallO't'1ed by Brancusi, Epstein,
Gaudier-Br'zeska,
They in turn Yark
admitted
Hadigliani, and
and
Arp;
the
and
in
avant-garde
and
Skeaping.
artists af the
all
af
which
by
HaViever? century
"adapted it because they admired primitive r,1exican, African, art
England
Dabsan viha vJere strang advocates af it.
follaVied by Naare, HepviOrth that
these precursars
Pacific ..•
directly car'Ved uith no preliminary dravlings ar
maquettes, and n:a1 e aften in iwad than in stane."[60] 0
Sinan r.Hlsan also explained that the avant-garde
uho saught
inspiratian in forms and themes af African sculpture and ather primitive arts continued to' use Eurapean traditional they
develaped nei, apppoaches to both.
- 134 -
methods
and
materials
but
According to him, they extended
the range of types of stone and important
of
mapble
and
employed,
vlOod
r::tost
all, they adopted the use of carving, specifically direct
carving, as
primary method. [61]
"Hilson
two principles as inspired by African
explained
primary
model
to
guide
the
He pointed out that in
practice the artist must execute the "l-lOl"'k himself and must detailed
but
him.
This
of
not
course
have
made
significantly diffepent practice from the normal vlay in i-lhich
a
it a
stone
or
marble car'ving "I"ms genepally executed in the late 19th century, typified by Rodin, "I-1ho made a plaster model and handed it ovep to a marble
carver
to
reproduce.
Sometimes
the
aJ:"'tist
professional
himself
used a
pointing machine to reproduce the plaster cast or the maquette in stone. In
both
cases
the
object
or work ended up in a different medium and
often on a different scale from the original.
But in
the
artist forges the final form directly into the chosen material, thinking and feeling it out as he goes
along.
apppoach
immediacy
resulted
in
a
ne"ll1"
pointed of
impact
out and
that
this
freshness of
inspil"'ation, togethel" ,-lith a neVI and aesthetically, extremely satisfying relationship
betw"een for1ll and material in 1il1"hich the form tended to grol";
out
matepial
of
the
delibel"'ately
sought
and by
the
reflects
its
nature.
avant-garde artists and
status of a doctrine "\..]hich can be summed up
in
the
This i
effect
,;las
came to have the
phrase
"Truth
to
(vi) Influence of taste, besides being demonstl"ated by vJriting
and
l''laterial''. I [62 J
by
the
impulse of collecting, is "seen as an attempt to adopt a ceptain
code of life-style 1ilrhich is assumed to be in sympathy il1"ith that African
carver
or
the
primitive artist.
of
the
This aspect of influence is
Hhat Goldvmter classified as "romantic" and is best typified by Gauguin.
- 135 -
(vii) Open influence involves a specific
African
sculpture
straight-fOl"lvard
imitation
of
a
or primitive artefact, 101ith or' vlithout any
modifications. (viii) Camouflaged influence is generalised
motifs
the
artist
has
used
the
of African sculpture or primitive art, or using the
forms of a specific African sculpture but modifying them beyond outright recognition. The aspects of influence discussed in this the
discussions
of
the
11'10rks
selected for case studies.
- 136 -
of
three
,Iill reflect
in
Bri tish avant-garde artists
CHAPTER 5 JACOB EPSTK'::!.\I - PASSIm:ATE Arm OBSESSED APPROACH In
November
entitled did
191LI
ivhen
Adrian
Allinson
that
he
Has
significance to
ppoducing
a
document
[1] Recent
cartoon
Silber'
cons
of
e
have cited this cartoon to
emphasise Epstein!s expertise in African
and
Oceanic
sculptures.
Dr
lampoon
in
stated:
suff:.cien';:ly i-Jell knolm in 1914 for the
his
Hr Epstein doubting the authenticity of a South Sea Idol!, he
not
Evelyn
published
lUI :.nson to
magaz ine COlOUr'. Ii [2] The cartoon 1 (FIG. 5. 1 ),
Sb.O';·l s
the bulky figur-e
of Epstej.n holding a female statuette uhich he is looking of
eye.
him
at
from
For us, it is significant because it suggests that
Epstej.n could differentiate Afpican, Oceanic and from
each
s claim of 16
othel".
arts late:" supports thj.s:
can pick out pieces in my Olin collection that I all: convinced of
one
particular
the
a::otist. II [3J
1ilas
a
a:'0e
flI
iw:eks
achievement by
Epstein as an artist, because identifying the
provenance
primitive
Dany artists, dealers and
art
in
those
days
had
baffled
style
of
Epstein himself pointed out that? "although the wopks of each had 'i,le:ce many
ceptain Hell-marked charactel"istics...
that could not be c1 early classified. II [LI]
\'lhen
Jacques
for instance, bought a painted ,woden Dahomian cup in 1909 in Paris he vIaS supe that. it ',.las Egypt:Lan. later,
't·lhile
v:"sitJ.ng
It
.-
the Trocadero? that he learnt ft T.rIaS an Afrfcar:.
sculpture. [5] Carl Einstein's book exac.ple 7
about one and 11alf years
published in 1915,
contafned some Cceanic sculptures T.rJhich 1iJepe not dj.stinguished
frolll t.he Afl°::'can. [6] Even
:Dade Idstakes and it
unt.:Ll the 19503 that tvlO Dan-Ngel'e
of
1863 by the Br>f
Nuseum and p:"eviously thouZht to be
- 137 -
uas
not
acquired in NOr'th
Amez':"can
cO::''Y'ectly a:et in
indentified. [7] The
of authenticating primitive
betueen 1915 and the 19,208 ems due to the designation CNegpo
a:::,t) to true
of
Oceanic and many othel"
The
same
of
the
These
terms irJel"e used :Lnte::ochangeably iriith IIpr'j_m::Ltive
II
art I I . [8] The
is not the only r:leans of establ ishing the extent of
Epstein! s
and interest in lU'rican sculpturoe, he also r/n'ote on
the subject, and ar:lassed a
collection of Afpican and
PacifiC
sculpture. Epstein! s interest in and approach to African art are eapliest
and
most
comprehensive
by
an
avant-gar-de artist in either
Britain OP Europe.
I-Es VieirlS on Afl"ican sculptur'e ,Jere
and
1931
published
L.Haskell
in
and
he
autobiographical
after
interest
foundation
of
series
subsequently
::lonograph
aesthetic
a
and
his
1940.
They
Afrj_can scuIptupe.
in
knoviledge
obvious
appeal
seeking
neu
of
model
for
a
of
in
conceptual
the
Hay
to
Epstein
as
an
artist
Some aspects of the been
learned
scanty sources since his first encounter \11ith pl1imitive art in the
Louvre in Paris in 1902 I-Ihen he ,las a student sculptor. dealer'S, Thomas
oim
Epstein's
conceptual foundation, like motivation and funct::_ons, had f!'om
his
The aesthetic aspect of this art, so
rich in plasticity, had an a
reco:cded
irJith At'nold them
gene::oal
fj_l"st
of
L'ei te:"a ted
published
the
and
the
Iv11ib_ngs
of
Huseulll
labels 7
Gu:Ulaume Apollinaire, Paul Guillaume;
and Andre Salmon in Paris and later those of Fry and
Bell in London intlnoduced him to the rudiments of the subject. the kncHledge acqu:1red L'om such
- 138 -
irlaS
l:Lm:1 ted.
Clive
HO'i,rever 7
Epstein \'las the first avant-garde artj_st in the 1930s to the
qua1:Lty
of
being
that time as a result of the revival of traditional ppoposed
by
Nichael
Sadler.
results to the European
of
aesthetic
values.
In
other" ilOrds the
himself.
that
felt
the unsatisfactory
native
European,
at
in Hest
He
the
\'wd:s that satisfied the Epstein
cr:Lticise
conceptual
but
foundation
,I)"ith
'uas producing
of
no
signtficance
to
the African only retained h:::_s
craftsmanship, and had lost his inspiration and values.
As he put it:
I be:!..tve there is an attempt in Africa, sympatlletic governlnent teachers? to revive the art of vwod carving and clay-modelling. :::: have seen some exa..1'J1ples of this Hork and they aJ,'e disappointing. The life has gone out of them; the impulse is not a living one. A outlook has been substituted the native and hovJeve: bard the young tries to embody his OIiVll ncdve feelings he is no a "believeI'"? and the I'esul t is only or less trained craftsmanship. "[9] n
He predicted that a ne,-7 Afr"ican genius l"Jould that
in
their
vlOpk
VJould be different from ilhat is
Epstein did
not
think
understand
the
conceptual
have
pos,tponed
the
that
i'las
Epstein
vras
foundation.
for
but
nO\'l.
Yet
needed
to
foundation of African sculpture in
and a
total
exploitation
understanding
tb,at
popular but vras not fully undepstood facilities
future
a:'tists
fOI'mal
sculptuI'e until there
the
and
of
its
to
of conceptual
sculpture vras amazingly that
"there
'\'Jelne
not
many
studying it. n [10] But he believed strongly that ",'\.frican
sculpture had been understood aesthetically.
- 139 -
In Epstein! s vieu considerations approached
that
African
Aflnican
sculptm"e
[,Sover'ned
all
sculpture
explained that
as
by
I'JaS
In
sculpture
in
the
same
Hords
he
r-ight.
He
other
its
Ovlll
sculpture \las not produced to an absolute
laid dmm by tr:Lbal customs, although the artist 1i>1aS
bcund
some e::tent in the same "ray as Renaissance artists holy family.
Al though the apt:i.sts
to
in depicting the
anonymous,
he
emphasised
that
the finest examples of African sculpture Ivere
of highly individual
arb_sts, ">"i th theil'
Such
explained
vlhy
outlook
and
technique.
Vias
to
identify the T{lOdes of individual
O'Vlll
Epstein
able
understanding
artists in his collection. Epstein mentioned the simplj,fication and the directness of its distortions and geometric qualities which he described as a "union
of
naturalism
and
design
and
explained
that
an
qualities." [11]
He
truth
these qualities.
African are
an
attempt
"[12] In other'
at
Epstein
the
African
a
compromise
"The very behleen
and
that
periods
naturalj.sm
He
geometry) •
and
po:i_nted
out
did not arrive at this compromise as a result of the
need or j.nvol ved :::'easoning of lche Eu::'opean artist. vieH
of
it Has an attempt at exploring the
of Af;:--ican sculpture (:1"-e. the
stz'iking simpl ified anatomical
to the early phase of Cubism:
of Cubism
that
its
European
s
artists achieved complete plastiCity by exhausting
all means of reppesentatIonal
vlhe1 eas the Afl'ican did 1
go
that
the
vapj.ety of forms that African J1lBsks exhibIted, expla:1.ning that terrible
"rhilst other's
to ach:Leve plasticity.
not
through
some
process
This lnef:ected
Epstein also pointed out
in their expr'ession of horpor', others Here solemn 1
penSive,
the variety of fona derived
- 140 -
and bl"ooding. theLn function in
He
believed
that
dances, fetish
and Epstein
the
COIDJJI0n
religious-inspired
art:
liThe object and
sculptuY'e
the
purposes
such as
Joseph
Bl"ummep 1 s
and
occul t
of the
masks
\Jere
a of
used
a
of
"and could only be produced vJhere spir-itism pOinted
out
that
of
plastic
the
African
lend
[15]
He
and "a perfect
found
single
Epstein
African
carvings
they
example
to
of
made
free
Hood
possess
in
foc"
predominantly
the
prongs of
delicacy, sensitivity, and a that
For
quality.
forehead off-set by the
hair vIaS pal"ticular'ly
explained
'i'laS
to an analysis of tbeir plasticity 9 and he used the
roundness
II
sculptur'e
that penetrated into anothel'
Head" to illustrate the large
African
in 1913 in Paris, Epstein stated that :l.t itlaS an
shop
st:i.ll holds SVlay."[14] He themsel ves
that
and tbe statues "ere Lq:.'.bal fetishes.n[B]
of a ghosts
v:"eH
nater:Lal.
He
of i-JOod, and
and masks, group figures being less common.
As
a
result
of
his
appreciation
Epstein
also
some
shOirled
understanding of the pr:i.nciple of sex in Afr:i.can sculpture.
Despite its
fra1'lk sexuality he for
it
1;·J2.8
that
pay't
of
"an
attitude
sculpture v,as
not
offensive,
vlhich
only
be
could
I'itual:::.stic."[16] He also explained that the those
"double-sexed
statues",
Epste:'.n
sculptut'es,
c-lere undoubtedly
the sexual pr'-inciple of Ij.fe and therefore
vlOrks embodyi.ng in
no
Kay
offensive.
believed that the sexual f:::-ankness of African
'i-Jas one
of the reasons "('-Jhy the "intelligent modepn sculptor" tur'ned to pelief
because
he
found
j.n
it
vlith
it "a haven of culture" vJhile
the Eur'opean tradition l-lhtch according to Epstein i-laS
- 141 -
tec'med
full
of
blatant
nudes?
pretence
sculptor more
and
pornography. [17]
His
that the avant-garde
inspiration fron the sexuality of
applicable
painters than Skeaping.
to
to
African
himself,
the
Le'ivis
post-I"lar
like
'ivas and
r":oore,
the
Omega
Hep,.;orth
and
He also suggested that the modern sculptor vlaS interested in
African
because it
vlhich
vTere
opened
up
methods and solutions to
from those of the Eur'opean to
the
modern
t-lith
nnone
artists of
problems
and unknol'ln
plninciples
and
the na.gic of the artist's naTe, that so
often blinds the judgement ••• "[18]
Finally Epstein pointed out that
although
been
collected
fop
the endless investigations 'i'ihich
stU2-
had
be
to
subject. [19]
several made
IUs
OIm
decades
really
marked
just
1\£y-ican
the
beginning
finest
collection
individual.
of
had
the
collection of African sculptupe has made its ot-m
significant contr-ibution to the subject for scholar-s have the
sculpture
in
the
and
one
of
Inated
it
as
the lcungest by an
Today attempts are being made to catalogue
the
collection
'\;)'hich is nOlo1" dispersed ovep Bl"itain, France and America. [20]
The extent of the influence of Afr'1can sculptur'e on Epstej_n
can
period of collection;
be
determj,ned
collection; and
his
the
by
and
tn
He
collected
it
till
very
his
family.
he
made
and
collecting.
care
nothing VIas so dear- to him than Af;:'ican from
'tvhtch
reasons
collecting Aflntcan sculptu:ce '\"lith obsession.
taste
of
the qual::" ty, the quantity and the long
manner
soupces
the
kept
the
To Epstein
a life long passion and late
in life and as a birth day present
Rene" Gimpel, an a1°t dealep in Paris, vlho visited the in his diar-y on 3 November 1935:
Epsteins in London
He :..s in his sixties. [21] It's his bl;:othday Hife and daughter" have given hiIil a mask.
- 142 -
and
his
Also a French dealer 7 1ikeHise called t "ho sells sculptures on the de Seine. L"Jhen "ile left? he told me that Epstein had the f::.nest collection of Negro sculpture in the "iorld. This intel"est expla:Lns his not because of the heads of Negl"oes Tlegresses that he has sculptured? but because ther>e sUr'ges from his art a kind of might have issued from some virgin forest. [22]
Epstein told Haskell that he began to collect African about
1906,
the
same
time
sculptur'e
around
as Picasso, Hatisse, Vlaminck and Derain,
because it ivas the only art he could afford and it Has the correct thing to
have
and
to
admire.
It has been suggested that Epstein began his
collection :1.n 1901.f , but this and his claim that he began the
collection
in 1906 have not been substantiated and have often been dismissed on the that he vlas too poor. [23] Epste:Ln' s the
only
reason
to
not
to
Florence
been
pr'event him collecting African sculpture in 1901.},
since he could afford to attend Sunday concer'ts :1.n PariS, trips
have
to
make
tuo
and a brief visit to London, to have his o"m studio
and hire models, and to buy
matepials.
After
all
Derain
and
other'
Ivho began to collect at this b.me paid only few francs for' eacb. [24] HOvlevep, uhen
the
moved to London in 1905 and
fol10Hing yeap, his financial position became very
and he
sought assistance from the Jewish society :1..11. London ttll"ough Bernar-d Shal,7 Villiam
and
impediment, but at
this
may
Rothenstein.
point.
indeed
have
been
is no evidence that he had any desire
to
a
gl"eat collect
In 1912 Epstein acquiped his first Afr'ican sculpture, has
and as Dr'.
emphasised,
seriously
began
to
create
his
collection. [25 J
Epsteil';,
reasonably
pieces dur'ing his six months stay
aftep
at the small attic shop of the dealer Paul Guillaume in
'calling
also
indicated
that
he
Has
able
to
buy
Paris
in
1912
the rlontmal"tre and. at other dealers'. [,26] Hovlevelo ? there is no Deans indent:_fy this early
- 111·3 -
to
According to Fagg? Lady Epstein stated
that the fil"st piece Epstein bought iJ"as a h..alf-length sculpture, cut off at the "(claist? but th:,Ls has not been substantiated noc" has the piece been satisfactorily indentified.[27]
Epste::Ln collected tr'ading
ob,jects.
9
He
acquired
diligently
sear'ch:"ng?
and
many ,·,od{s from Paul Guillaume behieen
1912 and the late 1920s 7 Joseph Brummer fr'om 1912 tin shortly after tte Fj.rst
Har
exh:'_bitions
of
and
from
ll.i'rican
"Hhen
I
1:'1ax
Jacob.
sculptu;:'e
in
Has
in
He attended auction sales and Paris
Paris
in
and
London.
He
later
19129 I saiv an advel'.,t in the
colon:"al papeI' asking fop Afl":i.can ca::-vings in hapd vrood.
Calling at the
Hontmar-'tre I met Paul Guillaume fOi" the fir's'c time in a small attic 1:'oom.
He stal"ted the vogue :,-n Afr'ican vJol"k •••
pieces
pl"ices
at
and
bought
some
othel"s.
Ther'e
iJere
British a
fev;
In
his
collection
and fOPillal beauty of he
had
bought
like
1Jebstei"?
junI<:: and palrJl1 shops in Fleet
cal"Vings. [29] Othep
Hepe sales of aptefacts
collected by missional"ies to Taise funds Afc'ica. [30]
myself
I could afford II. [28 J It is believed that Epstein had
aqcu:i.l"ed AfY'ican carvings fl"om Oldman
I
furthel"
Epstein
l'laS
T,JOe"k
in
definitely guided by the
,wpks and ;'-las ::"nsp:Lred by
those
/
seen in the Tl"Ocadel"o and the Bl"itish r'luseum since many that he
collectec l"esembled 'Horks in these museums.
He sought
specific
pieces
that iJere being looked fop by dealers and aptists 9 as in the case of the Head" of 'i..hich he said: Br'ummer's shop :Ln Par'is many
I-Iead" Hhich I
had
seen
in
before in 1913...
VIaS
later sold and
In 1935 ,vhen all Pa::-is "las seeking it,
the
having
just dj_ed, I came on :T_t by chance in a dealer's basement. n [3n
- 144 -
It is
difficult
to
be
specific
about
the
nU::J.ber
of
African
collected by Epstein behreen 1912 and the 50s because he did
scu2.ptu:::'es
not catalogue them.
HmleVer", of the 1810 a::,tefacts that
roughly
African,
1[0%
and
of
these,
he
collected,
majority
Hood
and pri.mitive
sold
the
cal"vings. [32] Of the 276 ivories of Egyptian,
from the Epstein co2.1ect10n on 15 December 1961, 123 (ie. J\..frican sculptur'es.
l.fLJ·.6%)
lIost of the
sho'l'm at an exhibition of by the Arts Council
of
sold
approximately had
also
been
from Epstein's collection o;:,ganised Great
3:kitain
1960,
in
just
a
year
afte::."
allQiving
his
Epstein's death.
T11e1'e ::72S no evidence that Epstein Has friends
and
others
to
see his
generous
and Oceanic Hork.
great illlportance to his co::r..lection and vIas the
pieces
in
his study and bedroom.
close
fr:i_endshtps
never
mentioned
ar'tists
shar'ed
"In
seeing
Epstein's
of
African
'c;1;,yo
ten on
25
Ho pictu:pes
large
torso
collection
only
'I'la113
Noverr:ber
191 if
for
about
During
tiiO
although
the
of
a
Homan,
T,;eeks
a t Hastings,
of
1912
testifies
to
a 2.ittle table, nothing
on
the
half
broken, ::i.I! a
the
Epste:'ms
ivi th S2TiJ
beth
His
image,
[3Lf ] Apparoently !Jladc Ge:etler i'1ho stayed
July
plagiarism. [33]
bunks mean and miserable...
very small, and nothing else. ivhtte
kept
Some of his fj:oiends did not see
i.n African SCUlpture.
an
the
He
i'1Hh Epstein fL'om 1912 to 1914, Gaudter-Brzeska
Epstein's roorr: j_n a letter this:
He attached
about it.
them because he Has af;c'aid of being accused his
in
none of the
pleces.
He only cOIllJJ1ented on the black giJ:'l, Epstein Us
modeI
staying
Hl th
vJaS
ped'laps the
tI
I
the family.
fl'om the family?
only artist to see Epstein IS .lU'rican pieces in the 208: flnished
my
student
Ilias
had
and Has apPOinted to the teachlng staff of
the Royal College? I car::.e to knevl Epstein He:Ll, and have
- 145 -
Hho
fo::'gotten
hiEl taking me to his bedroom to see his collectton of
ttve ca;:ov::Lngs
he got into the bed H:Lthout knocking them over". IV [35]
Epstein any
exhib::.ted any of his collection neither did
such
others
lent
In 1929 and 1930 Ivhen FT'Y? Sadler'? John
"ifopks
for
the
exhibition
of
Aflnican
Skeaping
and
scu::.ptures at Sydney Bm"ney' s Galler'Y in London, Epstein only b::'onze
lend
pur-poses nor- parted ,'lith any of them in any circumstance
untu the late 1930s. and
he
ppot::-ait
- "Peggv Jean"? not an AfT'ican sculptupe.
lent
his
It vIaS only
in 1935 that Epstein lent a fe';1 Af:":Lcan sculptures in his collection
to
the exhibition of primitive art j_n the Huseum of r·jode1"n Apt in lIeif The secpecy vJith vlhich he guapded his co11ection and the attached
to
importance
it is demonstpated by the fact that Epstein would sell all
his collection of other ar-t foY'ms but not his debts
like
income
good
money,
he
tax.
As
Buckle
ppim.itive
pointed
out:
'I'lOrks "He
to
had
had
been
':las still liable to bouts of impecuniousness? and once
of a
pay
been a
had to selJ_ his collection of r!atthev! Sntths to pay the income tax. collectton
he
His
sculpture? hOlJever, grei'l steadily. II [36] Epstein chanpion
outstand:Lngly
of
Smith
collection
since of
1915
and
had
assembled
hi.s wode but pr-eferr'ed to papt Hith
them rather than ,'lith his primittve
wodes. [37]
about
In 1953 Sm:.th, uho I,las
anything
tn his collection.
exhibition of hts
"certain vlodes in
Epstein
,\'las
Epstej.l1! s
should be included, but oHing to his secpetiveness he might be to 1end."[38]
- 146 -
an
secretive an possession
Al though Epstein did not allo,·! his friends to see his oun collection,
he, ho"rever, encouz'aged them very effectively to apprectate
non-European
In 1912,
British
to
instance, he took Hark Gertler
to
the
look at the Egypt:Lan collection and other primitive
of
'IJrote to Noel
that ES'Yptian art 1i1TaS the
greatest of all art. [39J Through Epstein's encouragement Gaudier-Brzeska uent to take a
look at all the
rluseum.
pointed out:
and he
me to study the
British
r·luseum,
arts
in
forrJ,al
the
British
"Epstein began to collect and l::exican sculptuc:'e at the
all of Hhich influenced and excited me. II
effort in helping othep the
pr:Lrnitive
avant-gaJ:'de artists
J Epstein IS
to
and
qualities of African scu1ptur'e is complimentary to
Fry's. Hhen Easkell pointed out to Epstein that many people ho.d saj.d
that
had had a povlel""ful influence on him, Epstein admitted it and explained: I aLl influenced by African sculptur'e in the same manner that all primitive 1i'lork must influence the a::-'tist. AfcLcan uor'k has important lessons to teach that go to the poot of all I have tried to absorb those lessons Hithout Harking in the African i.d10m. • .. the has lessons that ,JOuld benefit the most sophisticated of present day ••• [l.f 1 ]
Epstein explained
that no
artist ,laS an entipely clean slate.
evolved in a vacuum and that no he felt that the influence
of African sculpture on his Hade uas li,mited to 1912 and 1913.
This
of
is not strictly tr>ue since some of his \'lOrks of 1910? 1914? 1915 and 1930 display some affinities to
- 147 -
lU'pican
[Lf2J
In 1912 Epstein executed his second public commission, the Tomb Hilde 7 T[lhich 1-/aS intended The Evening
the Pere Lachaise Cemetal7 in Papis.
3 June 1912, called
Sculpture I,
it
Epstein s
i-Jas
Dignified
j
but the same Hod: Has it
of
condemned fm" its sexual
frankness
1,7hen
mounted
on
Hj.lde' s
by
d! Estheque
de 10. Prefecture de la Seine" among ,'1hich included Jean Paul
Epstein IS pr-ofessor in the life Academy
1903.
in
undoubtedly
The
sculpture
is
certain elements
of
a
Epstein's
landmark
in
Class an
the
and
vitality
non-European oeuvre.
of
at
"Commite
the
Julian
intriguing early T.wd: \-Jhich tt'adition
and
;[Jho
the
sculptu:ee.
interest and attitudes to Aflnican sculpture Hith hi::! vThich that
he vias not alone in his explOlnation of this apt.
his drift aHay from the European tradition. Tomb
was
in
it
Hilde,
vrhich is
calnving. VI [44]
of
stone.
The
This
Tomb
attached
demon-angel
to
the
also
helps
body
symbolic
is
seen
Hi th
a
pigid
to
to
The heavy stylised
vJing
Hith
the
its
of the stone block.
The body of the demon-angel j_s fitted into the mid-section of the
block
base bea:-ing the name of the deceased takes up the
The
head
half-length
:':llale
space.
arm
contain the \,]hole body in the composition
long parallel :::'ines 'cake a th:x'd of the frontal
the
\-JOI"k
i'lhtch sl:'ghtly inclines up to the
The knees are bent to give a thrust
I'Jithout unduly shortening the legs.
'\vhile
of
decoration, and no doubt inf].uenced by
The
right to emphasise motion. body.
To Epstein the merit of the
a flying demon-angel across the face, a
hOl-'izontally
This accelerated
1912, CFIG.5.3), is a gj_gantic 20 ton I-Iepton iwodstone on
of combined Simplicity and antique
him
being a direct carving and an evidence of the idea of
tlnuth to matepial in respect to the block Oscar
is
Its completion brought
Epstein into direct contact i-lith the Fi-'ench significance
the
is
seen
"ith
a
in pelief.
- 148 -
tall
diadem
The 1m-fer
of the diaden: is
covel'ed v"ith a pelief of a head and shouldel's The
enclosed
in
tvJO
radial
head Hith long vlavy hail'"' is tilted up in ppofile and it is
blot-ling a long thin tl'"'umpet held by the left hand to herald the approach of
the demon-angel, (see FIG. 5.4) .
This recall s the all egor:Lcal figure
of Fame vlith her symbolic tlnumpet. Hig,
head-covering
shoulder. renders
or
Fpom beneath the diadem
a
SOlnt
of
perhaps lock of hail'"' cascades tOllards the ::'ight
The wain head ends ,-lith a pointed '\;Tell-chiselled the face into an inverted trianglar shape.
chin
v:hich
The arc of the lips
counter-balance the eyebrovJs and the arcs of the slit eyes.
Epstein seems to have been
(FIG.5.5),
in
the
Br'itish
by the 1Hnged Han-Headed
Nuseum.
There is a stiniking s:Lmilarity in
both the n:onU:.llentality and the thelle of the tvJO One
Lion 9
Donolithic
SCUlptures.
,\"ras a sentinel to the pesting place of the dead '\-J11ile the othep t'las
to gualnd the abode of the l:i.ving. of the beast.
Both fuse hunan features
vrith
those
Both have human heads lll"earing Cl"'O'(vns and ,'lings tpeated so
as to emphasise the parallel lines.
The incisions on the
legs
of
the
lion and the elabOl'"'ate tpeatment of the par-IS cOPl'"'espond to the incisions en the thighs and leg and the elaborate pendering toes of the demon-angel.
of
the
fingeps
and
The chests of the tvJO figures are hapd, smooth
and convex.
The \-lings s:Y'Llbolise flight and si-,iftness
and
The heads 'Iiith cpOHns l'"'eplnesent hUJIan intelligence, uisdom,
space.
sovereignty and povler. sculpture
car'ved
(880-860 Be). cou.'age.
The
The
,(·.:inged
r1an-Headed
Lion
to
is
conquer'
an
tiI:le
Assypian
fop the dOOI'Hay :::.n the palace of King Assur-Nas:l.d Pal lion,
k:cng
of
beasts,
symbolises
The bu::': had been used in similar 'cJor'ks.
stpength
and
The band on the 10=:"11.
j.ndicates the haJ.'nessing of his pOlllel"'s to benefit the palace.
Emphasis
is
vice and
placed
on the anima::. attp:l.butes to avo:l.d s:f.gns of
Epstein on the other hand used the hunan body to avoid strength,
- 14·9 -
pOller"
the
and bravado of a beast and tc emphasise
illan is fr'2.il ty 3J.'1G
ty.
sin!,
1
He 'e-hereby
invoked
ty and vices as
the
concept
in his J81-:ish religious
and related to SOLle aspects of Hilde i s vwitings and life. context
the
messenger 7
deLlon-angel
represents
intelIigence, by
of
In
a fallen divine being and a
dignity and
had
been
sins.
(FIG.5.6), Epstein listed the s:i.ns in the bottom left hand COl'ner: covetousness, envy, jelousy, anger, sloth, 1ilander'ing thoughts, sodomy? and evil.
These
the ideas Epstein associated 'tIith the
to the list ape
b;-JQ
iIllL1ersed in Ivater.
Tomb.
Opposite
couples engaged in ecstatic erotic acts ar!d a Il11illediately above the list hangs
conspicuously
and
the genitals of the demon-angel .'Those half body and rr:assive I'Ji.ng beard
shoun.
is an eBaciated
'Hith a long headdress
suspended in the fr'ont of the
femaIe sphinx 'Idth long l'Jhlsperoing
into
of the ar!gel.
uhich
Thepe is a
and body enclosed in the shape of a phaJ.lus
the emos of the angel Ivhose arBS aPe folded
chest in the conventional postw:>e of death. sphinx
and
the
The phallic embodied female
cGr':eesponds to the club-li}::e lock of hal::' in the Assyroian
the Tomb, CFIG.5.7), ShOHS the demon-angel appar'ently "lith a
sketch
mask and ,,,rearing a tall headdress similar to a 5th of
LOV'ier
r;eferti ti i s bust. auareness
of
Eg;ypt Epstein uho
::-eminiscent
of
the
Dynasty headd:cess
(2563-2423) of
Queen
sail the or'iginal bust mentioned his
:Lt in the Berlin Huseum and that he had photogpaphs of it
and later' C8.11:e to possess a cast of it. [45] Epstein began to Tomb in ,septembep 1911 and completed it :'.n !'Iay 1912.
- 150 -
car've
the
Other' influences The
in the Tomb are Egyptian, Eexican
Egyptian
influence is felt in the
crith his apm clasped four
half-male
to his body.
figures
and
of the angel
The backgl"Ound shapes of the
on the crovm look like Egyptian Dll,1111liW coffins.
The radial Hings of Fame and the head of the second figure from the left on
the
epitomise
CZ"O;rm
influence covered
the sun element of Egyptian art.
in the total vdth
reliefs.
impact
2.nd
outraged
T,Tithout
the
cOL'lTIent
classj_cal
touch
the
Leaf
attenpt to
the
French
French
is
Greek
men
of
'idere
Epstein's
more appl icab1e to the French
"U:Llde ' s
the
enthus:l.astic
authorities
cove;:>ed
Hith
admirel"s
cachesexe
letters
made
Fig
the 1r1hole Tomb vrith a
friends including Brancusi, some
authoritj_es
touch.
uhich remained over :Lt till the outbreak of the
and
crO'lJl1
youth standing by a broken co1UY.'n." [46J I-laving
have liked a
failed j.n
The
classical
authopjj;,ies than to his COIT'unissioners: Hou1d
l;.uge
by such a fY'ank display of male gen:Ltals outside
the mUSelli'l: Halls and about
the
The ll...frican influence is l"ecalled in the
uninhibited Y'esponse to sexual elements. shocked
of
The rlexican
Epstein
and
h:Ls
iJina Halll.-l1ett, and others several
to
remove
intel'est
in
attempts
the
cover':l.ng. [Li7] stay in Paris Epstein shared sculpture
l,rith
his
ll...frican
like Picasso, Vlamir..ck,
Zarate, rlax Jacob and other'S; dealer's like
Paul
de Guillaw""J.e
and
Joseph
and men of letters like Guillaume Apol1inaire and others • .11.1 though Epstein mi.ssed the Exposition Univepse11e '-Jhich closed tilO
mask of the Senufo, a Baule monkey statue 9 a l"egion,
a
mask
i.JOoden head from Bini and Baule masks and
the Tr-ocadero museum as gifts
- 151 -
by
the
organisation
from
Sassanda donated to
committee
of
the
Guinea and Ivory Coast section of the exhibition. I
1902 the
masks
had acqu::.l ed over 80 hu::nan 1
fr'om vapious
BetHeen the 18808 and
and
an:L.llal
of Hest and Cent::'al Africa.
ar.d
Although there
no concrete evidence that Epstein sav! these ,\-wpks, it is highly that
he
did
and
they
iwuld
have
excited h::"_m.
Epstein 1 s aesthet:::..c
attitude to primitive art in general made him perhaps the second next
to
Gauguin to
an interest in this art
artist
to its discovery
by Picasso anG. others in 1905 in Paris. After bro years of intensive studies in the Ecole and
at
the
Academie
Julian
des
mastel ing the conventional techniques of 1
carving and Dode11in15, Epstein set up on his ovm in Pal is. 1
he
made
Beaux
short trips to Florence and London.
The impact of the British
Huseum on him "I-ras
in h:Ls
lilrote:
of leaving Pal'is, I determined to go to London
"Uhen
thinking
decision
At this time
to
settle
and see if I could settle dOliJn an.d liiG:?lc r·}useum
settled the
in
London.
He
a visit to the B:'itish
for me, as I felt that I Hould like to have a
good look around at leisure. VI [!'f8 ] On his arrival in London he
IJade
the
acquaintances
of
various influential
including Bernard ShaH, HilliaIL1 Rothenstein, some
members
0 ·" .L
the
Ne"\l
English
Fothergill a iJeek after he the
both
men
vIaS
shared
Art
English
in
1906,
Augustus
in in
y
encouY'aged
Jol1l'l
and
i-lith John
most signiftcant crith
translated LoeT{lY I s bool-c Render'; np; ITa into
jon the apt
His
Club.
1905
l"egard
to
art.
Fothergill ",ho
Gr-eek
the
Epstein
to
look
a.t
the
ethnographtcal collections of the Brittsh tIuseum. [49] is a Epstein
"lJaS
op:l..nions O1iJrJ.
,-ro
consensus among lieiters as
exposed to African sculptul'e (ie.
Golduatep
- 152 -
obser'ved
that
1:-1hen
and
"(-,;11.e1'e
1902 in Papis)?
slightly as to ,"hen and hOi-; it beGan
s•
to
the
to
influence
his
dipect evidence of
Epstein U s :'nterest in prim:' tive art vlaS confined to 1910-14 and that the j.nfluence of African scupture began in 1910. Hate:enitv as Epstej.n' s. Evelyn
Silber
to mark the beginning of the
the
Crouch-ing
Goddess
Epstein's
influence
on
sculptm"es
deeply.
F1r':ure "'lith :Lts, according to
sexual display and negroid primitj.ve
influence. [50]
stated that it ,-laS only from 1910 om-lards that pieces of
primitive ca:;,,"v1ngs began to affect cited
He cited the Sunflm'Jer and
as
the
beginning
Epstein. [51]
She overt
of
or
Buckle also noted 1910 as
the date vlhen Epstein; influenced by his visit to the perhaps
and
by the LI1 paintings of Gauguin in the fir'st Post-Impressionists
Exhibition of the same year, began 'Vlhat '\,as to be in England in moder>n times. believed to be European
f:Lr'st
unsentimental
sculpture
since
the
the Study
reflects
the
ilLfluence
treatment
Renaissance. [52J Gii"l "lith
of
primitive
Th:'s sculpture, l"later'nity, Buckle
the
Epstein
the
African
of
For'
motherhood Buckle
SCUlpture.
the
lyrical
something
monUJ."11ental
Hieratic
attributed
to
qualities
of
Uestern
study
of
Egyptian,
from.
Indian,
about this
knees i;Jith
thighs,
elongated
torso ;/Jhich
rem::Lniscent of J).fi'ica.1"J. stylistic elem.ents.
vdth
Llore
and
and
that
slightly
the
first
cylindrical
signs
:Ln 1910.
Epstein! s interest in
Egptian apt in the
On the
dra't'Jing, Head, g1910, (FIG.5.9) as the only
- 153 -
could
planted feet, the bent
cuI tUl-'es
that the Sunfl OHer
IJith
and African
drai·ling
heavy and
concern
of
combined
the
:ticharc. Cor'k also
that
He noted that the figure '\vas a
SCUlpture. [53J The 'something' be
also
He observed that this
drai'iing ,\,;as done in linear style reminiscent of Gauguin and 1rJas something of Art r·Jouveau.
an early
(FIG.5.S),
1906,
Dove,
in
Epstein
of
an
100k:Lng
active
He pointed out
ll..frJ.can,
PolyneSian
hand Cork shOtved a \-lOdc
of
1910
to
employ
pC:-'lmitive elements and stated that Epstein
any
and Polynesian influences until 1912. [5 lf] Alan
of h::'.s also
not
indicated
1910
as
the
tiTile ",hen Epstein shOlved interest :1'..n the
f-tf'rican and Polynesian collections 1.n the to the Sunf 1 this
Epstein I s
then it
interest
by
ivhose
p;:'j_mi tj.ve
art. II [56 ]
I1e
stated
one of the earl1.est to
aY't
as
paintings
and
sculptures
Here
soon as they discoveped it, a decade
passed befope Epstein IS v1O:dc 'Vias to Oceanj.c
Euseurrr.
in Af::'ican sculptur'e. [55] lhlk:Lnson statec.
that "Unlike Picasso and infl uenced
British
that if the date generally assigned to
Hhich is 1910,
peflect
Hilkinson
affinities vlith lI-f'rican
then cited the Tomb of Oscar" iHlde, 1912, as the
TT
.fl.e
DOst obvious piece to shoH the direct :Lnfl uence of non-Eur'opean art. pointed
out
that
pel-'sonal of
Charles
than
Epstein's
Brancusi's. assimilation
and
sculpture
Harrison pointed out that Epstein s T,1O:::-k shOiifed
the benefit of a soph:Lsticated enthusiasm later
He
the sexuality "antJ-:,cj.pates Epstein's h::_ghly
of the tribal ffiot in l'lJ:s
1913". [57]
and
But of
az"t
ce:::-tainly
not
he indicated early 1913 as the tke ,,,hel1
archaic
and
tribal
influences
began
to
manifest. [58] The different opinions of the various i"hich
of
as regard to "Then and
Epstein's Horks began to shovl African and primitive influence
can be attributed to the problem especially
the
Sunfl 0I"e1",
of
dating
early
\Jorks
Epstein,
and the Crouching Goddess.
:1.nstance Cor'k as signed ,Q 191 0 and ,Q 1911- 12 to Sunfl OHe:e lryespectively
of
and
r1a
ty
uhile H:'lktnson assigned ,Q 1912-13 to Sunflol:Ter and others
ass:1.gned 1910 to
this problem does not
study of the influence on Epstein! S 1cIOrk and taste.
affect
the
Epstein began his th:lngs
in
the
career by dra'iJing.
round
varying angles and
and
also
H::Ls
desire
his
love
of
the
purely
to sculptupe.
physical
that
,\.,as
n:o:ne
satisfying
pre-1908 dl"auings llere enduring
discipline.
as
OT
both
pbysical
than drav,Ting. [59] His
faithful
to
natupe
'I'1ith
Some of them sh0101ed unusual elongation, un:cefined of
rectilinears.
Rothenstein
savl
"i_ntense in feeling but somellhat thin and tenuous," 'I'1hi1e Sha'\-;-
thought that they "I\,ere "mad, post-1908 times
him
, close and
outline disclosing extravagant use them.
to
side
This occured in 1902 in
and fr'om sculpture he felt a full outlet of n:ental
see
to study form in its d:.ffelnent aspects from
sculpture turned h:Lm fron:
and
to
like
bur'nt
fUlnze-bushes". [60]
dra\.,:'ngs reveal a bold and more
depicts
Cl1 ude
and
violent
Epstein s
technique 1.,hich at
:Lmagel"y
:ceminiscent
of
African
dralving
,.,hich
sculpture. The Head 1910, FIG. 5.9, is an exarilple of
an
ShOi-iS the formal qualities of P.fpican SCUlpture: by the
steep
thick
shouldeps,
the long columnar necl(
povTepful
taper'ing
javis
These
eyes.
relief
by
exppessi_ve
striation,
and
the
collected
a
fe"id years
,Je1 e 1
the dral:J1.ng, hOloJever, the
strongly suggests that Epstein vTas definitely a,!rare
to
the
Its
Read.
hear't-shaped face ;;7ith sl:Lt decoration elements
of
the
discussed
long eyes,
head in
neck, the
tHO
str'iations Chapter'
- 155 -
one.
of
such
FIG. 5.10, can also
A pencil d2'aHing by Epstein, Afc:-ican
related
huge
featmnes ape comparable to the
hea.ds of the Baule figUY'es ovmed by Epstein. [61] The Baule pr'obably
';lith
lips, the slight concave planes of the face, the long
trwapet-shaped nose bpought into a.lmond-shaped
the
ea::-Iy
The
tapering
javls?
prongs
of
and
are date
concave and the
of African of
the
drauing
is
[62]
Epstein rc.odelled and cast in bronze in one style and then ca::"'ved in anothe:-'.
His f;1.odelling i:las based on a highly
naturalist:i.c
European
personally.
Tc10delling
not
reflect
any
influence
faciU.tated
the
develop:nent of his cal"Ving 9 the
artistic pel"sonality
t::"2cd:.tion
initiated
individualised by
Rodin
"hom
he
Epstein? s pavler of obser'vation and does of
non-European
fOl" he had ealnned
his
elements. aspect of his
living
by
::J.akinz;
bl'onze
and
some
drmvings
that
portraits since 1909.
In 1910 Epstein pr'oduced thl"ee shovred
affin:.'J::;ies
1iT1th
carv:.ngs
Afr:i.can
CFIG.5.11), the SunfJ.o\/e:
sculpture
(FIG.5.12) and the
n
ujJ:,h
crouching
flat and ill-defined fac1al featuc'es.
nude
The
Epstein
able
ivas
br'easts
to
are
10H
and d:nooping.
achieve
the
explnessive
display
1\Sr--ican
qual:Lties He
Has
of
by
rluseum.
Since Epste::i.n considered Afr'ican sculptmne as the root application
the
distortion
of
Aflnican
definitely
inspired
simplification,
iclOrks
of
Although the:ne is no
sculpture at the very eaI""ly stages of h::7.s canr:Lng. the
fer.:ale
The blunt hands ape
seen holding the legs ap8.l"t tightly to 8nphasise the gen:italia.
Goddess
(FIG.5.14).
The Cx>ouchi ng Sun Goddess (FIG. 5.11)? is a figure
Sun
seen in the Tlnocadtr-,o and the B:n:i..tish
of
its
natural
r'udiI;lentary forms,
and
of
all
p:-cinciples
of
sexual
frankness
Scholar's agree that the Sunf10'i,rer, 1910, (FIG.5.12) icias
influenced
brought h:i.m close to this
by
African
sculptllirye,
but that it has been unconvincingly compared to
some unrelated African 1clOrks. [63] The half globula::- shape edge
decorations,
the
- 156 -
dull almond-shaped eyes and the
the tooth
neck are
to
belonged
to Epstein.
of
the
Fan;;r
Eead,
Gabon,
this head.
It.
:Ls
The
11.0t
Allied
HORan.
is
Baluba
an
82in
high
pose.
figure
:'3'1
a
is
echoed
in
the
1rlith
P.£rican
Buckle
application
di,ffe::-
fpoD
those
considered
formalised the
disproportionate and to
due to the
l"est
The
the
Greek
irubue
the
and
knob-ltke
the
figure. [6 1J,]
of
1iTith of the
that
coni, cal
nature
nipples
ca!oyatid figure of the
(FIG. 5. 15), froIl Abomey, DohoBey, l".7h:'_ch had been in the
1889.
of
The closed eyes and the calm rhytbmic pose
dro1rJsiness.
and
exposed.
and simplified ,\,jith soft
bpeasts spoiled the statue, as the:Lr
since
depicting
provocatively
The head and the face
featm'es.
similar
the
unfinished
reveals a graceful rhytpE of
the
and
Ilere
statue
The rhyth.'i1 of roundness
slight tilt of the head to the left and the
the
in
the breasts? the back 'Iilhich is emphasised by a pJ_ait
ically
hipshot
eJ:h::,bited
stone
dOHn it 7 the stomach, and the buttocks \\I'hich V
figur'es
Epste:'n placed emphasis on the plumpness and poundness
assocj_ated Hi th pI>egnancy. shoulders,
IJ111e11.
Artists Exhibition in the Royal Albert Hall, London,
the SUITlller of 1911. pregnant
e:xactly
k110'\;J"11
I:!aten1itv, CFIG.5.14), \'las beGun :'n 1910 and the
once
of the face is also simila::--
to the Female F-i gure (FIG. 1. 1) and. a fevl other
at
Hh:1.ch
The decorative tooth edges also correspond to the
on the Fang sculpture.
Epstein
(FIG. 5.13)?
sign:lf5_cance
of
the
liate;,-nitv
are BOH19
British
,lith
The
its
ICluseun Afloican
influence is that it is the f:Lrst modern sculptu;:-e by a
sculptor
to
the 'Apt
respond
to
pl'iDitive
exhibited in public. [65]
Qualce of 1910 1 caused by the fij:'st "&Jopks
of
ar'tists
1ilce
Gauguin
Exhibit:'_on, and
r:!atisse
influenced by
sculpture ,,1ere sho1rJn for the first time in Britain.
- 157 -
the
These
might
have
Epstein to exhibit the unfinished L:aternHv.
Al though Epstein
did not identify hii:iJ.self iJ:'Lth the Post-Impressionist-,s he
certainly
vlaS
affected by the spirit of the avant-garde movement.
In 1912 Epstein produced in addition to leJooden 1;-J11.:;_01::
sculpture: "las
Cursed
Bakota
acquired
in
FigUl'e,
1883,
in 192 Lf.
I1useum
pal'ts
a
and
speoific
P..fr'ican
(FIG. 1.27)?
sculpture.
TLle
Has Epstein! s soupce of
1886 respectj:vely and one in the British
Epstein had one of his Oim \Thich
in the
he
ppobably
similar'ities bebTeen the tuo
sections of each:
that
interesting
of
The sculptures
an
The J2.gy Uherein .I "laS Bo:m, (FIG. 5. 16) 9
Gabon,
188l f
Toeb
Be
a
Reliquarv
the
the diamond shaped
10He:c
angular limbs; the m:'Ld-sections Hhich comprise the
cylindrical torsos; and the half-moon shapes at
the
dome
upside dOHn and they a::'e
shapes
in
Epstein! s
cal"ving are
formed by the tuo arms effect
and bent at
seen
the
short
hor'izontal
and
elbOi'Js
in the African figur'e.
the eyes are slits and the noses are sma:l
fpom
reflect
they
The
eyes
have
The tHO calnving are Here
meant
to
the
Bakota
Epstein b,-nought his figure
cal'ving
which
and
peg
to the base of the
to
Epstein :"etained the syw.metr'Y in his i-wrk only up to neck.
Both
sculptur'es
rr;.ade
painted scal"let red.
- 158 -
is
smal::"
the r:ale genitals. the
base
of composite rr;.ate;:oials:
of
the
the Bakota
figure consists of ,,)"Qod and copper 9 l,rhile Epstein's :Ls made of !;wod plaste::"7
be
to the human fOl"I:1
by the definition of the hard skull-like head, and by attaching a ball
the
The excessive use of geometric shapes has
dehumanised the tvw figures, especially presumably sexless.
middle
The faces are concave,
diagonal lines ai'oUIld them.
the f:eont only.
The
to
triangles.
relatively flat and nealnly hw-dii:lensional as viewed
top.
and
It is the only knoHn "woden sculptul"'e he
space
to i'lOde out the ideas he had gathered from the
sought confinement to' avcid disturbance. on
the
Sussex
a::-tists and
He thepefore rented a bungalO'vl
coast at Pet t-Level neap I-Iastings 7 I'Jhere as he said? he
could look cut to the sea and carve avlay to his heart! s lilO::-ked
there
1913
to
1916.
eal"ly
in
He
FOi' him it "'las a peI"iod cf
intense activity and Here it nct fcr the living
content [66]
and
the
cf
ccuntry and making a living as an artist, he Hculd have
[67 ]
stayed there reflected
cf the
-cwdes
dcne
dUl"'ing
the aspirations of his French colleagues.
Epstein
ideas
avant-garde
in
1912
Picasso,
is
a
this
pe:'iod
Fagg wrate:
"That
op
F:cench
Hadigliani
the
Hell knO'im fact, of Tllhicb,
proof is
given by the vivid interest he took in coll_ecting relaticnship
that Fagg nates bet'l'leen the
Epstein is a."'!.
The
a:'L"[68]
avant-garde artists aLd
obsel'vation and :ceveals the
extent
to
I'lhich
their ideas and pr"actices influenced Ol' stimulated hihl. Epstein had respected Picasso eVel" since he had f::'rst 1912
:In t1ant pacnas se.
met
taste
and
n
understand
difficult
af
admitted that he uas abstract
Hodes
hiD,
and
expression
one
not
of
personal.
fcllOlJ, and he
fond
Picasso Picascc' s
that
even
rr:ust
Picassc! s
him, I'li t11 pespect.
abstraction, uas
in
too
but
found
of
most He
Picasso's
and vclatile to' mediccre. [69] I-Ie ncted the
::.nfluence cf African sculpture an PicassO' and his ccllecticn.
- 159 -
Dan
Epstein admitted that he could not
sensibility.
allIays fallm'l cr mcods
in
Several yeaps la tel he 'iu'ate that PicassO' vIaS an
sophisticated and remarkable ffi"'tist, a vi:'tuoso and a exquisite
him
Epstein
that of all the artists Hodigliani
had
influence of African sculptu:-'e to the greatest advantage. other artists had been b.esitant and expressed
himself
Hith
confidence [70];
individuality vJithout betng influenced by many
others.
Epstein sa\l
used
He noted that r10digliani
that
had
retained his
Picasso
daily
the
'\,ho
had
influenced
a period of six months.
In 1912 both men planned to find a place ,·lhere they could 'i;wrk together. Epstein
Has
so
familiar i'lith Nodigliani' s studio that he could
its content several years later: Hts studio at that time vIaS a miserable hole 1dthin a courtyaJ:od, and here he lived and viOdced. It vIaS then filled 'lith nine or ten of those long heads lvhich ';-J'ere suggested by masks and one figure. They carved in stone l at night he viOuld place candles on top of each one and the effect Has l:Lke that of a prim5ttve temple. [71]
Epstein Has in close association death
tn
probably it:
I!
as
gift or an exchange for a good rr.eal.
a
but
more
impo::,tant
than
the
J- "1
Unvl..l..
Epstein oirmed a drauing by
and blue crayon her
Eodtgliani
1921 •
A beef steak is
dr'aI'Ij.ngs,
1rlith
latter" S
iani? the Ca:eyatid of
a
As L·iiodigliani put I
dravling.
can
make
I cannot make beef steaks". [72] The CaJ:'yatid ts a penc:i.l of an apparantly seated nude female
hands behind her head seemingly arranging the hatr.
'I,lith
The strong and
clear contour's give the dravling purity of form and fluent linear rhythms and
quality.
The gentle lines and curves start and end at
the joints of the figure.
Structur>ally 9 the figure seems to be composed
of
a
roughly oval shapes linked together like chains? (see FIG.5.18).
The fa.cial features, hands, This
and feet are
distor'ted.
had an obvious impact on Epstein I s
of a nude female
figure of the same year', (FIG. 5. 19). done
in
blue
Epstein P s
dravring
"laS
similar'ly
crayon 7 also Hith a combination of thick and thin
- 160 -
lines arranged in a elongated
h:Ls
sinilal"
torso
in
patter-n
the
to
the
Carya'c-"d.
of
African
separated the legs by introducing a diarwnd shaped \'1hich
sculpture, space
resembles that of the Bakota Rel iQuarv Fi9;Ul e. noticed
simplification
the
of
in
the
concave
hands
and
feet.
has
and b"'s
bettlleen
theE
ll.fcican :Lnfluer..ce
n
in the Caryatid is
Epstein
elongated
face
and
the
Hodigliani is noted to have
art". [73 J This attitude uas reflected in
"talked endlessly of
his
dlnal·dng 1'1hich in tur'n inspired Spstein. The zoelationship behreer.. Epstein and Brancusi 1'7hich began seriously
1912
1':faS
based
African
and
Cycladic
in
on
mutual
inte:""'es'c
often
in
sculpture.
advised him that ODe must not
imitate the Africans. [74] Brancusi is supposed to have demonstrated this by
some
sculptu::·e.
The
of
Step
F-i
standing
his
uorks
that
1913?
(FIG.5.20),
in 1911f thou;;h the head 'liaS
Step i'JaS influenced by the 1·:ale
the
ovoidal
elongated claimed
was
Brancusi's
first
his first I.ood carving and his f:L:'st African infl
It "lJas
in
looked too lLUCh like African
heads,
saved.
T"st
Bar0.bal"a (FIG.5.21), '\llh:Lch i'1as in
the
lips,
the
cylind:nical
the
:Legs.
Brancusi
the short thighs and the that
Th.e
and Rumanians kne\'7 hOH to carve i'IOOd. [75 ]
only
Epstein had sl'loi\fn a glryeat understai-;,ding of Brancusi 1 s simplification fOlryms
theilry
basic shapes akin to solid geometl'y? especially
his simplj_fied egg-shaped
Epstein even attributed the
of
used
the
to
of
comnercial
[..l.a.nnequins
s simplified I'lorles
in
[16] The tuo
invention
the shop Hj_ndo't'ls =_n London to artists
had
exhibited
in 1913 and 1914 in the Albert Hall in London.
Epstein's
indebtedness to Brancusi l s simplified forms is reflected in some of
- 161 -
the:'_r
his
I:JOP1-;:s 4'
p:zooduced
at
Pett-Level?
a
features
f]:'OD Picasso, Ilodigliani., R"ancus:l. and Afr-'ican sculpture.
The
st:.--'ucture
of
the
fOl"1D.S
:'s
indebted
to
concavity l:'eflects IIodigliani' s discloses
v'lOrk
the
influence
stylistic
Picasso?s
planes
quasi-geoEetr:lc
of
Brancusi;
the
elongation and
"Jode.
The overall :Lmpact of the
of the Fang
Head, (FIG. 5.23)?
",hich Epstein sal'l in GuilJ_aume' s shop :"n 1912 and later' acquir>ed in 1932 r;,hen
s 3ieri Head'.
!
lS
superb collection uas sold. [77] Epstein called it the
noted
The influence of this head on the
:1.n the
smooth fOc">jj'l, the simplified and blUY'l"'ed fac::'..al
the concave face and the long flat nose vlith the
the
the heads)
the
columnar
noticeable
fr'oD
the
global
head
of on
FLost Step. SunfloHe:?
pointed
tip
neck
back
of
the
child
and the
Epstein's
child
ilhich
is
em"'s of the child.
The
Brancusi
the
figure
and
the face bealos a CUlnious l-'esembIance to the mouth of The
j_ts
head
and
coppespond:'Lng
the
neck
inverse
incisions
also
Fang head.
compa.l'ab2_e to the "Bpu.r;:;r::er Head II 9 (FIG. 5.2) .
l"ecall
Epste:Ln' s
and Chil d is also The!'e ape large and
is difficult to give an irr:m.ediate
for
\Jodc,
tpiangles
in
th::_s
small
sharing a co:mlIon base at the back of the
head of the nother' figure. the
of
nal"':COI1T ch::':..n w'i th protruding mouth, the CUl"'Ves of
The Globula;:' and
and Chi l d?
but
they
source
to the
decorative rD.otifs found on some Afr'ican maslcs and f:Lgures. Epstein! s urge to do creative
carving in
after his retUlnn from
by the comments of the Pall
NaIl
to exp:ness or reveal his
Gezette
of
Has partly stimulated
tish Press on the TOffib of 6
connented that Epstein ioTas a
- 162 -
June 1912, fop example,
Osca1'"
viilde.
The
the TOl'.1b and
not a D'lodeller, and that he
IJaS
a
nSculptor
in
Revol til
against
the
but
ideas of current
sculpture. [78] It also noted that Epstein viaS not pursuing an of
natur'e
Epstein
,;ras
suggestion but the peinfection of plastic ideas.
encouraged
conventional Epstein
::"i
OJ:'
or
by
liteJ:'aJ:7
produced
the
avant-garde
to
image
of
this idea
cOIl'ID.ent. of
Venus
in
do
this.
seen many beautiful the
rUlo.
His
approach
Venus
Has
highly
Afr':'can
style
and
TiiaS
to
the
the
Vlam:Lnck, Derain and Picasso \·,ho had
statuettes had compained then:. favourably vJith
Venus.
For
instance,
statuette to Derain, :"emarked that de
:.:mitation
Picasso Has
Vlaminck \-;ho shmled his
Has as nearly beautiful
in his corn::::ent:
as
Venus
nHore beautiful". [79] Yet
the three artists never tried to produce a Venus in African style. Epstein car-ved
tHO
of
the
Venus
1;-1hic11.
John
Tancock
described as 'lU'loican style Venuses'. [80] In both of Epstein's ve:csions, the Roman goddess of seculaJ:' love ceased to be a synbol of
unattainable
beauty
continuity.
and
love,
and
became
a
symbo::"
Epstein! s Venus GeneJc·':L:l: is essentially fel..,tility
of
of
glnovrth
biologj.cal?
and a
the land and all the life it sustains.
sytclbo1
of
the
Epstein's Venuses
a:oe mounted on copulating doves. Epstein gave his Fi:est African-like
pendant
Venus
breasts
vlith
stomach, a s:Llnplified hai::-' style cylindrical
neck,
a
featur-eless face uith attached
to
the
,·,:".th
body,
slight
th:Lck
conical
nipples 9 a s"i-JOller..
falling
on
the
nape
of
the
thick
head
and
fOl"'ehead?
a
smooth
and
dome-shaped a
Dove,
veI'ti.cal
siDplif:'ed
angular
arDS hands,
tptangular feet, and a \;Te::"1 deftned slit denottng
flexed
knees and
the
The
upper part of the torso is conceived in round form.s Hhile the 10vve::' part is 1"endeped in flat block-like fOl"mS. frontal
and
these a;:'e important
- 163 -
The
is syr:21etr'ical j.n the
7
presence
j
and that
the sculpture conveys. The Second Venus? 1914? (FIG. 5.25)? is almost b;·jice the the
first
and
height
of
:::"n the sane Z2anner Tiiith s::'..igl1t var:l.ations:;
the
b:,'easts protrude, the neck and hail's'cyle are mo;('e elongated 7 and
the
linbs
alne flat and block-like, the fingers
the
indicated ';Jith
parallel incisons of equal length, the heads of the doves the male has a crest.
errect and
The flnont vievl =_ooks ::'..ike an obelisk VTith rounded
top.
There are
tlVO
Venuses:
the
car-yatid
figures
CFIG.5.26).
Tilhich
Dogon
The
Female
on
the
Dogon
Figure,
seat FerJ'.ale
of
r''lali,
the
Figupe! s
inspilned
possibly
the
(FIG.1.11), and the small
Seated
Do;;on
rlali"
elongated
angula:r'ity,
s:Lmplification, flexed knees, slab-like =_egs, and the curve of the reflected
in
the
Venuses.
The sm.all caryatid figures CFIG.5.26,
detail), also sho\-/ affinities "lith the Venuses, especially legs,
triangular
feet,
and
head
ridged featureless faces.
doves had been a theme fo:;.n othep carvings
of
zj_g-zag The copulating
Epstein
Hhich
thei.;:o
quasi-geometric forms reveal Epstein's further indebtedness to Brancusi. The significance of the Venuses in J10depn Bpitish art lies in adaptation
of
a classical
theme to African principles and the
unprecedented fr'ankness of animal pl'"'imitive
SOUT'ces.
intelncour'se
is
Epstein "(,,"as a "Sculptor in \'Jbj_ch
has
no
Revolt"
in
NeH
sex.
Alrr:ost
Guinea
his
j_n
of
the
sexual
pa:;:'allel in the 20th centur-y
The uniqueness of h:Ls sexuality is its lirJ.;: 'ivith the of
depived
The copulating doves ape believed to be inspired by
the copula'ving tu:ntles fr-om Yam.-Tutu Island 7 Papua
themes
Epstein's
Hithout
- 164 -
exception
Epstein I s
African
carvings
principle
and dra"iclings
betueen 1908 and uninhib:Lted
the
1930s
i-Jelne
obsessively
based on the birth subject. just delivered a child lying on vdde.
Her
of teeth. Day
Hhe:oein
on
thec.es
of
d:'splay of hUIJ1an genitalia, copulation? pregnal:.cy and birth
FIG.5.27 and FIG.5.28 are examples of
opened
focused
head
sO;:-:l.e
of
The
his
dina,Jings
shoHs a "loman 'd-ho has
bacle 'i-lith hel thick
legs
n
bent
,,-laS
FIG. 5.27 is the
and
is triangular and her I1l.outh is open to reveal
The child standing on her pubis
I
and
50rn
and.
the
Be Bakota
the
Rel:l.qua17
of the d:"alring ui thout the head. and the torso of
the r,Ioman.
Study "Tith
1913, (FIG. 5.29)? ShOHS a
Nan and
grotesquely
;:nan
and.
and. frankly displayed :;enitalia.
Ho:n.an
The head.
of the man is a featur'eless elon:;ated t;:-'iangle 7 Hhich is attached by the an elongated isoscelles triangle that extends faln do"rn al::Jost to
torso? the base is
a huge club-like peniS.
attached
and
The rounded tead of the
directly to the bniangula: torso uithout a neck. n
vroman
Ee:n lon;:;
curved anJ:1S suppOlnt hel oversized genitals vlhich are 1;-lidely n
opened
Tilith
the
clitmnis
sticking out as usually represented in soc.e
jI.frican sculptm""'es? (for examples see FIG. 1. 1 and 1.20). by
the
Post,
The draviing Has
Nadagascar, (FIG.5.30) "Jhich Epstein
might have acquired after 1910 having seen the one in the
(see
FIG.2. 19). Totem 1913, (FIG.5.31), is based on It
is a compost ion of th:"'ee
acrobatic pose Be
the
Han and )Toman.
birth
themes.
figures in the most intriguinz
elements Day
and
bor';'-'01:Jed
his
Hodcs:
1. vIas Born, Hot-hel'" and ChHd, and Study fOln
The composition reveals a man standing on his head
- 165 -
v7ith
a
mask-l2.ke
face.
himself Hith his a:C'TI1S and legs.
His
enOlnnous penis i,ith testices balanced on the sides beloH penetr-ates
the
opened man.
vagina
of
::re
the female ",ho supports he:eself on the thighs of the
Her hands are guiding the male organ 2.nto hers.
:neminiscent
organ
female
in
seJ(ual
eX2..mples).
\'lhich
here
or-gan
figure,
a
the
';lomb,
thus
treatment
of
and 'che hair' style of the Bundu Jifask, Sier>:na
FIG.2.10,
The
symbol izes
Thelne is an affinity betvleen the
Leone, in the Blnitish three
child
The child is enclosed in a for'm sj..milar to
FIG. 5.29 7
pregnancy. female
A
those in FIGS.5.16, 5.27, and 5.28) is supported on the
of
shoulders of the vlOman.
the
SUPpOl"t.s
headchness
of
(of the
"'7h:::.ch
Epstein
possessed
illask replnesented the opened
female organ To,w:c'ds the end of 1913
took
his
exploration
of
African
sexuality
a step fu:nther by :LnterpretinG the subject in ter'llS of modern
machinery.
The lnesul t of this 'i-las his famous Rock Drill.
In The
Study
for the Rock Drill, .Q. 1913, (FIG.5.32), the image on the left is a rigid and angulap ar'rangement uhich looks 1 ike the Totem, (FIG. 5.31 ) .
In
the
middle is another type of totemic image composed of triangles and a long angular face turned upside dO\m. Baule
Hask,
st;:'ong
n
have seen.
The simila:eities betvleen them are:
broi,s; long thin noses; the
of
the
Baule
mask
n
into
cornep
of the conposition is a
BeloH is an irr:.age evolved plnobably the
influenced
of
the Baul e Ilask
collection fpOB 1912 om-Jards.
- 166 -
The
Epstein convepted the
a triangle and
almond-shaped eyes into halves of their opiginal right
the
long j avIS that tape:
at the ho:n:Lzontal chins; and the blnoad fopeheads. conveq;ing
the
Coast, (FIG. 5. 33) 7 vlhich belonged to Paul Guillaume
7:.vory
VJhich Epstein
This mask-like face is similal to
shapes.
At
the the
top
of schematised Bating bipds. the
motif.
It
ShOHS
(FIG. 5.34) 'tlhich j,'JaS in Guillaume r s tuo
backvie\Js
of
Study
fop
Rock
1913, (FIG.5.35), sho':-; tHO figur'es mounted on Rock drilling mounds.
t.orsos
(FIG. 5.29).
Studv of Han and
machines
the nc.ale figure in
The
the
Ulachine l"eplaces the
exaggerated phallus in the fon:c.er composition.
(FIG. 5. 37), is composed of plaster f:'gure mounted on a l"eal l'1achine. the
It
phallus
i:nmediate
on
ensb.!."::'.ned
in
associations
machine:"y,
by
the
theme
the
the
shapes
';o)'hich confe:" an jJ1J111ediate meaning.
Such is the
The Rock
pball us.
Dr:.ll
is
of proc::"eation deI':.ved fl"'om African sculpture and
Tilhich is dehum.an:.zed into 2. mechano-sexual image. in
drill
is a dir'ect symbol of nasculinity and the potentiality of
shaft aDd its bit ilhich reflects an based
RoeL:
Ther'e is
an
attempt
back viell dl"al-Jing to depict fOl'ces of v:Lbration by the use
of cupves
the shaft of the drill to
movements[81]
analogous
assoc:"..ated
T!lith
avant-gapde.
the
:Lndicate
to
hlman
ejaculation.
Futurist
and
Vopticist
Al though
er'otico-l:lechanical Epstein
uings
of
has
the
been
Bl"itisI:
Epste:'Ln discussed aY't H::Lth Uyndham Lelvis? David and
contro:l.buted
tllO d:eavrings to Bl ast 1, the Voroticist ma.gazine in June 1914, he d:i.d not Epstein
refused
to
identified
be
completely 1'rith any doctrina::.r'e s:,'oup and this :::_3 perhaps "Thy he dj_d not in the
e:chibiticns and did not
join
the
g:.-'1Ioup
of
On:eGa Ho:ekshops. to join t11e Omeba
Epstein S IT
al:.,tists?
s
though both men sha:"ed a C01l1IIlon interest in P.cfrican sculpture
and promoted
its
a1;'ial"eneSS
In
the
first
reasons.
a11d
British
artists
llas
fOl"
seve:"al
place Fr-y had been unsympathetic to Epstein?s
Hod{ since ea:cly 1912 and "rb.en he ''':'ote about the public? s at tack on one of
Epstein I s
sculpture
- 167 -
:1.n 1925 he stated:
"I aB not going to ppetend
that it has
me
into
an
enthusiastic
that ::.t caused me any
adr2iper
the
kept
fl"O:::::
"\Jhich might have depr'ived h:5m of cOITl.nissions for
portr'aits.
Epstein
discussions
Epste:"n' s
emotiona.l reaction. f1 [82] In
the second place? a steady income froIJ. joining
of
held
by
London.
attended
T.E.Hulme
These
at
sessions
Iks
the
Tuesday
K:"bble1:rhite 1 s
attracted
many
Eveninz.;
house in
inteIlectuals
and
Among these Here Fo:'d Hado:;: FOl'd y Ashley Dukes 1
Pound,
Richard
the
Aldington, Ramiro 11aeztu and artists l:Lke Chaples Epstein
Hulme,
unlike
"a
Fr'y?
generous and singula11ly likeable characte::' and
Hulme vIaS attracted to the concerning
of Riegl
p11i:nitive
and
of
geometric
geo::r:et}:>ic
elements.
It
Has
of the To:r:b of
sculptUl es 1
by
and
\,?::,lhelu
::.ts geometric qualities.
therefore defended Epstein against attacks and use
fOl.,md
in
He
Epstein in the
1912 that Hulme praised the
1 de and
other
Afl"'ican-inspiped
"fina.lly I pecoGnised this
Epstein
of sculpture __ S3J:J some year's ago, of tlp Epstein ' s."[84J
_11
sho,;J
1930 Epstein carved Genesis;
the
Iconth tr:Lp to Eec'J York (ie.
Jal'lUary
1929)
Barnes
Collection.
collection 7
I
?aul GuElaune, included
uhe:ce
S2}J
1071'10
1 October
he visited the Epstein
to
This p:Lece t'ias ca::'vecl
dir'ect influence of
aftel' his
These
his last
1927
to
28
lIuse1..1IL. and the AI.bert:,
recalled:
II
Of
sculptuI"es
:::'n
none except some African cEcvings 1'0'hich hc.d come had helped Dr
female
- 168 -
Barnes like
l;Jith
FIG.5.39
his
col::'ection ••• "[85]
and FIG.5.40? to Hb,ich
Sho\iS some affinities.
FIGS.5.41A
The pencil
for
Genes:i..s?
and B, must have been done betlleen 1927 and 1929.
They sho\-1
pregnant figures 1rJith long are
reminiscent
back.
of
Study
thighs.
The heads and the slit eyes
his "Bnll:llL1er Head II ",:1. th its prongs of hair falling
The legs In FIG.5.41B a1:'e reflections of the legs of the Homan in
FIG.5.29. Genes-is 1930, is 2 159.1cm
63.6in
high
of
pregnant 'Iwn',an '\I'h:::"ch is related to the d:nau:'.ngs by the generous thick thiGhs, long arms 1;lith huge hands and S';wllen storr:ach. shaped
head
and tapering
alne
::'eflecb:ons
The
The
dome
and
the
p:'-'otpudj.nG
Libe?ia, (FIG.5.42) i-Ihich
of the Dan-J:J.:;e::"e
Epstein h2d at th2t tiille.
/
the Fang Head? (FIG. 5.23) .
j a1·JS
The concavity of the face, the nose, the slit eyes l:l.pS
a
cUY''Ilit1..Te
of
the
b2ck
2nd
the
buttocks, in Dr' Barnes collection, (see FIG. 5. 39
reflections of the female
FIG. 5.40).
and
The
8ho11s a curiu08 f" • ",oast.
FIG. 5.40 fr'om the ::.vory ,Iith
tiny sljJ:.
diagonal
forms
gr'ooves.
The conspicuous broad pubis ·,Jitb 2
the v2gina resembles that of
(FIG. 5. 43)
fr'om
Epstein I s
syr"'..JlJ1etry of the
to that of
the
Female
Hm,;ever,
collection.
Figupe,
Epstein
2 fop Sh.ovl
tit
it
Epstein
h::'l_8
in
autobiography
I"eitera.ted:
Has shocked by a. figUl:'e '\'lithout
indecencies, and Hi thout
of
gf'2Ces.
- 169 -
It ",as not the
that reason ar'oused the
Homen accused Epstein of :Lnsulting appeal
Ga::'le::,ies
It vms pepceived as a 'i:Jork of obscenity
of erot:Lcism, 2nd perhaps
usual
the
of 2buse.
emasculated \Ji thout
broke
by placin;; the left hand on the huge stoI:12ch.
Hhen the statue 'liaS exh:i..bi ted in 1931 at the Leister
alld
B2kota
II,
femj.nine of 'lO:.nen. n[86]
sex bec2use they missed all the He fUl ther exp2.ained that they 1
TIlOl"'e
by the symbolic truth of
the
statue
than
at
the
caricatures of Dauwier? Toulouse and Grosz. sculptur-e had influenced the sculptur'es of Epstein p::'olo:lged
pepi_od
fl"'om
1910
over
a
to 1930 fol1oui1'1g uhich he seemed to have
digested its fopmal qualij:;ies and used them as a prime motivation in his subsequent
Ivopks.
He played a ::.ajOl'" l'ole in revital:_s:Lng sculptuz'e :1.1'1
Bl"'itain and Has its leading p:c"act:Ltionel'" UIltil the late 1930s. a ycunger generation of
7
as he put it:
I have often been asked by aspil"'ing sCUlptOl"'S to help them get on the:!.]:'" feet? and not long after this have had the ironical pleasur'e of Hatching them get large cCIWlT_issions and all sorts of decoI"ative ,wries. [87J
- 170 -
AIT EXPEREIE:JT
19117 having been Dovecl by
h:Ls
study
of
and
to AUGuste1:12cke :
lJe JJ.ust be :n''''ave alJ.d tur11 our bacl::s 1...lpOil. alIGost that l.mtil nou good Eu;:'opeans like ou:('selves thought p;:,'ecious
and indispensable. Ou::' ideas and ideals Eust be clad in hai: shil.,ts 1 they !:lust be fed on locusts and T,lild honey? not on history 7 if ue evel to escape f110n:. the exhaustion of our bad taste. [1 J n
n
At the same time
al°c-ived ::..:1 ",lho
Em-'opean
ivel'e
those
n
enough to tur'n theil' backs upon their
t;:-'adition Ol"
and 1'1011.-European
latel to join
IT
bad taste
sources
and to seek i.nspi11ation
IT
fr-'oi"J
Gauclie::o-B:->zeska 's debt to Afloican
Q
sculpture Has acknOvllec.ged to sose e:rtent
1916 by F17 and Ezra.
and ::n 1933 by Ho:-'ace Brodz];;:y. [2 J I-I:\.s
influenced 1dO: l:s IPJel"e mac.e
beb-leen 1913 and 191 LI. sculpture
has
not.
contact and
established,
Hhen it
then. at
f::L:"st
saH
Af::-<Lcan
beGan
1911
in
possible thou,Gh that he saH a feH
sculptur-e in
he
certain that the decisive
cant
It
\'Jas
n
Al thOUGh the date
been
Pound
2:11 1908,
eJ'::a.mple,
to study Business
a lwoden d:Lvinat:'..on b01i: (FIG. 6.1) 7 and other
the
he
had been severa:_ times to d:':'5.\J.
Dade in the TLUseun have reveal
VentUl:'e
of
College
Huseum
the
for
the
but
drm,rings
Deticulous study of local
and so j.t is uIl2.ikely that his drauings
- 170 -
1;one of tl:e dralJin3S made
at
the
sarc.e
anj.IIlals an.d pla.11ts
of
this
pe;:oiod
any
inte?est in these a?tefacts.
sculptur-e.
The Div·' nat:Lon BOT;Jl, YOTuba, BI·-istol
Huseum
and
(FIG. 6.1), vJas
'il"as
acqu:::.Tecl
1896
in
on display in 1908 along vJ::'.'ch
It s1101fs a figure Homan
Hitb.
a
hUGe
hold:Ln6 a bO\11 above
by
head and her'
pointed
head
\Jith
a
She is seated and
her
legs
and
out before cove::'ed uith black and
of
This
tiny
feet
Tl1.e
=-s
and some
in
the museum do have SOLle aff:l.ni'cies 1;ith ce?tain l,'101"ks by Gaudier-:Sr·zeska to be discussed late::'.
1UthouGh
1909
stayed in Paris fr-om
to
the
end of 1910 there is no evidence that he ever- visited the
Renaissance
a11d
sculpt
Appal"ently :Ln 1912 pr'lllit:lve
he 'lisi ted t11e began
a::-t lfhich 'i12.S
to
develop
his sculptUI'es.
masks i·rh:.ch aY'e believ'ed to be direct copies of
(FIG. 6.2)? ::3 the only one kno1:ll1. to
museum shared any visual aLo ,fide oeginnin,; of
It
an
0
intel"est
[L1· ]
in
Ee made tiles and
_Bitive
designs
:1.3
of
;D.ade
and
pa:i.nted
vrith this
of
Hark because of the elaborate haiI'style and the
and
and enthus:Lasn
1-jj_t11 th.eiI"' fOT'ma:
- 171 -
cetepmined
lips.
p::-':i.m.i ti_ve art 'I',Jhich iJaS e:rpl"essed :'cn his
In the
S1..lIilllle::
of
1912
found
the nuc::'eus of the Bl"itist avant-ga1 de.
h:':wself
Through friends
1
Epstein 1'11'10 1JaS the on::"y scu::'ptOJl' ar;;.ong the to Gaud:'el -Brzeska in age and had ali eady 1
He
ems
also
a
ado.:5x'er of Afr'ican sculpture.
t"(;o sculptors p1ayed a
m.et
Jacob
his The meeting of the
in the sculptui'al deve::"opuent of
especia::"ly
11.:':.s
,!ttl':. Afl"ican form.s.
vis:Lted Epstein u11.o b.ad just completed his Tomb Oscar
June 1912.
His 5-"'1pressiOl: of the Ton:b
letter' ,n":.tten a feH days late:;'1 to D:l' sketch
and
of
the
the
front
vieH
pecorded in a
:1..n 1,]11.ich he enclosed a
the
top
The
'J:':.t11. the
Gaudier-Br'zeska \elho r,ms :1:J.pr'essed Vi:1tous:l.ty
of
Tomb.
lette:,1 Cp:nobabJ.y pa:3e 9 as ::"_ndicated at :'eveals
a
Epstein uas senior established
1
he
81ll0ng
of the 2:LCht s:1..de
by
the
fl--:.arJ,::
YLOnu:llental:l.ty?
and al"t:Lstry of dL'ect stone
"I
stated
into
space, h.is eyes sr.:.ut..
The 111101e Hode is b eated - strongly? f:i_:led u:i.th 1
movement and de:icate feeling? in
the
expr-ession
and
the _ ...
rs.ed:l.w:l? nand conc:::"uded that the tODa uas "a piece of
., r
that \,'v_....!....:...
live forevey,.1I[7]
Inspired by Epstetn 7 G2.Ud:i.eI>-Br-zeska began d:1.:cect stone ca:--v:1..ng
1912.
I-hs
shol"led s:Ll21plified facial featu::'es 7 feet and hands.
is
sucl"1 a11 e:-calnpl e ..
nose
::"ooks b::"unt and heavy 1l'hile the
almond shaped eyes appear- in r-elief -"lith the They
loo!c slig11tly
- 172 -
Eead
Its
due to lack of ski.11 and T:1e
tn
of
£
Child,
and C'oughness of lip seems SlJOllen. ar-ound
them
The
me:,ryely
Gaudte:n-Bpzeska 1 S atteDpt to
snooth the \-lOj:'K had this
:mrk
1 eav::Lnr; behind faint.
has a general
spec:_fic
tive quality it.
art but indicates
hO"J
he
tool ShOCIS
no influence of any
began
h::_s
and Epstein becar,:e g:t'eat friends.
the
of
d:LPect
Epstein recalled
add.::oessing 8.1;'
2_
stone
artist 9
TYhen he :eetu::'necl f:r'om PacLs Epstein told Gaudie::--Ekzeska about t
achievements.
the
S
Subsequently
Hent to the
Br:i..tish
HuseUJ::J.
Of this he
'in-oote to Sophie Brzesl.:a[9] on 28 lTovenber
"This
1:J'e:n.t
t:Lve sculptures-
9
yel 1 0','1 and the ped :--aces ". [10] He
1.12, FIG.2.15, FIG.3.3, and those that he.d been ",ere
on
influence OE his
many
Af;:cican
iEcluded figures and masl,:s such as FIGS.1.1, 1.10, and
sculpt1-1reS
2nd
821,1
display
plus
acqui::'ed
a
feriJ
KO['e to be c:'_ted
Oi-J"n sculptuI"'es.
It
almost a yea::,
direct stone carving that
before
1912
that had an after
he
beG2n
produced stene ':70:-'l:s that
sho\'Ted Af:f'ican :::'nfl uence.
'!Jl:l:i..ch he began iI;' 1913 and completed in 191 fe2ale dancer i'l2. th a dYi1.arJ.:::'c 'bJist of the body. J:"'eseBble
a
specific
It
Although
sculpture in appeal"anCe it
it
2:
nude
does
net
St01JIS
seve:'al
n;:;co:.snisable featui'es of J\.fr::'.can sculptuT'es f:'eID. cli_ffeY"en'c ::"eSlons by
Gaudier-3rzeska
in
the
- 173 -
Bl"itish
Euseulll.
seen
The Red Stone Dal:cer is
conceived as a cOI:lbination of and
contor't:,ed
planes &"1d J;Oow.1.ded forIns. lees and feet
composed of flat planes the
egg-shaped head
made of :c'ounded fo:'ms.
compositional elements is
The s1'1opt 7
huge
bloeasts
the
The comb i_nat ion of these tHO
:\.n principle to the
Headrest? Bambala? and the Stool 7 Ashant:_, (FIG.1.37).
::Ln
and
These telO
car'vings Her'e acquired in 1907 and I'Iuseum
2:.nd
Gaudiel'-Brzeska
L1iGht
have
display. thick
and
flat feet
tpeated in terms of flat planes, ilhile the
papt of the anJ., the shou3_decs and the head a:ee tl"'eated forrl1s
0
The
tube-like.
c:'ound,ed.
fingers
The fingel"'s blocks.
blunt and a;:'e :"epresented
bent
by
legs,
long
Hhi.le
and
Gaudier-Blnzeska found the ar'rangement of for''Il1s and
but appalnently did not find the I
cylindrical
2,S
in the HI ustc'at-ion) a:ce blunt and
In the Stool flat planes are used :i..n the
his oun
the
s Hod: as
apz-'anceI2ents in
i:TT'ote to
Brzesl:a
on
Appi.l 1911 that he continued to study t1ichelangelo' s· "noted II planes, but neu. [11 J
Hi thout
On
the
other
band,
after
to assept :::'n June 191Lf: Sculptura:
:2l.asses
the defini"ng of tbese masses
by planes. VI [12]
Other
featupes a:'e disce::>nible in the Red
egg-shaped head 1 the huge bpeasts 1 and the the
b:ceasts
J_n
lon
T'elief.
Stone
ar:d the oblonG mace on
T11ese epito:o:ise tIle \tray
. . .Brzeslca
he explai_ned later in 191 L!.; the made the indicates
that
pulled the sphe:;:oe lengthllays and
in
to
to
pr-oduce
in
addition
to
appreciating the decorative values of
geo:metr::'Lc forms in Af:'ican in
the
Eeaning
charms. [13 ]
Th:Ls
Gaudj_er-Brzeska liaS also inte:cesteG. attached
to
them.
clearly
He
used such
symbolism in the Red Stone Dancer and fev! other vJo:-'ks of his, (ie. Tm'pedo :'Lsoscell es
Fish
1919,
and
and
used as sexua2. sym.ools although they can have especialIy the
CharT!., Bambala? (FIG. 6.6) and the the
Bapende, (FIG. 6.7) Both h2d been
1907 and could have been on disp::"ay.
The
a f::"at ilOoden piece, a cord passi_ng through the
1:01e
r':uSeUl'.l since
Fe::'tilitv CharD the
neclc enables :l.t to be 110n'1 as a pendant
aga:'..nst evil
OP
fo,:'
to :'Cnduce fe:c't:L1i.ty in yeung vw:men.
t:e::2ngular spaces at the side. also describe a
The
The
head
of t:r'iangles:
beautj_fully shaped
ShOHS
edGes of the fa.ce a::'e eyes
2nd
the
c.i"e
Hhite pulled
tp:tanc;le on the face of the Red Stone Dance:!:"'7 U:.e 0'"
the
l-:uge
for
bl'easts sycbolise fept::'lity.
il1.st2:.11ce
- 175 -
the
ADE and BCE def::.ne
the 1
:i.ncised and \J:lth
lips
and
patter'ns on the
In. tile Bapel1.de
The
The
African
using these designs in the
in
191 Lf ) •
and
also be used
in
Char':m
The and
gray
tJ:':Lancles.
up into
The and the
oblons
The la2ge bcoeasts have also
191.!·8 London 7
pointed
a'::,
the
of
Art?
out that the big georr:.et::'ic breasts of Red Stone
convey the idea no'\;, only of
but a:'..so of fept:i..ljty. [VI]
The egG-sha::::,ed head of the 3ed Stone Dancelry ::'eveals an influence of 31""211Cusi T s
Iluse of 1910 and tuo othe:." Bi'ancusi ca;-·vi.ngs Allied
RodiI"
in
and
June/July
at
at
London
5a10n
u11ic11
of also
EaHlol and t,;o portraits of cubist style. [15] Since
Epstein had mentioned ska
and his
to
he? s
='.11
had taken a keen i11tel"est in both
19 12 7
and h:1.s
,w:"k:
Fe detected Brancus::? s i.nfluence on Epstei.n IS Epstein;
the
doi.n;; the wost ext::··aoedinary statues? absolute copies of 3rancusi"s
:'..nfluence
on
is seen in the
s siLlplification of
Soph:Le B:c'zeska? ';·Jl"lo descr'ibed Red Stone Dancee as a 1911.1·
1rlhen it
:l.n
displayed at the Alpine Gallery? London? also
recognised Brancusi's influence in it. r-esemblance
1-ritll a
to
human
Has
deceptive.
An egg head
facia: featupes(l
because it measured up to :.nfl uenced by AfT':Lcan scul
Hodes
by
Brancusi
and
Epstein
go:'ng
to sculpt like the Red Stene Dance""'. "Epstein
Hell ". [18]
- 176 -
that
\1e::08
"Vias so pleased 1rJith it that he told
H:'i..ss Brzeska that he Has cha.ng:tng h:1.s method of Ho:eking T,jaS
style
and
completely
and.
(Then she asked h:isc. "\Vlco B:0ancus:'_
sell
theirs
t:indful of the
influence on the Red Stone
The EgO:Lst, 16 tribal
gods,
191 Ll· fetishes
and
that,
"The
:cntr'odt:.ction
on
into
modepn
so
p::,essage."[19] Gaudier-B:::-,zeska 2:::"SO 1:H'ote a month
th2t this
of the
of
a.pt
,'JaS
in
the
I
diffe ':s
f::-'or::: ',:,he top long and
S
sketch
fY"om
Study
f02?
Red
fop
1913,
Stone
the statue in be::i.nG less compact and m.assive, sculptu:;:--e. especj.al2.y
nose is s:im.i::'ar' to the nose of the m.ask.
sculptop
he
SbOH
a
Gaudiel?-B:'zeslca
Rodin's concept of r:::over:::ent. beg2.n
by
inc
in
in
Rodin,
and
in
and
cd th
B:colcen
cl2.:,/ and plaste:
Rodin1s
186 L!.?
n
By
to
•
Fe
he studied
5.n
n
infl uence
bec2.EJ.e
(FIG.6.10).
and lifeless eyes? unkeILpt be2.l d and rl2.ip.
Rodin! s style of modelling
1913.
1909
of lli?:. Fathe::: 1910, (FIG.6.9), is based
example, r:lan
!Iaillol.
combi_nation
in
developed an inte:'est in GJ:'eek Classj.cal sculptures
on
The slit
neck c'ol'1d the dmm1i-Jai'd pointing and conical b:::-'east of
The dra':ring ar.d the statt:e of Red Stone
Louvre,
happy
of the Hhite mapk on t::1e forehead to the pOinted chin.
eyes? long col
the
a
fol=.ovlinG
shaped face is similar to the loelel'" pal-·t of the Bapende
a
D j :Lnns,
peoples of the
but it also sbous some i_nfluer.ce of
becorn.e
the
[20]
,Thom \Je have sympathy and
The
and
"has no i"elat::"on to classical Greek, but that
:r.t is continuing the
(FIG. 6. 8),
Dance:;:--
on
The influence of
perSisted
lli'1til
the end of that year the inf:'..uence of r:lail J. 01 1 s full
began to shoe·, in both his modelings and stone carvings like Fe;:;J.ale
- 177 -
1913.
Yet G2.udi.e:c-37zeska reB8.5.ned iJ:1fluenced
moven:ent
had
The
concept
pl'oduced
of this concept of dynaL1ism and one
Sri tish a:c'c. CaSS011
Rodin s
of
t::.ll the be2::Lnninz of 1911i, and it is evident in
Red Stone Dance:::'. idioms
by
AfI"'ican
of the Great p:Loneeping sculptmoes in in t.l1.e Bed St.orie
the
/
Stan.ley
rellia:clced
In this [Gaudie:o' s ] of n:ove:ilent he 7eally achieves a na,y style in moder"n sculpture. The Dancer is a figure in uhich nO\Tement is detected than seen, and detected at a :.:oment /,hen :::"s neithe:c static :I..n Bot::.on; \'Jhen it is potential? and yet not stopped. No sculpture to my knOl-Jledge? has ever depicted a f:l.gu:oe thus descendj.ng out of one movement into Rod:"n 1 s definition of ::10venent as :Ls here caj."pied out n:Olne than he could have vJished and more effectively than he could have achieved. Thel:'e is no ::-epresentation of motion its ful::. and dir'ect [21]
subsequent
carvings
of
infl uellce than the
Red
1914 lost this dyna:.:J.ism. Ic:p 1 191 L!.,
Stone
.
(FIG. 6. 11 )? bet:::,ays
It
Sh01ilS
a def:Ln:" te resemblance to tHO Bal uba F'r Q;ures}
FIGS.'.1 and 6.12, acqui:('ed by the Br:Ltish Huseur:l in 1907. Red
Stone
Unlike
the
Gaudie:o-Brzeska in the ==n;.P9 faithfully folloHed the
Dancer,
st.atic and to some extent the
pose of the tHO
African
car'vings
T1it110ut intpoducJ.ng Et.lropean dynaIlliswo
the legs
ove.l heads 7 thielc shO!:,t
aIld
sBall protr'uding buttocI:s enla:"gement
of
the
of the
bent legs
and
par-t
the
parts (ie.
a
- 118 -
of
r'elat:'veJ.y
flat
feet.
The
is in cont:r'ast to the
bu::"zing stcJ:lachs)
of
the
sinpJ.:"fication
of
fm"'m:
blurring
the
fe2.tuI'es
2,nd
only a long flattish nose
vls5.ble 7 reducin:; the br-easts? c::lest and
Illass,
Jehe
and reducing
the
ar'TIl into one
:<C;ht ana to 2. deformed mass fused \lith th.e to;:oso?
th::Lghs
and
tte
legs
into
one
thE!.t :1.1"].
2.c.di ticn
to
Udefi11ing
these
bent
mass.
Such
appreciated
"mass
masses
planes" •
aloe also technical reasons ls
cylindr-lcal
this treatL'lent.
from a narrOH 16ins (1.1·0. 6c;:}) high block
of
in
..:.np
ve:Lned
"i-JOuJ.d have been diff:7.cuJ.t to ·lv-odc: to p:novide elabor-ate details u: relation to its size. ar:d delicate.
also
Intr'oduction of space bet,ieen the
2Tms
and
the
bet\Jeen the legs Hould have made the Hork unecessarily
Imp is syrJ.tl1et",,'lca:L
the base up to the neck, but the head
life into the figUl'e. lUthough the study ShOil
fifJ:"'ican
1914, (FIG.6.13) and
proportions
and
the
both
they d:lffer j.n sevel'a=.
The d;:·-auing !:"eveals the
proportion of
1 : 5? uhl1e U:e ca:r'v5.ng ShOHS the
1: 4.
In the
the
ratio
the arms
x"aised and bent at the elbol'js.
There are spaces betHeen
the
the legs as notice3.ble 5.n the Baluba and
topso
and
also
bebJeen
The angulaJ:" natur-'e and the flat
shadj.ng
:l.n the dra1crin;;
the
a1'"';:o.s
and
of planes
SiID.Har to the B2.ule Doll, CFIG.6.14),
Hhich Sh011S secb.ons of f12t planes especially
in
the
shoulde:::"s?
t116
The appaJ:oent imbalance :Ln Doll is caused
the tm'so alid the leGS.
by the s1:Lghtly :,·a:'.sed left shoulcle::", the tilt of the long to?'so to
the
right
in Ll1D.
The
in 1902 u11en Gaudier-"-Brzeska vj.sited
the
and the slightly shorter
Doll "\Jas
the Br-':Lstol
leg is also
0-7 L,T .... _v,) 0
year's befo:('e he did the drauing.
- 179 -
they
cannot be coincidental, but imply that
peco=:"lected
had a r'etrospect:Lve infJ.uence upon hi;:'1.
The articulation of planes
the
(ie.
dra'tvi11gs
FIGS.6.S, and 6.13)
ht.lInan.
sh.ading
shaded facets that
to scu:"ptu:'")a.l asse7.11blage of goeDletpic solids
f::gtH'''e
1907!. [22]:::1'1
Picasso began dm'ing second
1912
he
mri st Exhibition j.n London "Thicb included Picasso! s
pain.ti11GS
Cubism.". [23]
subjects.
Gaudier-B:::-"zeska I s
At
this
:Lsh his foms.
(FIG. 6.15)
1907-1909
of
pencils and pastels and
they
point
applied
often
refered
early
cubist
consisted
of
he
to
as
d::,aT;rin:;s
uer'e
in
and
used the cub::'st technique cf s!1ading to
1913?
c'IJ.bist
th::'s
technique
shade. to
his
I'lith
st.:c ce s sful
Gau.dier-By'zeslca
SCUlptures.
of 'Rrodzky 1913, and PortT'ait of LCllfred covered
done
For eX2illple in his Self Por't::-a:1.ts \,dth P:Lpe
uith the pi.ay of light and
facets and they
The surfaces of
1913, are
both
described by P.G.Konody as "executed to attr>act attention. VI [2 Lf] The
in a fy'::'enzied Cubism cubist
Cc8.t
the iJ:l.i'luence of Cubislll
This recalls the
on
tlle
and
us&
of
Gaudier'-B::.c'zeska 1 s break "b'i tll the DO:;" ten
facetting
and sagging surfaces of hj.s Rod:'.nesque sculptures.
TThen Gaudiep-Brzeska
j.n September 1913 his
Cubism
jo:Lned
the
OEega
biO cOI:.lplir::enta.r-y styles culr.linated in many HO:;'1ks done at the l;orkshops
:'31
c=.ay.
Thereafte:c'
anli::.ate 11::'s draH:'.ngs
adopted bold an;::;ulal' hatchinG to included
cl:.aTcoal sketches that
independent of sculptu:."es and ,,yh:1.ch also l1eveal Afr'::'can influence.
- 180 -
17e:,1e
Three T;orcen, 1913, (FIG.6.16), is
a
cubist
The planes 82e flatJ.y shaded
charco2.l
cl::-aiJing
striated.
of 2nd
l'ound forms ar-e har:n20niously p:oototypes
of particula:e
but
chal--acte):oistics of
sculpture:
ShOH some of the
dOHncast eyes
maPlced
cu::'ved slit lines, (see FIG. 1. 13 - Eye Types C1 anc CLI·) y the lonG angulax- ncse (see FIG. 1. 14 Nose Type B); biC; round on
the
level
of
the shoulder's (see FIG. 1 . 18
placed
3reast Types G and E) c
lonG colwI.I.nar' nec:'cs? and ::'.ong tape:':'ing faces corc!lI'.on to Baule and
Senufo
stylistic such D)
as
D::".rad
1908 and others.
Gaud:i_e:o-B:ezeska
not see any of these
1913, (FIG.6.17) :.1.3 s:.r:1Em-' to the ;:-'ight hand fa::, :Ln
the
in Th:eee
The
huge
loolcj.ng faces, and tb.6
of tb.e left pointed feet.
The t:::11gh3 ar--e apparently 1011 3
The lon,; and ansulal" head of the l:Lttle l'esemblance
to
son:e of the though
that
dog
in
the
d::oa1;1ing
a
Chi 1tIara headressses from the be coinc5.dental sj.nce thepe
::::1.0
evidence
haC. ever' seen these types of
only confined
to
qua1:Ltj.es
the
but a.lso exter::ded to his choj.ce of
seats
l\fr':Lcan
- 181 -
in
'[,he
FIG. 6.1) 7 and :Ltens in the Bl":t.ti.sh NuseuIil
u:1.th
fascinating
of But some of them uel'e
ca::."vinGs.
theil
0
SQu::'ces a:..... e almost ul'".l:':.'?ecogl'1.isable
to
(FIG.6.18)7
Vase
to a poj.nt
0
exaI:1p18, uas influenced by
C01'lgO
1907. has
Both ea::,vin.;s Ir.odified
2:
figure
but
:nany of the forms in l:.is oun vJork.
d8taehable is shor-tel' and
:Jl.Ol'e
betueen
the tm"ned into a are
vC.se and a
cylind::':'ca.l
H::.s vase uhic1:: seemed
tha.n
that
Snuff
0:'
the b.ead and the vase has been flattened and
the torso is e}:tended dOim
base;
the
l'aised al1.c. fused il'ito one tvhieh is attached to the head.
The
tb.igh.s rf'!.er·ge
tl-:e
torso,
indicated
lees
lrl1.ile
sqtlatting pose,
of
and
the
feet
Tb.is
of
c:;.--ouc11::Lng
to
are
the
in. 2.
to
is
cl"ouchinS
by t11e Ba.-:tbala
D.2Y not
The cl'ouching pose U2S adapted
to I'etain the c"L:boid
Sntlff
na'cUl"'e of the stone.
(FIG.6.20)
anot11er
of
the
five
SCU::"ptuL'es and I:1odelJ.ed
as
a
Olliega
Ill2.quette
fo:C'
a stone ca:c'V:i.ng cOIlTIll.iss::cned t:1.pough 'che is
by Lady (Ian) Ha.::J.il ton. extent
TIodified
to
that outua:.:-d1y j:t seems d::.fferent f: oD j.ts soupce of 0
to African scu::..ptupes kno'[;Jn to
of Hhich examples a;:'e
Bamba12. Eeadl"'est and Ashanti Stool? (FIG. 1.37) 3
(FIG.3.2) ;
o3too1 1
CFIG.5.15); Divination
Ritual
- 122 -
the
(FIG. 6. 1) Chief' s
depicts
a
'call
bl1ck:et--shaped
sides, supported by COll.-lDl1
I'Thich
together
i;;hole
back.
tl;.e
maslcs on bot11
The neck is flat and b:C'oad.
flat
sides
sb.ape
f:i.attened
of the
of
tl10
Cl: ef p s
on
t,w
0
are bent buttpesses.
The
the sirlplifi.ed
yet
:supporting the forr.1s
OI"'naL0ent
beading 8.c'ms.
to
dmm
Garden
feo.
'lase ;,;itI:: tl'lO
extends dOdD. to the base is a cO:'lical :'lalf-1ilay
etce-
be seen as a pad s:::1D.:l.lal'" to that of the Snuff
C8.J."'l
back
(FIG. 6.21);
Ba2-uba,
1
Stoo 1 S j o:r"-ned
baclc to bacl<
0
Appar'ently Gauclielo-Br,zeska superimposed the silhouette of the loight side viell
upon
ppocess
the silhouette of the left side
of deve2-opment:
FIG.6.21C).
T11e
FIG.6.22A 3ho,,8 the :LIillD.ecliate placement of the
t'L170 side vieus 9 FIG.6.22B ShOHS the silhouettes
(ie.
effect
of
supepimposing
teJO
to form a janus car'yat:Ld3 aad FIG.6.22C ShOHS the beg:i.nn:c.ng lie ·cb.en adopted t.l1.e
the stool for his featul"'eless masl::s on the bucket-shape vase.
tl'JO heads.
FIGS. 6. 22F and G rep::,esent the side vieil of Gar-den OpnaDent)
FIG.6.20C);
they
the mod:l.f:l.cation of FIG.6.21B
also
Ol"lJ.ac1.ent .3. 1914) (FIG.6.23) a:i..so shmlS study of
2.nfluence f::."om It is re:;'ated to
ca::"yatid
the uppe: c section of the Stool and Eeadrest y (FIG. 1.37A and B),
11eads(7)
The strong curved 2.2:'iliS
s'\:,oo:::'
and
the
- 183 -
at the
the
and
to
seat of tbe
an eEphasis placed on flat planeso nen
Bou:. 191Lf? (FIG.6.24), is the and
12.st
TS
subjects.
seulptu:ces depiet:'..ng figures Ttlith bo,1::'3 fy'oIl'. l;;h:1c11
to
seen
differ'ent
the of
32.mu:n
them
to a
iJith
tribes
's
·::':'1ese ar"8 from tI:1e Bal
l1ave
of
Doul
r':':LS
betijJeen
1:1-;.ee1
the
:;.nfl uenee of the moti.fs ar:d subject I2atte:::' on
s Hen
':TLth :SoHl ShovlS mOlC'e affinity to Hor-al'! Ivith B01d, Lozi, (FIG.6.25)
produced tuo male
the
i.l'1
fj.
FIG.6.25 facing each
Both
(FIGS.6.24
ca::'''il:''ngs?
and
possess
from
block-2.il:e
9
•
tIle
are ach:Leved by substituting of
s::I.ooth
the
pound
the angular-'
planes? the ::"ound head v-lith huge faces?
lone; and thin tor'sos,
and heavy bent
and \S
and
and boldj.ng a cmelI.on bm,L
6.25) 7
and a.:.0.,;ula::' shouldeI"s?
feet
t.11an
(the huge Hing-l
ll.-eads
of the lJ.fcLcan
that
::,'eveal 11e::oe
facetted ir:1inated ) ?
shelf-like D::ooHs 9 al':.d po:1.nted chins. and
strongep than Eoman uith Bmd but vTithout tl:e hands of t;_1e
latei 1drhic:1 a::oe modificaU.ons
to the hands of the and
the
apparent
contrasts
Red
These
Stene tb.e
Gaucliel'-BI'Zeska I S
success
They also demonst::-'ate attenpt to avoid flabsolute copi.es ll of
- 181.:- -
sculptul'esg
By-ancus::::. : S
idea ub:Lch Epste:i.n I'e:..terated to
tota::" oeuvre to shmi" absolute s:YT:L1etZ"y.
This could be due to the use of
fo:r3s in the
tr.l.e
of
11is
bOtJls ij;er-"e n:aquettes rnade of clay'
figu:ees
i."las
clay
in these cases
c01:1plete
Hould
earned hiL:
Lloney.
He T:1ade 1.;.
.f;.7 9 casts in
and
Ornm:;;,ent
h.e r[2.ade
adv"'oca te of dir:.ect st.cn.e
a
to ShOH to h:iS
pat::'on
\,Jhat
cast
of
the
2.001: l::"ke. and 1
Gar-den
j"n lead of GaZ'den Or·nar:::.ent 3.7 and Ll
casts of I'len 'I.Ji th 130vTl s.
of and
(s ckal·J:::"ngs and sculptupes \·repe based.
er'otj"c
deri.ved f:L::)st a:'1d
a.nd
t.
The
themes.
authorities "Ee
founG
a11d
Epstein r s
account
of
of
the
by
'[eJaS
that
and
Has
exc::.ted
by the sexual fl'anlmes3 of the he
de
tCl.1..
an.d
by
Epstein
1'12on0 dolm at least half a
like
0
l'Tilde
••• !![25] drauings
Stud" for Han and lJoman
Totem 1913 7 CFIG.5.31)? the thpee vepsions of Rock
(.' '" t.o b.is
Duri,-1[; theip long cODradeship Gaudier-Brzeslca sau sculptu:::'es
arr'5.ved
t.he sexual orGans 11ad been covered 01T8:-C"
off the st::'";ja't-J:l t.l'1en t:1.e
cou:iJ"1 es
Oceanic
o·? the Oscap Hilde Tor,'"b in
to me about his OSC2..::o Eilde in
Epstein.
h::':.8
as
s ()
the seJ:ual
i'le
::"nfluence of these j"deas :::"n his \-TOr1=
from Epstei11, as
esJ.<.::a
Tomb:
on
and
CFIG.5.29),
Doves; the
Studies
1914, (FIG.5.32, 35 and 36); and the Rock Dpill itself?
- 185 -
In
(FIG.5.37).
to
add:-.t:Lon
sexual:Lty
the
t118se
African
spu:::,red the taste of
and
Oceanic
so n:uch that he fI:'ee
life
of the South 8eas".[26] In his Putney studio he painted on
the inside of the double r:onograph I
in
doo::os
black
"(Thich
pi1allic
paint. [27]
I-Ie
often described his little
di::oectly caTved in b::oass as :phallic!
symbols
of
fecundity and vitality.
His
1911.;·] (FIG.6.25) and Door-knocker-
Designs foJ:'
(FIG.6.26)
c:'ear13T
couples
to Epste=-n s Toteli1o
Daking
love.
fer.c.ale fo:.c?ffis
111e-:1
tl:.
She is si.tt:Ln;::;
on
the
T11e ::2ale orgall?
a
conical
can
cou::'se
also
has
a
the
stan.d
The female! s hands
testicles."[28]
on
Hith
its
brouGht stloaight dOim to the
i'inge2's Hithout the
inscr:Lbed
pllallus
is
v'agin.e.w
the opened
shape;
indicated.
feE.ale
in
th.e
hand
on a
pole
In
the phallus "rb.ich is all1:;ond-shaped :Ls \lith tuo testicles at the base. t11e
figUre of the r'ight.
rb.o:nbus etc
(]>
as
711.e
The
erotic
_. 186 -
t11e bottOI:"l :u.ale
figu::-e of tl1.e
I:,Cp
exe:::ilpJ.:'fies
sY::'1bols
of
l2epicts a
7S
Ocean:1.c
knmdedge
tr':Lbes. [2S] bein; i.n
their
LeHis and 1'15_8 Fry
c.es:lSDS
discreetly
iJ:l1ile
found themselves l'esorting to
set
1iJhen
Etche::"ls reca].led that. 1:.:hen Hami::' ton and he got dra1Jing
obscene
then Ee
ceo:::letx'::Lc) shapes. so
areas
disguised
that
suggestive
the
that th.e:! could see tl'1e sexual oI">ga11s eve11 tb.ouSll
no one else "lras able to. [30] Gaud:Le:;C'-Br'zeska \'Tas 2c180 J.nvolved practices 7
e:::enplif:'.8d in his COUDl es .Q.1913? CFIG.6.27).
as
a desig;n for a t::'2,y as :it
(FIG. 3.22) . tl1.e
suc11
i11
It is cO!J.posed of
b.eads
of
angular>
flat
the
to his T::8.v 1913 il i.near
and
crce
of the almond-shaped
(FIG.3.12) and P:i.casso's [uda
heads of G::'2.nt l s Couple Danc:Ln;( Raised
Afp:i.can nasks.
On
in
Octobel'
1911.} they founded the 'Rebel
The
as Limited! •
rCubist Art those
closest.
1913
of CtlbisTl:',
f:""iendE.,
financed
by
legal
The sui.din;; pr:I.n.c:::ples of the centre Gaudier-3rzeska remained
a11d
at the Onega ;Tor-kshops but identified himself ui.th
the
'Rebels I .
For-
instance he toole pcL-'t tn the Allied A:('tists Assoc::_ation Sa:on Exhibition of J1::ne 191 LJ. anc "Frote a pevieu :1.n the 1911.; I
Rebe:::"
Centr-e
products.
5podzk,! pointed out
- 187 -
:Lssue
Z::'otic sentiment pan high at the that
'} pl1allic 7
!
Rebel
popular
used as a
EJ.'ld
of the
and
Pound
of the day and that
TBebel
Cenb"e 1 • Ii [31 ]
often
pha:a:.c scul::)'cu::es of
the
:m the:Lr pockets.
accused
and
Cubists
but
untalented
to
this
sent:i_ment a.rr:ong the
(FIG.6.29)
Femal e
is
Re bel s' is ep:::.tomised :Li1
of
The
his
t.hat
the e:-'otic and
specific
!
of Th::'s
endsc
of
for
tb.e
SC1.11ptu:"--e
e:::a1"npl e 7
Si}O"tlS
(FIG. 6. 7).
Bapel'2d.e
The
ot11er
seen :'n the dY'aHing are the cylil'2d::>icaJ. neck, the
round
b:.:"easts
feet and toes, and the un:Lnhibited dipl2.Y of the
of i>J11icb. "(Frere based 01'"1 tb.e cCI:.binatJ:o:n of t110se cf
aesthetic
the
Cubism? FutuY'ism?
'Rebel
I.
t11e
and
dynal1i.c
wachines?
Llechanizat::'on.
hig:1-
all be
'd:'Lth
forms,
diagonal, horizontal?
The phallus uhich had perSisted in thei::'
and ';'las used as an 1w2.ge to back
up
and
2.CCoD:::::1odate
pO-leI'
of
the
pl'1a:l us
:'..deas.
:;enel"at1ve
of the machine.
- 188 -
-r;;Jas
aesthetic equated
the
-i c
Tl'le
of
3z:;:>8.
scu::..ptupes 1110V8Il1e11t
(FIG.6.30),
POU11d 7
ofte11
associated
It :i..8 supposed 'co be the bust of
(10
of
Cl1.e
'011e
Pound but it It is 0118 of t.I'1e g:.r.,ea'c
Bold
and
arloogant simp=-ification of
It :1..s
in
this
tIle
fonl'.s had bee;:: as
ILlOSt.
ston.e
sculptui"'e of the
Resemblance ,;"as not souGht for
bllst?
but
of
an
e:rpressi011
got
en:otio11S
The purpose and begin.ni11g 07: tl1.e bust
It i:J&S decided by Pound an.d Gaudier'-B:ezeska that the bust
loole lilce th.e
tuo
yea::'s
stone Pound said.
ttl
that
£;ina I':amnet'c 1'7110 "las a fr'iend of the
eThen
Pound
bouGb.t
lVyou must make me 100k lE;:e a sexu&l organ. II [33] and
the
bust
of
Alan
and
EZ1"a Pound to the influence of the Easte::o
=:s:l.and r<20noliti'l.:T.c sculptupe in the B].'itish llUSeU,;'l, because of :T.ts :i..nfluence =.3 disce::'nible for' the bust ]:,eveals the sa:ient
as
'.-lOod
outlined
exp:'oitation
of
these
second
that
of
to
Chaptep
1.
The
emotions
that
The
elements.
•
of the nose for'm::"ng the upper ::':'..p
p£pican
in
featur-es
and
Tte
the f::"at plaI:le flanked by tiTO cm::.cave pJ.ao.es
the j aT,IS 2.!1d the chin narm<r:l.ng to a point that
embedded in a goatee of 81 :'..!1verted and
masks.
The neck and the chest fQj;'ll'. a block of Dc.SS. are
- 189 -
tb"e
slishtly
pushed back to avoid the:L::o
phallus.
The
the errect natm'e of the
enlarged
repr'eSe1'2t the test:Lcles? (see FIG. 6. 30D). a block of styl::sed
baclc
at
a11d
Tl1e
pa:c")'c, of the b.ead :Ls
in do:r..e shape "ii'lhich coP""esponds in
penis, (see FIGS.6.30B
to
to a
C). ::Lnvokes
The
chin
pointed
.;oatee
FIG.6.30B) also look like a cL'cumc:::"sed penj'.s.
Uyndham Le'\Jis
the
pha:tlus.!I[3 LI·] L::J..;:e L1any
bust as tlEzc:'a Pound in the form of a
avoided syJJJL::e Loy
in
the
bust
desc:cibec.
an
ute
of Pound. to
The
is
frontal
avoided ::.n
bust by a slj.ght tilt of lehe
nose to tb.8 left of tl'le face al"ld b::r tl'1e e:t:posu:c'e of t.11e tl:e
The
planes of the face are not the saIe in
level - the left is
and
:ts
of t
than
focus than the left. "The
11is
pad:.
r phallic
Pound
0
t11e
poss:'..bly
lost
a1':.d Tb.e
EIor-ace
col UId!! becaIl!e the
of
so
some years
car.ed
"Hier'atic
courage
phalL'.c t • !! [35]
It concept assoc:Lated, ::.n one 'day or the
/ crith continuity? tenderness
and fr'om othe::'s due to its peculiar
Ol.n
It ShOHS none of the :Lnt:'_B.El.cy found =_11 the 2-D
Europea11
th:::"s subject
apt
schematization
and
(>
began
to
:ceveal
- 190 -
the
:Lnfluence
of
African
than one child 2,S in Odudua (FIG.2. 7).
especially those Ljith
ca::ved
by Gaud:Ler-Brzesl:a at diffe::"ent
conceptual diffe::oences extent
the Eu::'opean and Af::,:Lean styles
by
Gaudie::'-B::'zeska
(FIG.6.32),
also
in
in.
1913
a
knol-Jn as
the in.f::' uenee of Afp:Lean senlptu::'e.
and
the
Etuopean
style
'C]hHe
IJas carved :Ln 191L\
The f:'.::'st tlaterl'lity
shoe1s
a
nude
a naked child '[cjhich reveals a bond of affection betT;Jeen
IWTJall
It. also ::..--eveals an. ele:.:e11t helpless child.
of
the
fm"
the
naked
and
the inf::"uence of HailIol and uses
and t'hytlnic fO:C:C1S
The broad treatment of
the
(see ti1e back vie\J), emphasj'_se solidity and mass
but
0
legs,
soles of the feet, l"lOt pl'"?od'L1Ce
of
It. Has produced
1:aillol1 s soft,
do
and
to Ii"hich Afpican scu::"pture influenced hi::!!.
Has canTed
planes
exemplify the
tb.e l.'1a:.-")G.
effects tl'1at
s11olJl1.
in
Cubist. a::''1G
the
and
b·JO
The ffiothet·, 1dhose back ::'s arched has thl'OvTn pendulous
The
t.UO hands behind hel head and thpusts he:e hUGe n
to
b::'easts
the
1'e2.ch
is t U7'ned to the
boy 1 s
reduces t116 :"'elatioIlsllip
bettTeeD
themsel"l)"eso
mode both
of
20the:'
st:cuggle and has none of the
:lntj.ffi2.cy
- 191 -
ch:Lld::-en.
7
(see FIG. 6. 32B ;,
The
0
Tl:is
tI1er.,0.o
t11e
(FIG.6.31).
of
unusual
feedi11g
found.
in
the
o/cheI'
aIJ.d
The ch:Lldren a:.-'e a sY[;lbo::L of ti1e aont.:'Lnuity of J::Jan. I-Io'l:levep? certain the
subj eat
tl:an
one
elements Day be
,:7hich
Gaudie::'-Brzeska
:Ln the syr:.bol isB. of
had
made
child u11ich symbolised kindness
love of one r S fellol,] men.
tl1.e
in
Due to financial hardship fo-:"
could
use
Llade
not
buy
an
enough
I:lost, of 11is :""7Ieasonabl::l stzed stones
his
and. sor.::.etl:o:.es
of
at
times
by
'Thom
he
::::.6
of
f:eiend n:lck-ncl1ued Fabl"Uccl
shared
tis
The
studio.
But ::Jlotivated
to
does
of
col=-ect(>
not
seeI
to
associates collect
SCtl2.ptu::-:-eo
they
acknoHledged
its aesthet:Lc sign:Lf::Lcance ::t.n
theL' n:ode:cn development they Here too po 0::-' to buy.
To
DOst
of
ti1.ese
artists CoIlecti:1S African scuIpture oEly beca..--:e a fashion
1920s
and
even
Fry only
since
been
1912
to collect t:1en. but
d::..d
not
Epstein had seriously
s110ljJ
Gaudier-Brzeska. see it p:.:'oba'oly because the
sufficient
himQ
192
collect:Lo:1 at the British
to
fO:"T'Jal of
'Ja=- ues
the
of
lsava,se l1
As sueb. r.:.e
ar:d
ofte11
to
to adopt. t:.i1e TIlode of 110t.iol1 of tl'1er:a
Iilansf:Leld
and
island. [36J ?
hi.Il1se1f
the
n[37J I-!e to
of
talked
go :'-116 to 1:Lve on z.
to
uhol e-·c.hing I
often
1912 he
E:i..ddleton
of
"liked 1:;0 do the
s'ca:"t to f:Lnish:; to feel as ='_no.epen.dent as the
h.is 0\/711. "cools fpom old Spil'ldlesc
could
be
Paul Gauguir: ,::1:10 >lent to settle ar:lol1g the
of
t11e
This
no evidence
tb.2t
iden'c:Lf::l:'ng
:::"11.
'c,he
ar!
7 b.e sa:ld 9 a11d fi.shed O'Llt of 111s pocl:et A carved bone and laid i.t u:80n my paID. Inaze ;;Jitb. j"n a subt::"e Sta::_118d as lJit11 age alld use? tl'1e sU:'"Jface po:ished To IV0r'Y. He "latched r.:.e i/e? 'Hell, tell r.:.e
T'Jl:at
CotHyt,2.'·'::l
tl1.a'c.
Ca.I2.e frOfLl? 7
IJi:;ec:'ia? ' He 1au:;hed ;:}::"s satisfaction? took it and it TIlyself to-day a handle [38] !
0
is
t.o
{FIG. 6. 33)?
caz'ved
his
Cal:"ved
a bone
Handle
band::"e al'ld sta:Lned b:;:oo',7D..
IH(e a min='_atUl'e staff of office 01' Bundu
Toothb;."ush
a11
aged
init:Lation
- ..-
_L-
baton?
S·c.2ff? Si8i"ra Leece, (FIG. 2. 11) Hhi.ch is 2:'. so based on bato11,
used
by =='ro:ey BZcten, Benin, (FIG.6.34), 1910. Duel:!
by Fetis:'l StaPP? Ben:i.l'1,
- 193 -
the
(FIG.6.35C) uhich had also
sc11eIG.at::sed
r:he balf-global
suppo::'tecl
standir:;; baclc to bact:, t11e
shape
:'egs; Tll.e
The Car'ved Toothb:."ush Handle ep:'..tom.:'ses to in
place
discovep
of those denied him by econo:w.ic necess:'Lty. ingenious
He Has
of lJaS 3.1 so in tb.8
t of
a
mode:'n
sh01·m
lattep?s
tl'1e
he ,ms told that
cor:manding
d:".d butts
and
soft
al so
to r.!;;"s Bevan on 1,2 Eove:nber'
Febr'uar'y
1915, sa3ri11G that h.e 11ac car:ived a
a Ge:::cman
of
on
and
out of th.e bl}.tt. of
and that 11.:'..s captain bad :U:,. [LfO]
'cb.e
1:e
tll. Epstei11
alr:d
stage
const.i tuted a11
Ee e::plained his
concept
to these L1ethods
The sculptu::'e ::r: 2.dm::,:'e is the \lode tll.or.;. of t118 surfa.ce 1-l0!": at tkle POi11t of t.he cb.:isel .... and mental ITo mO: e of tb.e 11aTIlJ-=.e:.'J :l_S 2.. 1
a:.""b:L
Je,pans2.atioi1
cf
in any
of t.he dj.ffe::-:.en'c qualities of IO.etalso Epstei11? T:J1:10:1 I t11e l1UI:lber of good sculptOl"S in lay
7118:;7" stones 5' a11d i11 t11e 0
stpess
on
The influence of
as
sculptm-'e
:"s
to
be
a fOl'"'Illa2. ') subj ecti"'i16?
his
O'Hn ljJords 11.G stated that l'le
- 195 -
th.ese
anc: of
CHAPTER 7
In 1919 vJhen Henry there
Here
no
began his studies at Leeds School of
contempocary
uodcs in the City Art
his first Hock of moden1 ar't in the
I-Ie sau
of Eichael
"/2S
of Leeds University from 1912 to 1923. associated l-lith had
9
in his d:::'ive to modeJ:'nize
had been
art since 1910 and
Hritten in the defence of the Post-Imp:eession:Lst exhibitions. [1] He
devoted a
deal
regularly
ar-ranging
of
to
e:;;:hibits
house to art students to shoH described
as
them
"lhich
his
he
acqui:'ed
bought after they had
been
in
1
collecb_on. [2]
collecto:n v [3 J
a
a1 ts
Leeds 9
of all kinds? and frequentJ.y opening his
paintings by Cezanne ap..d Van Gogh Gauguins
the
i;:hich
He
,;as
often
and his collection conta:_ned
he
bought
in
1912,
behleen 1911 ap..d 1912, of vJhich shoun
at
Fry's
first
exhibition, (these vJere L'Esppit Veille, Chpist in the Galnden of Olives, Joseph and Potiphar1s icjife and
a
l:Iatisses,
uhich
several
Kandinskys
visited him in 1912
in
Bavapia
and his colleagues
at
Leeds,
Fr-y' s
pasteI
],
the
of
a
Tahitian
and
1!lOrks
pa:_ntings
Post-Imppessionist
of
son:e
T;Jere
as
as
eal'liel".
Although Sadler' had previously encountered
he
began to collect it
Leeds. [5] But the collection of in
apt
and
African
did acquaint him for' his oun encounter
uanted
get aloJay
- 196 -
and
Sculpture
the late 19208 after Noore had left
Hoore late;:' recorded his feeling at the time:
us in art school." [6]
star-tling
exhibitions had been ten years
SCUlpture. to
some
he bought from the artist ,\Then he
inspi:"ing
only
gilnl),
"L1
\tJl Ld.'1
nelI
AfT-ican !lIn the 20s I
the emphasis on classical ar't ';ve had all
At the beginning of his c:.cademic
::.n
classical models. for
bec3.2e
it
in
and
a
book
in a librar'y.
read Roge;."
the 'iThole thing c'las there. n [7]
and
the ideas of th:;:'ee dinens:::'onal quaLL ties?
his
forrJ.s
cOrJ.pletely
thr'ee
of
forrJ.s in
periods
and
:::.ts
,JaS
'.;Qod. [8]
elongated
a
Probably Fr-y! s
cipcular
eyes, an invepted cynlindpical
and
that
cylindrtcal;
the
of a Seated Fem.ale
bOi'll
on hep head? concave and
T-shaped
nose"
face; sl:'.. t
t:::-ians;ular
conical
extend fT"om the shoulders \·Jith rectangular
an elongated
a
shaped
tubular anus that end vlith 'i7hich :'Ls slightly
the base and at the front; short 1011er }j.illbs uith
- 197 -
chin 7
it; dmJl1\lard
incised
neck
on top of them;
at
::-1e learnt abcut the
sculptul"'e Hoore sa'J. [9] The sea ted nude
conical
fingers
goal "\,as not
pear-shaped; face concave; the limbs scarcely longer than they
(FIG. 7 . 1 )? TJJas the
has
because
"\Jh:Lch Fr'Y
the neck and the to:eso Here head
eTas illo;:'e
all
representation but plasticity and sign=.ficc:.nt form. geometrizatior:.
the
read that Afl'ican
developEent.
the
car'ving and
becam.e
than EUI'opean sculptu::-'e of its
galleries,
"Once you'd
These guiding
room
s Vis'; on and Design :Ln
in the late 1920s.
of
Buch
The most Dilpoptc:.nt event for
Leeds Public
learnt
the
Unlike other British 8Ttists
development ",ras peading
rS
by
liJhich involved the copying of
Afr'ican sculptui'>e :i..n the museums
discoveped
d:::'ssatisf:'.ed
This traditional approach did not provide
expel"imentation
Hho
[loore
but bulges out feet and
'cooth-edge toes.
Hoore! s
principles 9
they
did
not
shOl'/
any
iE11l1ediate impact on his
sculpture betueer.. 1920 and 1921.
The !,'"'eason 'i'las that only
representational
vlas
taught
at
ll''lic11
v/Quld
gail1
modelling
di,2ected to an eX:aI2.i11atiol1.
Tf
Leeds
and
eve:L'ything vIas sct.olarsilip
a
11j_Tll.
conventional
a11d
admission to the Royal College of to expe:L<.ment
:Ldeas and
qualities that
not
acceptable
book
influenced
to the e:raIilin:'Lng authorities.
me Vely much" [ 1 0 ] • apt 1-1hic11. 'i"lhich
he
Cel"tainly it 1riaS ver-y diffel"ent froLl the '\'Jr'itings on
had
read such as the
had
magazines:
in
1915
Studj,o and Co'
he
Vias
uhich he
mistress
at
secondary school.
and 1916
did
not
tive
I:,rhen
contain
at
on Eichelangelo 17 years old 9 and the
the
house
cf
art
These reagazj,nes 9 published bet1rreen 1910
a't.icles
on
developments
PY'Y s book ur..questionably ShQ1;led tlco:.'e
for' lmouledge and
the
led him ':::'0
books
on
at'
to seal'ch
AfY'ican
and
sculptures of an kinds, avant-Gar-de art and the BI'itish Huse1.lIil. [11] BetHeen 1921 and 1923
Blast
and
Ezra
Pound 1 s
book
"Another book that I found
a
gl"eat
help
Gaudi8:. -Brz eska. c
and
This
an
\las
Ezra
Pound i s
discovering things. "[12J In
read l:-!yndham Levris r s denunciation of academic
of the self -created
of the
9
7
his
on
Blast tation
his advocacy of
in stone (tlnaditional modelling being anathena to Leuis). source he read Le';vis! s shop';:; appreciation of the
- 198 -
book
\.Jr'i_tten \·dth a freshness and an insight, and
Gaudier speaks as a young 21001''e
exci ter,:ent
influence
Froe the saL'le of
Futurism and Vorticism. Blast sculptures,
and
also
:"ead
s
in Hhich he pr'aised
essay
on
and
condemned
its
"absence
energy". [13] In addition Hoore sa,," in the Blast
of
f0l1 the
tke the
of the cubist and vo!"tic5_st paintings,
Hoodcuts
of Epstein (see FIG.5.27), Gaudiep-Br'zeslca, Etchells (see
and
FIG. 3.37) 7
vladS'.lorth, Lei-lis and
also
reiteratec:
books
and
!
These
[14]
s
Hamil ton.
advocacy
on
Af::'ican
included
Carl
Pound's
of
and
sculpture Einstein? s
book
and book
Eodern Negel'
art
Plastik
(1915) 7 Ernst Fuhl"'mann! s Afrika (1922) and Cahie:" d I lkt. [15] 1'1oo:::-'e cou]_d not the
to buy many books, he read them fron: the VictoI:'ia
and
rubept
l:·luSeL:C21
and
at
bookshops
in in
London.
He
explained:
I often stopped to look in the bookshops 2_n Charing Cl'OSS Road, :_n f s, ',Jhich specialised in books on the visual arts. I had a small scholar'ship gr'ant and cOl:Qd not affol-d to spend much n:oney on books 7 and so I v;Quld stay a full hour on end looking t:rough books 'dhich me. ZueIJ.1TIep never objected, and in this i.ray I began to ::nou somethi_ng of vlhat Has going on in such as nCahiers d! Art ". I also eX8Jllined many books on Negro, Eexican and 0-[:; he:.:' periods and styles of sculpture. After looking at the sane books throughout a month or hro I knevi then: ;;1e11 enough not to need to buy them. [16]
It vms in the 1930s that Iloo:"e began to Hrite about his ideas
and
[17]
ideas of idea,
of
=nit:Lally,
statements
sculptural the
example h:Ls concepts of !mountain! as a sculptural masses
and
planes
stater::J.ent that
enepGY
- 199 -
and expanded is
the
mountain It. [18 J
1
s
also
emphasised
the
Afi'ican
concepts
of 'cl'uth to
In llooP8 i s vievJ? the sculptor himself must
iwr'k
in
materia::"
on::"y then can the
artist! s ideas.
11ooT'e accepted thi.s concept of truth to
of
the
p:C'inciples
of
and
l'."f:::"ican
SiJ:J.ce
carver, Hoore explained the lwod has a
as or..e
He stated that the Afpican of l':d.s
possibilities. [19]
mater:i.al,
i'1Ood uas ma:"m2.y used by the Af::'j.can in terms of 1I700d.
He stated
that
fibpous consistency and can be carved into thin fOl'11lS
without
9
and the AfT'ican
vIaS able to fr'ee the arms
fZ'om
the body 9 to have a space betueen the legs? and to give his necks T;lhen he ,'Jished. [20] carver
also
achieved
pp:.Lmitive
"a
be:':"ieved that in more
three-dimensional
to
i'espond
dimensionality to
thinle
lfmy
long the
quality
African
than
many
upon
the
especialJ.y ilher'e stone uas used. [21]
Appreciation of sculpture according ability
the
play its par't in coulding the
shoHed 0..11, instinct:T:..ve use
and of
to
in
to
Hoore
depended
diDensions.
To achieve three
asserted that the sculptor must stpive
continually
of I and use, form in full spatial cOD.pleteness.
The sculpto:'
bets the solid shapes? as it ue:C'e, inside his head.
:·1e expla:i,ned:
he thinks of 9 Hhatever its size? as :I.f he holding it completely enclosed in tbe holl0'i1 of his hands. He mentally visualizes a complex fr'om all angles. He knovis, ,-J11i1e looks at one side? vrhat the side is like; he identifies hj.ID.self its centl'e of its mass, its Height; its volume, as the space that the shape dj_splaces in the ai:e. [22]
believed that the sculpto':' can fullfi::L thl"ee dim.ens:Lonality fr'oEl a of means of
stone
in tvlO '\Jays:
by emphsising the '\Jeight of the stone by
masses and by emphasising its depth by
- 200 -
hollO'i'ling
it
boring
holes clean through it, so letting in light.
Moore applied both
techniques to his sculptures, especially in the early 1930s. out
that
a
sculpture in the round (ie.
He pointed
three dimensional) has no two
views alike. Moore believed in direct carving because, according to him, it was a 'gospel' developed through the work and ideas of Brancusi, Mod igliani, Epstein and Gaudier-Brzeska who were all influenced and
it
was
a
real
tradition
general
sculpture,
to
opposed
primitive
art,
of sculpture that entailed discipline.
Moore pointed out that the as
by
use
direct
of
the
pointing machine
carving,
led
sculptors
misunderstanding the nature and qualities of their materials (ie. and
wood).
Although Moore
had
independently
tried
carving
at
the
a direct stone first
Asked to make copy in stone of a relief
RCA.
plaster of the Virgin and Child by Dominic Rosselli in the Victoria Albert
Museum,
London,
to
stone
carving in the summer of 1922 it was in 1923 that he produced his direct
in
Moore
and
wanted to execute it by direct carving.
His teacher, Barry Hart would not allow it because no one could carve an accurate
copy direct in stone.
knowledge.
However, Moore carved it without Hart's
He then deliberately and
delicately
bored
the
work with
small holes so that it would look as i f he had used the pointing machine which pleased
the
carving in marble.
teacher. [23]
FIG.7.2
shows
pointing machine technique.
like Leon Underwood
influenced
modern
was
direct
imitated marks
of
the
Although some of the teachers at the Royal
College of Art
styles.
first
The dots, especially concentrated at the bottom left
corner and dispersed allover the work are the
by
Moore's
and
John
Rothenstein
had
been
art, other members of staff were opposed to such
Underwood who taught Moore and Barbara
Hepworth life
drawing
influenced by African sculpture, which he had been collecting since
1919 and his great interest later led him
- 201 -
to
publish
three
books
on
the
J
subject.
never'
collection but he may have seen it in the open
"lith
hi,s
collection 1
mentioned seeing Undenwod! s 1920s.
Under'1wod
of
these
those of I'bore 9 Skeaphlg and
1930s.
not
shm·m
acquainted
any
iiiith
but also
avant-garde
He respected
the
Gothic".
special m:Lssion to get shape-conscious. shapes.
of this
to
i.n
EU;:-'opean
iJaS
is
and to make us once
in
almost too by
a good and long
Hyde
more
one-cylindered, to ;:"efine and
Epstein
Th:Ls :::oecalls
and
Gaud1er-Brzeska.
pelationship iiJith Epstein.
of stUdents in 1925 demonstl'ating thei:c
a
fop
To do this he had to concenh'ate on ver'y simple direct
polish a single shape to a
Rima
"It
To keep his sculpture as :it
developed
his
Bl'ancusi
surface excrescences 1,;h:ich had cOTIipletely concealed shapes Since
art9
stronG fO:L'JIla2. influence 1 e::cept that he
imitated a rnal'ble to::"so by
sculpture
In
[25]
had become
had
and
he included not only his Oim
Although
ve::'Y
and he organised exhibitions of
African sculpture ir.. London in the late 1920s and the early so::rre
lias
Park,
London. [27J
for
f,10 0:::0 6
He joined Epstein is
Ti.Jl?ote that Epstein \'las
remarkably generous and helpful to hJ.m T,'lhile he iiIaS still a student
and
that
help
Epstein! s
of his sculpture Has the greatest
to him at the beginning because Epstein EnQ;land. [28]
I-Ie
encouraged
lJaS
a
in
Iloore to study the primitive sculptures at "Epstein
the British li:usetlDJ. of 1.Jhich rJ}oore later collect
began
to
negl"o sculptu::'e and he encouraged me to study the pl"::':.illitive and
Eexican sculptupe
at
the
British
all
of
r,rhich
influenced
me. II [29 J Epstein appl"eciated Hoore! s iirod:: and bet'iJeen the late 1920s and
1937 Epstein bought a felJ' of his
- 202 -
and
in
to
1"Ioor-e. [30 J H02'-eOVer?
s
uas m.ade possible by Epstein
public COIITct1.ss:::'o11. in 1928
a :cecommendation to
the
archttect
Charles Holden. Noore Sa-If real Jl.f;.nj_can sculpture for the fiI"St time on 1921
during
b.is
Jocelyn in
second visit to the Britj.sh Huseuw.
28
Ee I';rrote to Hiss
the fol10vii11.g day that he ]:1.ad spent his second
London
in
the
British
Euseurl1
uith
the
sculptur"es and an hour' before c10s::'ng had foun.d
Eg;ypt:1.an in
afternoon
and
the
Gallery "the ecstatica.E.y f:ne negro scu=.ptures. "[31]
a student in
London Hoore v:'_sited the museum 8.t least t107ioe a 'iileek fop a
feVl
His
exhi1irat:'on
and
inspir'ation from the
hours.
and
of the
rruseum! s displays 1i'las viv::'dly recaptu?:"ed sixty years
in
his
Henry
se:.ected
50
favoupite
:.11.
1920s.
11001"e
at
the
sculptupes 1-rhich he
B!":J.tish had
so
I'Iuseum. [32J
n:uch
He
apprec:::'a ted
the
ino::'uded Afr'ica11., Oceanic 7 Caribbean, EGyptian, as
sculptures, despite the fcwt that he
ideal
ea:olier::'n h:LS
Greek
These
Aztec, as uell had
rejected
the
G::-'eek
Uoore indicated h:1.s attitude to Gpeek art "There ':17as a pe:ciod 't'lhen I t;:'ied to
at
book
sculptur'e of an.y k:::'nd.
And Renaissance.
avoid
looking
T:!hen I thought that
the Greek and Renaissance Hepe the enemy, and that one had to tlro1iJ
all
that over and start again fJ,'02 the begin..l1ing ,.Ji th pI'i_mitive art." [33] In 1930 he had eyes
of
the
that the J:>emov8l of the modeI'n
intrixlsic emotiona..
spectacles
had
helped
him
to
of
shapes
:Lnstead
from
the
realise again the of
see::.ng
mai.nly
values. [34] The adcEtion of G::"eek apt to his selection of 50 by
appar'ently
Leilis,
this denunci_ation of Greel[ and
in some his
- 203 -
othel"S vrhich
apt
agreably
8 ,woden and 1
Afl':Lcan sculptur'e in this book
ju.st sone of t11e
sculptures or.. display in t.118
:Ioore vTh.ic11
museum \'1hich Noore had seen ::"n the 1920s. [35]
The
Fip;ure, Baluba (FIG.1.1), 11a1e and Female 1.21 ), Doub"T e-Headed Dots Fet -; sh
Aza:lde CFIG.1.19D ar:d
FiGure,
Bakongo,
Fetlsh
(FIG.2.13A)s
Fj_?;ure, 3akongo, (FIG.2.13C); Chief; s Stool,
(FIG.6.21);
i\.]:lgola
an(:
(FIG. 1. 17)
ITlTUba l:lask, Baga CFIG.2.8). descJ:,5.bed the Baluba Female F:Lr;ul'""'e, FIG. 1. 1, figu:ce and rei3arked that the sculpto:-' had a to do.
the
as
a
complete
idea of vrhat he ';1)"anted
The long body a.."ld the short legs he observed, Here not s:..gns
sculptor! s
incompetence
but of a
of the body and 1.ll1de:cplayed
uh:i..ch
others.
The
of some
head?
he
noted,
1ms
lovely, pa1 ticularly the ';Jay the shape of the eyes :cepeated the shape of 1
the head,
and
FIG.1.18D
and
the
divis:,ol1
of
the
neck
indi_cating
"1-rhat
1.21
a
pieces.
intensify
appears
the
this me
expression,
degree
but
to
be mo;:"e
There is noth:'ng casual about the sculptor
enjoyed
making
achievement like observed
that
the a
they
poen."[37]
1Jere
Of
still
body
of
the
of these fetis11
FIGS.2.13A
a=.. though
the
they have
enhanced
the
aDd
13C,
of
good or evil
s
shmlS
figul'?esQ [38]
used;
=_t :J2.S a
as
object.
and and
convention
look like
these ca:eve::,s
jx!i'luences \111ic11 might be i3anipulated by dpiving nails and the
in
To d:"scovet', as a young student? that the
could interpret the hum.o.n figm-'e to
Of
in'l":lentive
of arms, shoulders, elboVls and tuo
rings. [36]
fO"Lll'ld
blades
H00l0e
into
__ ng of the
it
fasc:'11atin.g
that
addition of the nail s iJere not in the sculptmo' s the
- 20l.!- -
eXJ_stiDg
for'ill,
Dot
destj:,oyed
it. [39].
Of
FIG.6.21
Hoore
that the
are quite w."1like the human
figure, yet it has more vita2.:Lty and expr'ession than a realistic Hould have.
He pointed out that the face
stoicism and
endui"ance.
'\Jhat
marvellous as it uanted to
his
l"eaders
had interested and influer:ced h:LL1 in the Bl"ttis:1 J:lusewli just as he
i'iOuld
to
knOl,'
vlhat
tnterested
and
h1fluenced
Ptcasso
:iXl
the
;museum.
T!_
LOU"\Irpeo
sculptupes seen by
Epstein
and
at
the
..'_ v
suggests that these T,JO::"I:s had been on display dUl"ing 1910 to 1930. Bet'l',een 1921 and 1928 coptes
of
p::':::nitive
I,'loope
f:'lled
about
six
sketchbooks
aY't
Indian, Eskimo, J':Iexican and PeY"uvian) and some sculptures
fr'om
paintings
and
the Bl"itish Huseun.
of these dravJings.
The dravJings of Afl"ican sculptui"e, mostly
found
in
Notebook of 1922-2Lf outnumberec those of the other Five notable pages of this notebook conta:Ln the Elost intel"esting stud:les of
African
sculptUl"e.
Reclining F-i' gm'e.
Fop example page 39 (FIG. 7.3) Sh01ITS Studj.es fm o
The tuo large
l"epresent
Noore! s
idea to be car·ved but the penatning d:-'ailinGs aTe studies
the var:'ous
of the pecli.ning figu",-e and ::oeveal Some copying and
of
The half face and the head in the m.iddle r"ight :'"'eveal a cubist style of facetting. left
:Ls a copy of the mask in the
Dan Easks
m-'e
T
often
'Ivith
drauinG
d}:'acling
at
the
bottom
(see FIG.7.4). a
zig-zaG
ha:L::'style,
bird fo:e,ls and pouting Illouths 9 but J:1oo:;:oe
profile of the
sel'''ratecl
only the elegan'c
part 9 T:Tithout the bird fOl"lIl or other deta:':.ls.
The
at the bottom 2.eft 2.o01cs like a bent leg "lith the stU!:lP3!
foot of an ,
deCol"ated
Tl1e
repeated
sculpt
On
page
102
(FIG.7.5)
at
bottom
of
the
sheet, is a copy of a Baga
the
- 205 -
the
top
p::ght
The same f:I.gm'"'e appea:c-ed on page 103 of this paGe
notebook
and
IiSCULPTURE
1 of [·Zo.6 r:ctebook of 1926 -"ith the
is difficult to e}::plain the significance of this pej."'sis'cent
It figu2."'e
It gives no tangible clues foy' a p:'"'obable exp:2.ana'cion. left dra"\-Jing same
Bau:2.e mask.
The 'cop
the fr-'ont viel! of the head and shouldeps of
figul'e.
The
left
t\-iO
middle draHings ape modified
the of a
FIG.7.6 ShOHS page 103.
It by the TIlUSeUL' in 1908.
acquired
on
On page 105 1 (FIG. 7.8)
\elas
l::oore :nade the
folloHing notes a:round the "TliJ:sted fOl'm, Negl"'o ,Sculptw:"e, more pointed? small carving? masses bad d:'aiJings 1 tVlisted arms 7 ca:"ved ar-ms, bacl::_y draun, light angles. VI
These indicate no'c just Hhat Iclom-'e obsel'"'ved in each Hork he also
ideas
fOI'
full heads ax'e front and three-quar'ce:c
(FIG.7.9), 1922.
Hoo:'"'e the
Humuye,
and
v:'_e\els
of
the
Stand-in;;
Femal e
IJige:c':'ca, acquired by the B:'"'i_'cish Nuseur:: in
no planar
but
The -C:ITO large standing figures T,dthout
Olm \iOdc.
h:1..3
copied
:Ln the head but in the thick cyl:':.ndrical angulal:'
'\·;ing-LLke ar'ms, the
treatment
le.;s and
of the elonGated to;:-'so, the
the
triangulap-shaped
fe::::2ale
CFIG.7.10), flno!;} Guinea, v!hich lIas and
the
by the I:mseu.r: in 1889.
The
label indicate Hoore' s interest :[.n the ar.gJ..e at
the head is tilted and the cOI'l"'esponding featu:'es. 011.
Si10HS
page 126 is a p:-:.ofile cop:)! of FIG. 6.21!)
only the incl ined neo1: 9 the
s
a1"C of the small fOl'"'ehead,
nose, the pr'otruding lips and javls Hithout the
- 206 -
F
coiffure.
t1;_e
Other
sOUPCeS for
:::'llustrations
in
s
of such copies are
found
in
a2, plate 15.
Notebool:.
Ubangi,
Of th:ts \10 00. en head F:''Y incUcated its resemblance to l1you
sculptul'e
related
the
have
seen
othel>
in
S second book
notebook
left to right are
are
plates
fl"'om 31,
69,
and
71
copies of plates 75 and 73.
Fuhpmann.
These
der
Inka
The
dpaHings
on
The top three draHings fr'oIl:
and page 17 of Ho.5 Notebook are also in
Reich
includes three draHings of
sculptu:C'es Hhich a::-'e illustrated in Sinstein.
(FIG. 7. 14)
1iil1c;_nson
in FIG. 7. 12 to an Inca pot fpOE
hio
P&ge 138
ape
some
Parisian art. II [l.l-2 ]
sculptu:::-e on
Truj :i.lo, Hhich is (1922). [LI-3]
may
::'esembling the head (95), but if S07 that is due to
slightly
the ll'J.fluence of
found
No.3
sho\JS page 120 of that notebook.
a copy of a Neg-po Head?
has
P.fr"2_can
books and
the books of Einstein and Fuhl"'TIlann
FIG. 7 .12
of
respectively. On page 121 of No.3 Notebook
draHings
of
.B.frican
ShOH studies of three
,lith
legs of three d:i.ffer'ent Aflnican ca:c'Vings? a bent left arm and a pa:i_:n legs fr'om the same
Hoope I s studies place
of
on the
rectilinea}:' ar;.d planar ch2z'act.eI"is'cics of the carvinGs. ic:!oore also produced drmJings of Afl""'::'can papel""' throughout the 19203 &nd the 19308 7
som.etimes on SC1"apS of
sketchbooks. II
I-Ioore
sculptures
on
I had l'1ith me 7 sometimes "And
fur-the,"
Eski IDO
Scul otupes
FIG. 7. 15,
are
piece of paper done in 1931 at t.he B:ci tish sheet is inscribes:
- 207 -
of
!II used to drm-7 n:.any of these
of
in
the
S0[18 of these
carvings inn uenced fly mIn \·mrk later." [44 J Hoore' s Studies and
sheets
of
pencil and ci1alk sketches on a At. t.he
top
of
the
r':e:rican and child at Burney e, s, simp::'e and intens:Lty, and f:-cgure foc:' v:Ltality and pick of life, the figure belonging to Epste:Ln, mother and child for big pOller, Sens:,-tiveness, long armed figur-e, Philipine mask, paleolithic, tenderness and angles.
These shOi.·j that Noore Has famil:l.ar Hith the Jl£rican and other sculptures
:'.n the Sidney BUY'ney
he ,las
of
1
in London at this time and that
s
sculpture.
The
inscriptions
recall
Hepvlorth,
Zadkine
1928/29 and 1932 by Burney 9 J.n 7;1:1ic11 Epstein, and Dobson
shoHn.
The tIm female f:'guT'es at the top right T.l:.th big
breasts, elongated
and torsos and bent knees are copies of a
figure.
l'1ave
t-loere
rr:.ight
The tvTO
collection. Eskimo
seen
this
en the
in the
f:Lgure
in
Epstein's
:C'ight
uere
by
breasts epitomize the Dogon breasts. to
One of
1
s Hood cay'vings?
The small :nound and
Zimbab,ie 'I-1111ch, 'Hith the
concave
face
].n the illustration, ivas acqu:"::'ed by t.he
on display.
ITone of fbore I s dravJings
to th:"..s Soapstone fi.gure yet its resemblance to his coincidence.
The
FIG. 7.17 9
the face of the second Soapstone
Duseum in 1905 and
an by
1932, FIG.7.16, '(vas in tupn :cnspj.ped by these dravlings.
similar'
African
l:luseur::, but they have been
the exces sively elongated top so and al"Tr.S.
is
Dogon
Cal1...1'lCt be
l:oo::'e may \-,7e11 have been aI-18]'e of th:i.s
s dpauings of the 1920s
clearly
too.
T;lO::,k
influenced
by
a
Afr'ican
and they const:;:tuted an ::mpo::'tant stage in his development but tl'1ey· do not seem to
sl:etches
t-'Jere
not
studies
existed in thei:..-' o-v-m to
il1.1fuel"lCe
l'1ad a
l'1is
Tb.e
for sculpture .2§..r: seo
and
devoted long pe:ci.ods of time
for he considel"ed then 'c. 1':leans of generating ide2,s'.
dra\-ling a useful outlet fop :Ldeas ill'deh thepe 'lIaS
- 208 -
They
IneElopalJ.da
not
time
He fouIld enough
to
1'eal::":.se
as
sculpture.
He sometimes just
His dro.Hings in General ;'"7eached a\Ja,:'e
of
his
:Ln the
30s.
He
then
became
in m.a.k:.ng drai'lings especially fo:;:- sCu1ptul'e.
this he
I made
"At one t::'..ne to
enjoyment. [L15 J
for
Of
foy'
_L
give them as much illusion of real sculptuY'e as I could...
nOH leave a Hide:'
in the
of the
I
lTIade
T
and drall often ::"n l::"me and flat tones I'Jithout the light and shade on thpee dimensions." [Lf 5] Concelnning di'o.liJing in genero.l pointed
out
that
people
often
Eoore
thought ':.hat in dra"iing one used only
one's intellect and intelligence, leaving out eBotion and syrilpathy. h:Lm
this
,-las
not
so,
because
he
Fo::'
felt he could not obsepve
ilithout understanding and fee15.ng.
influences s
til
Only
Af1'ican
art
of
pl'inciple
a
fe\J
\Jhich
capvings
squai"eneSS;
orc
aged bed
as
:::-'evea::-"
the
short ::'..i:ubs and pi.'obably no neck
be
II
:::'nf1 uence
f::-o:::
secondhand ". [1." 7 J The
of
:eemarked in one of b.is not
sho·vj
has
:'n stone he fel t that they must
should
sculpture
dra\·rings in the 19203 is not l"ef::ected in his sculptu:'es of the
sallle per.>iod
the
of
qualities
of
the figu7es.
that stone is hard and concentrated
falsi_fied to look ::'..ike soft flesh.
tense s'Goniness"? he conc::"uded.
"It should keep its
] These qualities are stone.
and
best
seen
Hoore ! s sculptupe shm'ls mope
di1.'ect infl uence of Ilexican sculptupe than Afr:Lcan "Thich, of com-'se? ,!as primar:"ly t·lOod.
It Has only in the 1930s that the hardness of his stone This ,las accentuated by
the infl uenee of ll.t.f':riean sculptuJ.'e
- 209 -
Eead
07'
.s G:L'l? 1922;
bO:;:'i11.g
Stand·: ms
FOIL-arc? 1923:; and Torso, 1927.
Head of Girl?
CFIG.7.18)? possesses an
incl:'ned
a vertica-=_ rectangulaT-sl:aped head flat and T-shaped. does
not
bea;:'
of
7
neck
a dome top.
T1J.e 1108(:;
The :::":::'ps are th:::'ck and
any
to a
The Afr:::'can
forms palnal:::"el the gene::-'al forms of shape
cy::'..:',-ndl ic2.l
head
but the
sculpture.
The
geomet;:-·::..c
the head and the protl"uding eye epitomised the l:Lber'ty of the
and eyes.
Standing HOD:an, (FIG. 7.19) is a fem.ale f:Lgure Red
Stone
is
:coelated
to
Dancer CFIG.6.5) and Imp (FIG.6.11), both by Gaud:1..er-Brzeska
and to Second Venus, stone
CFIG.5.25) by Epstein.
These thz'ee dipectly caI'ved
had been influenced by
seen the
8.J.'"ld
scuIptul"es.[L}9j l'loore had
about
s
A
tvJO
of 1916.
betueen the Stand:Lnp; l'TorD.an 2.nd the Red Stol1e Dance;:-'
in
The similari,t::"es
are
in
the
the shoy,t and massi.ve block-like bent leGs? the and heads u:Lthout features. bases are Epste::cn 1 s
ovoidal
The bent legs "\Jitb, feet tu;:-'ned into
to those Second Venus,
of
Imp.
he sa::d, "Hhen I fir'st came to London I uas
Gaudiep-Bl"zeska,
Hod igl :,-ani
Epsteins. II [50]
s Standing \'Joman ShOHS some
Venus.
have smooth, and featupeles:s
Both
the
and
stomachs, and bent
planes.
- 210 -
and
the
eaply
to ti'le Second faces
'Hith
depicted with broad
stone after'
the
Stand-'nc:;
imd
The broad the
flat
def:Ln::.tely :"nfluenced by the
,"'JaS
and cur'vilj. nea::' planes feeta
:'r.lect.a:1gula.:...-;.
The
so
9
face of the Car':rat::'d
(FIG. 5.12)
recalls Epstein is
a
and
the
Baluba
Figu:'e
(FIG. 1. 1). 19271 (FIG. 7.21) :"epr'esents a fe:nale torso carved in Hhat called f.:frican :rood "\y:..th
Tor"so ,las
in the Br:..tj_sh Huseum s::'nce 1896.
inspired
HOi::lan.
is
carved
in
the
shape
hollov7
In
cane
simpl:"fication, 2.nto
legs
To::'so,
a
half -bui"ied
and •
Th:_s
had
severaI
on
the
fusing
a
to
h:::E
to
adapt
sculptur;e
figures
(
,rith
.
the
ferr:ale
figuj,"'e
an
indebtedness
this
to figural.
ease fi"om the boundless fOI'DJ.a.l
FIG. 1. 18D
and
FIG. 1.21)
that:. the
His cocment
QI
quoted above
r:oo:'e
adventupous and
in his O"\m figural sculptur'es. [51 ]
vast
:'100l"e believed that the
of
of Afr::.can sculpture e:Kp:i..ained:
by
in
suggested his adaptations.
by the Af:'--'ican car-vel".
a
base.
r'es11ap:::ng t11e h.UIrlan figur:-e
... leo
to
the
like the Af:cican, iv-as predom:Lnantly
enabled
Azande
of
had rr:.odified his
a
others
His
of
HOOl"e
joined
of the br'easts and by
adventur'ous and experinental car'ving
by
The head is holloued out to fOl"'ID, the p:"pe-bo'-Tl and the
stem comes out at the back of the neck, Hhicl'l ,,,,as lonG
s
in Human FOl"l:l:, (FIG. 7.22) 9 Azande, a sculptu:ce ';.,11ich had been
P"'pe-boHl
standing
It typifies
slrl1plification.
fOl" Brancusi! s "mission".
:',S
the
fOj,"TJ.al
to the o.ethod employed "The
Africans
nevel'
'ijorked
in
outline 7 they looked ahJays into the middle of their subject? taking out - 211 -
the
they 'imnJ.:.ed to depress and leaving the
F'oject."[52]
they
This belief lJaS confinned fo!:' he
1:-Janted
to
::'n the SUll1mer of 192L!. Hatched
Af:'-'ican
sculpto:::'s
outside the pavillion of the XiGepia Section. that it ·Has the use of believed,
that
tools, the adze, and not the axe as he
enabled
then
to
f:l.gupes
and
same
I
Al though
.Lt.,.
Sa-If
sevepal
designed an adze to use himself
ul1J1:istakeable
impact.
HOI-lever,
hi.s
application of the adze dercconstl"'ated. his lack of exper:"ence
of hOD, 2...1'l adze 'i.wdcs. .:'L
the pav::'llion itself he
and n:asks. [53] Ther-eaftel"
to ach:Leve the design
ion this 'i.-my and to achieve the
"\-lod:
sculptural qualities.
had
Hoore
As a resul t
Hounded his 1 eG
uas not the only avant-gal"'de
and
abondoned
to :"'elate the
qualities of Afl"'ican sculptur'e to theL'" methods, he
the
first
to
attempt to use the principal tool of the 1-i.fl"ican to p:cove the relation. noore IS sculptur'es of the 19203
r:exican influences. pl"'edoninant
fil""'st
and
the
is
often
in
these
cases
the
:;·lex:tean
infl uenee
African
input
is
often
limited.
to trie facial
stone
(FIG. 7 . 24 ) 9
has
in
coffee
- 212 -
ShOll
carvj.ng
slit
is a
composit.ional
figures and masks to achieve
bean
Hh:::'le The
The nose is a 101'16 Th=-s
:.s
and uas based on the Hexican
Tile :eight :7.s a str'aight
a cur'ved one.
used
the mari"'iage of African and
EVel"l
hlO
OP
mouth echoes the shape of the eyes. device
uenced
one
independent
left
pr·edoD:inantly
but
The eyes 3.:"ee slits :la.de on
the
a1"'e
and
shaped eyes, a pouting mouth, and a long
(FIG.3.25,
in
the
Britis11
1.868)
since
is an e}c8..ID.pleo
It clepicts a
nose and the lips repeat the shape and fOl---r2S of the eyes. [5 1J, ] Like Epstein al"ld
9
theme of the r10the:r' and Child. 'dorks of otheIOs
the
BetvJeen 1922 and 1932 he ca::-'Ved about 16
subject, th:oee betueen 1922 and 1929 and the ;:'emainin.; 1930-2.
used the subject to solve his
of ach:Leving aSY-rrLl1etry 21"ld masses.
I"loore \'las ve;:'y fascinated by
of
problems
:'_ntepaction
c.
Like Epstein and
13
of
contrasting
also used jot to eXpl"eSS
a
human
emotj_on.
Apapt
sculptupes
(ie.
FIGS. 7.23
a2.1d
Lnom
24)
the
tuo
Hothep
and
Child
the ""est of his mother and chHd
sculptures ciei-e less formally influenced by Af:"lc&n scclptul"e. it
?
can be remadced vJith some degree of ce'.ntainty that some of
drat'ling
of'
Studies of Afl"-i can and EskJ"..Inc Scul otur'es 9 (FIG. 7 . 15)? peads
"Negro mother' and child for' bj.g prj.mitive p01rJer"
became
This
"biG
tive
in h:i_s second set of 13 Bother and Ctild sculptur'es
is
of 1930-2.
ideas
Hhile the
sporadic,
::Lnfluence on his sculptures of
the
influence
the
1930s
on his taste '\IaS steadily incpeasing?
tj.ng in h::_s begJ:nning to collect
sculpture
in
the
late
in
the
1930s. Appa:c"ently, I'loore had uanted to col2.ect ::"ater pernarlced:
and BrOJ."lcus:' and
sculptuI'e
"In PariS, Picasso, Derain, Epstein
have been collectinG
!
negro
for
some
l·yould have liked to collect ppinitJ:ve sculpture myself, but thouGh you cou::'d get a good AL-'ican Caledonian
3adcet,
beyond :;;:e" [55] The
Thy
Bt'itJ:'sh
lIuseu..TD.
foc'"
10
pOUl1ds
in
the
of
only 90 pounds a ye2r put this
Has
a
,-real th
of
e:i'=pepience
and
J:nspipation to hand till such time tl'1at he could afford to col2.ect it.
- 213 -
a
particulap
direction
in
sculpting.
range of other influences Has plastic
in
his
sculptupe,
:.. t
is
tl'1e
configu::."ations of African sculptu:"e lclhich took deep :.noot in especially in the 1920s.
his
Although it is accepted that a
sculpture
Post-Second
Hoore did not have
did not have a c1i::o ect forro.al influence on
Hal"
of Bpi t:Lsh a;:ntists.
imjJ:,ators
and
Bpitish
CONCLUSION (1) The 'Primitive'.
This thesis
deliberately
immediate
of
sculpture
on British artists,
particularly in terms of formal characteristics.
It does not attempt to
the
deal
impact
African
concentrates
upon
with the cultural background to "primitivism" in European cultures
of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
This
background
would be the subject of a substantial study of its own right. 'Primitive" as an art-historical term gained currency France,
Germany
and
Italy in the nineteenth century.
refered to the art of the Italians and Flemings of fifteenth
centuries.
It
Greco-Roman art, in that illusionist
was it
seen
was
as
devoid
in Britain,
It specifically
the
fourteenth
and
an art form that was alien to of
the
complex
devices
of
lighting and perspective which were the desirable qualities
of standard art between fifteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The artists
involved were called the 'Primitives'. However, in the late 1890s when artists showed heightened level
of
interest in increasingly wider ranges of art from the past, the scope of 'primitivism' was extended to cover Romanesque, Byzantine and a host non-European
art
forms.
Artists
like
Van Gogh
"primitive" for Egyptian and Aztec art which he much on
the
other
hand
used
the
words
used the adjective admired.
"savage"
and
interchangeably for several exotic art and cultures, (eg. cultures of India, Peru, Cambodia, Japan etc.).
of
Gauguin
"primitive" the
art
and
African and Oceanic art
were not included in the "primitive art". Toward 1906 "primitive art" considerably diminished assumed
a new frame of reference.
in
scope
and
With the development of an aesthetic
rapport between the avant-garde artists and African and Oceanic art, not only
were
these
two
art forms considered as "primitive art" but they
- 215 -
became synonymous with it. Eskimo,
By 1930 "primitive" included
North American Indian and Polynesian art, but in the late 1930s
writers like Goldwater used the term exclusively Pre-Columbian
and
Pre-Columbian,
writers
African,
Between
1930
and
1950
criticisms
which
often
meaning of the term. to
from
cast different illumination upon 'primitive art', from
standpoints which were either derogatory or laudatory. aspect
Oceanic
art when they analysised the Western interest in the
art of these civilizations. various
for
explain what
caused
confusions
derived
The
derogatory
from the etymological
Some later writers like Paul Wingert made attempts
"primitive art" implies in modern terms of reference.
William Fagg even went a step further by substituting the
term
"tribal
art" in attempt to curtail the confusion and derogation derived from the etymology of acceptable
"primitive". to
all
Unfortunately
Fagg's
term
has
not
been
scholars, most of who still use the term "primitive
art".
Since there is no appropriate term agreed upon by all, "primitive
art"
has
become
Pacific art, "despite
a
etc.
generic
term for African, Oceanic, Pre-Columbian,
For
Claude
this
Levi-Strauss
hold
in
the
term,
that
has
definitely
contemporary anthropological and sociological (and
art-historical) vocabulary".[1] He continued that the now
out
its imperfections, and the deserved criticism it has received,
it seems that 'primitive' in absence of a better taken
pointed
term
"primitive"
seems safe from the confusions inherent in its etymological meaning
reinforced by obselate evolutionism.[2] The thesis therefore pragmatic
attitude
to
the
term
adopted
a
"primitive" which has been used in a
functional manner without examining the full implication of the terms in their period context. (2) British Artists and the 'Primitive'. thesis,
it
has
become
the
clear that the motifs of artists in looking at
primitive art varied widely, but it has been
- 216 -
During the course of
possible
to
discern
two
predominant
and
complimentary
early twentieth century were
reasons
why the British artists of the
particularly
attracted
by
African
art,
traditions
of
namely: (a) The artists were dissatisfied with the European representation, in
literary
principles
where the norm was the interpretation of subject-matter
terms
and
the
definition
of
style
according
to
the
of academicism; in desiring a new way of artistic expression
the artists looked at other forms of art of non-European traditions
and
models. (b) The artists were concerned with bringing mainstream
of
contemporary
art
their
art
into
prevailing in Europe, particularly in
France and Germany where new developments based on the direct the
the
focus
on
expressive and plastic qualities of African and other primitive art
were evolved. There was a fundamental change of direction
in
modern
art
as
a
result of a rebellion at the end of nineteenth century against classical and naturalistic roots of Western art.
Artists
became
aware
of
the
restrictions imposed upon them.
In order to free themselves the artists
began to search for new lines to
follow
interference from academicism. models of art forms. Matisse,
widespread
admiration
confidence
and
/
This was initiated by Cezanne, Van Gogh,
development for
Gauguin,
Some British artists of the avant-garde underway.
African
From
1905
there
was
a
art, and, just as the Japanese art
answered the need of artists a few decades earlier in European did
without
They experimented with various ideas and
Kandinsky and others.
readily embraced the
with
art,
so
African art answer the need of the early twentieth cuntury European
and British artists.
- 217 -
Although the choice of the African art as a model may bear a element
of
serendipity,
heart a
deliberate
faint
based upon chance and availability, it was at
one,
apparently
derived
from
a
lingering move
initiated by Cezanne.
He stressed upon the use of basic geometry in art
which later developed
into
qualities
in
art,
the
emphatic
use
of
rather than representation.
provided the artists with plasticity both in an
formal
or
plastic
African art as a model unprecedented
quality
and quantity. Between 1900 and 1912 the British artists who were giving
their work
with
a kind of meaning different from their predecessors
visited France and Germany. of
concerned
They noticed the advancement of new
trends
art which had evolved from the formal qualities of African art, (eg.
Cubism and Expressionism).
They derived some confidence from what their
colleagues have done on the continent and emulated them in spirit and in style.
In
themselves
spirit
of
the
French,
the
British artists
organised
into groups that promoted their own interests independent of
old establishment.
In style, they adopted Cubism and
and
and
looked
more
its
derivatives
more
at
African
art especially in the British
qualities
of
African
art
Museum. The
formal
presents
in
detail
the
astonishing freedom the African artist possesses in rendering forms with disregard for natural appearance; the variation of
forms
derived
from
the configuration of linear, planar and solid geometry; the treatment of surfaces with regard to light and shade, colour and feel; the intensity, directness
and
purity
of expression.
These approaches fascinated the
British artists and presented them with a variety of
innovative
ideas
Through these they
which they readily adapted to their own ends.
formal
also developed the sensibility to appreciate and adapt other alien forms of
art.
Of
the benefits the British artists derived from African art - 218 -
the painter Joseph Herman affirms: The artists learned a new way of using formal expressive ideas, of rethinking the very principles of simplification, or animating the surfaces of the sculpture or painting, of using volumes free from the precision of classical perspective. But above all they learned the need to imbue a work of art with vitality without bothering about the effects of finish; whether the surface was to stay rugged or smooth, their main object was to render life and animation. All thiS, and much more, is the debt of Europeans to African imagination.[3]
Many writers such as Fagg, de Zayas and Dorothy Brooks that
have
indicated
African art contains many of the elements which were later to come
to maturity in the various European art, viz:
developments
of
contemporary British
and
Symbolism, Pure Abstraction, Constructivism, Cubism,
Expressionism, Surrealism etc. Today the benefits derived from African art have culminated into tremendous
enrichment
of
the
language
of
British art,
sculpture, which has become more eloquent than it was and so
than
other European
sculpture.
This
a
especially
perhaps
more
eloquence
and
enrichment
entrenched in British sculpture are discernible directly
or
indirectly
in the works of contemporary British sculptors. and best documented reaction amongst Eduardo
Perhaps the most direct
present-day
artists
Moons from Nahualt, held in 1985 at the Museum of showed
influenced
by
retrospective
that
of
In his exhibition, Lost Magic Kingdom and Six Paper
Paolozzi.
Paolozzi
is
in London,
his works which, to greater or lesser extent, had been items
and
in
the
museum.
concerned with works
The
exhibition
in
progress,
was
both
continuing to
explore those influences which were still being transmuted in Paolozzi's sculptures,
drawings,
reliefs and prints.
The choice of the items for
the exhibition was strongly influenced by Paolozzi's vision of societies of
Africa,
the
Americas
and
the
PacifiC,
while
his
essay in the
catalogue to the exhibition outlined how he was influenced by - 219 -
primitive
art.
Malcolm McLeod's essay in the same catalogue emphasised Paolozzi's
vision and related it to the items displayed. The profound effect of African art upon British
sculptors
during
the period covered by this thesis is more than a passing phenomenon.
It
played a central role in the re-orientation of British developments in a way which continues to affect the vocabulary used by the artists.
- 220 -
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1.Michael T.Sadler, Arts of West Africa University Press, London, 1935, p. 8. 2.Ibid, p.
8.
3.Ibid, p.
8.
(Excluding Music),
Oxford
4.See L.J.P.Gaskin, A Bibliography of African Art, International African Institute, London, 1965. 5.Sotheby's holds at least ten primitive art sales a year and Christies has about three and others hold about the same each year which include predominantly African collections. See the sales catalogues of the salesrooms in Britain in the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. For London as a leading art market for primitive art after the World War II, see Robert Bleakley, 'Collecting Ethnic Art', Art and Artists, (London), No.184, January 1982, p. 10. 6.Robert Goldwater, Primitivism in Modern Art, Vintage Books, New York. This book was originally published in 1938 as Primitivism in Painting restricted to modern painting but in 1966 it was revised and enlarged including modern sculpture. 7.William Rubin Ced.), "Primitiyism" in 20the Modern Art, New York, 1984.
Century
Art,
Museum
of
8.Bryan Robertson, '1893 - 1963 British Painting' The Studio (London), Vol.165, No.840, April 1963, pp. 138-9. Benedict Nicholson in his article 'Post-Impressionism and Roger Fry' also reiterated the intricate nature of a similar subject like the influence of Post-Impressionism on British painting from the NEAC to the Vorticism (ie. modern trend in British art between 1900 and 1914); see Benedict Nicholson, 'Post-Impressionism and Roger Fry', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.93, No.574, January 1951, p. 14, n25. 9.The Italian artists were also late in the appreciation of African sculpture. It was in 1911 that its influence began to manifest in their works. But some writers prefer to discuss it while ignoring the British influence. For instance, in editing "Primitivism in 20th Century Art, in 1986, William Rubin published separate articles on the influence of primitive art on Italian Painting and on German artists but the influence on the British artists like Epstein was treated as a corollary to that of the French artists, while Henry Moore was treated as an independent modern artist. 10.See Max Alfert, 'Relationships Between African Tribal Art and West Art', Art Journal, (London), Vol.31, No.4, 1974, p. 388.
Modern
CHAPTER 1.J.J.Sweeney, African Negro Art, Arno Press, New York, 1935, p.
21.
2.Eckart von Sydow, Art and Religion of the Primitives, London, 1926, p. 39.
- 221 -
3. William Fagg, 'Introduction', West Af'rica: Council of Great Britain, 1967, no page. 4.Andre Terisse, L'Afrigue del'Ouest: 1965, p. 106.
Court and Tribal art, Arts
Berceau de l'Art
Negres,
Paris,
5.Werner Gillon, Collecting Af'rican Sculpture, W.J.Mackay Chatham, 1980, p. 39. 6.With the exception of Werner Gillon and Andr{ Tessere who were art critics the other writers like William Fagg and Eckart von Sydow were basically anthropologists and ethnologists. 7.See Jan Vansina, Art History in Af'rica: An Introduction to Method, Longmans, London, 1984, pp. 84-87; and Louis Perrois, La Statuaire Fan Gabon, ORSTDM, Paris, 1972, p. 33ff. 8.See Frank Willet, African Art, Thames and Hudson, London, 1971, p. 161. Professor Willet prepared for publication, 'Teke Fetishes by Robert Hottot' in The Journal the Royal Anthropological Institute (of Great Britain and Ireland), Vol.86, No.1, January - June 1956, pp. 25-36. This paper was based on a lecture given by Dr. Hottot to the Oxford University Anthropological Society on 2 Feburary 1933. The information contained in the lecture was collected by Dr. Hottot on his visits to the Teke country in 1906. His lecture outlined the three divisions in the figural sculpture of the Bateke, (ie. Head, Trunk, and Legs); the sculptor's refined sense of the quality of his material; and the endowment of the figure with magical powers by attachment of magical substances as seen in FIGS.1.24A, Band C. These three wooden figures were collected alongside his information in 1906. The figures were later deposited at the British Museum on permanent loan. 9.Perrois, La Statuaire Fan, p.
146.
10.Leon Underwood, Masks of West Af'rica, Alec Taranti, London, 1964.
4.
11.Hans Himmelheber, 'The Concave Face in (Los Angeles), Vol.4, No.3, 1971, p. 54.
African
12.Douglas Fraser, Primitive Art, Thames and Hudson, 47. 13.Ibid., pp.
Art',
African
London,
1962,
p. Arts p.
47-49
14.Paul Wingert, The Sculpture Press, New York, 1956, p. 24.
of
Negro
Af'rica,
Columbia University
15.Elsy Leuzinger, Af'rica: The Art of Negro Peoples, Holle And Co., Verlag, Baden, 1960, p. 66. Also quoted by Edna Bay, 'The Heart-Shaped Face in Af'rican Art', in D.F.McCall and Edna Bay, eds., African Images: Essays in Af'rican Iconology, Boston UniverSity Press, Boston, 1975, p. 252. 16.Fraser, Primitive Art, p.
47.
17.Ibid., p.47 18.See Paul S.
Wingert, Primitive - 222 -
Art:
Its
Traditions
And
Styles,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1962, p.
27.
19.5ee Paul Guillaume and Thomas Munro, Primitive Negro Sculpture, Hacker Art Books, New York, 1926, p. 27; and Malcolm McLeod, Ethnic Sculpture, British Museum Publications, London, 1985, pp. 42-44. Also see Jean Laude, The Art of Black Africa, (translated by Jean Decock), University of California, Berkeley, 1971, pp. 104-107. 20.See Laude, The Art of Black Africa, p.
99.
21.Guillaume and Munro, Negro Sculpture, p. 22.William Fagg and Margaret Studio Vista, London, 1964, p. 23.See Andreas Lommel, London, 1966, p. 133.
Plass, 48.
Prehistoric
24.Ladislas Segy, African York, 1958, p. 17.
Sculpture
59.
African
and
Sculpture:
Primitive
Speaks,
Dover
Man,
Anthology, Paul
Hamlyn,
Publications,
25.See Leon Underwood, 'Abstraction in African and European Studio (London), Vol.136, No.669, December 1948, p.183.
New
Art',
The
26.The cylindrical type of eyes without holes inspired Picasso's GUitar, 1912. See D-H. Kahnweiller, 'Negro Art and Cubism', Horizon (London), Vol.18, No.108, 1948, p. 418. 27.Wingert described the up turned Bayaka nose in 'Cyrano-like nose'. See Paul Wingert, Primitive Art, p.
FIG.1.14A, 147.
as
28.Boris de Rachewiltz, Black Eros: Sexual Customs of Africa from Prehistory to the Present Day, George Allen and Urwin, London, 1964, p. 109. 29.See Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa: Longmans, Essex, 1984, p. 103.
An Introduction
30.See Fagg and Plass, African Sculpture, p.
to
Method,
48.
31.For further reading on eroticism in African sculpture see de Rachewiltz, Black Eros, pp. 13-119. de Rachewiltz discusses the sexual customs of different parts of Africa and relates them to the sculptures and other arts like danCing, body decorations etc. 32.R.H.Wilenski, The Meanings of London, 1932, p. 144.
Modern
Sculpture,
33.See Ladislas Segy, African Sculpture, Dover 1958, p. 20.
Faber
and
Faber,
Publication,
New
York,
34.L.R.Rogers, Sculpture, Oxford University Press, London, 1969, p. 35.Leuzinger, Africa, p.
26.
49.
36.Joseph Cornet, African Art: Treasures of Congo, Phaidon Press, London, 1966, p. 49. Cornet believed that the European representation of Dynamism and asymmetry might have influenced the asymmetrical works of the Congolese artist. However, he did not cite examples of any works - 223 -
to support this. 37.Leon Underwood, Masks of West Africa, p.
16.
38.Ibid., p. 17. Wingert also commented on the use of colour in Yoruba sculpture. He stated that "Nowhere else in Negro Africa does colour play such a continously important role as it does in Yoruba sculpture." He added that the pigments were bright and included a wide range of tones of red, yellow, blue, black and white. See Wingert, Negro Africa, p. 31. 39.A.G.Archer and Robert Melville, 40.000 Years of Modern Art, Institute of Contemporary Art, London, 1949, p. 13. 40.Albert Barnes, 'Primitive Negro Sculpture and its Influence on Modern Civilization', Opportunity, (New York), Vol.28, No.4, May 1928, p. 140. 41.Figural sculpture with a combination of human and animal forms are generally found among the Fon of Dahomey, the Yoruba and Ibibio of Nigeria and sometimes among the Ashanti of Ghana. William Fagg and K.C.Murray have made similar observations in their studies of the subject. See K.C.Murray, 'Ibio Headdresses Combining Human and Animal Features', Man (London), Vol.47, No.1, January 1947, p. 1. 42.Archer and Melville, 40.000 Years, p.
13.
43.Carl Kjersmeier, 'Bambara Sculpture: The Facts and Outcome of an Expedition to French West Africa, November 1931 - April 1932', in Nancy Cunard, ed., Negro Anthology. 1931-1933, Wishart And Company, London, 683. The Bambara smith referred to by Kjersmeier was the 1934, p. blacksmith of the society who was usually the sculptor at the same time. 44.Dmitry Olderogge, Art of Negro Africa, Paul Hamlyn, London, 1969, 25. 45.See J.H.Braunholtz, 'Wooden Throne', B.M.Quarterly (London), No.6, 1938, p. 6.
p.
Vol.12,
46.William Fagg, Tribes and Forms in African Art, Methuen, London, 1965, p. 53. See also Willet, African Art, p. 180. 47.Wingert, Negro Africa, p.
9.
48.Andre Salmon, 'Negro Art', The Burlington Magazine (London), No.205, April 1920, p. 171. 49.Werner Gillon, Collecting African Sculpture, Mackey, p. 33. 50. See Stanley Casson, 'Negro No.227, 17 May 1933, p. 770.
Art',
The
Listener
51.William Fagg, 'The Study of African Art', Bulletin, (Oberlin) Vol.13, No.2, 1955/56, p. 59.
Vol.36,
Chatham,
(London),
1980, Vol. IX,
Allen Memorial
Art
52.Fagg pointed out that the same principle was consciously the European caricaturists.
applied
53. Eliot Elisofon and William Fagg, The Sculpture of Africa,
New
- 224 -
by
York,
1958, p.
25.
54. Kjersmeier, 'Bambara Sculpture', in 683. 55.J.S.Mbiti, Introduction to African Books, London, 1975, p. 53.
Cunard,
Religion,
ed.,
Negro
Art,
p.
Heinemann Educational
56.Several writers like Carl Kjermeier, Marius de Zayas and others have observed the geometric nature of African sculpture and its Significance for European artists. See de Zayas, Negro African Art: Its Influence on Modern Art, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1916, pp. 31, 33, and 34; also see Kjermeier, 'Bambara Sculpture', in Cunard ed., Negro Art, p. 683. 57.H.B.Chipp, ed., Theories of Modern Berkeley, 1968, pp. 257-8.
Art,
University
of
58.William Rubin ed., "Primitivism" In 20th Century Art, The Modern Art, New York, 1984, p. 216. 59. Wingert , Sculpture of Negro Africa, p.
California, Museum
of
369.
60.Roger Fry, Vision and Design, Chatto and Windus, London, 1920, p. 93ff. Stanley Casson also pointed out that there is never anything pretentious about Africa art for the artist did just what he set out to do and no more. He then stated that for this reason 'the African is head and shoulders above the savage artists of the rest of the world'. See Casson, 'Negro Art', The Listener, May 1933, p. 770. 61.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p.
106.
62.William Fagg, 'The Dilemma which Faces Africa Art', (London), Vol.XLVI, No.1176, 13 September 1951, p. 414. 63.Guillaume and Munro, Negro Sculpture, p. 64.See Rubin, ed., "Primitivism", p.
Listener
37.
107.
65.Elizabeth Cowling, 'An Other Culture', in Dawn Ades, ed., Dada and Surrealism Reviewed, British Art Council of Great Britain, London, 1978, p. 464. Dr.Cowling noted it was also due to their disenchantment for not being the discoverers of African SCUlpture. 66.David Attenborough, African Tribal Sculpture, Arcade Gallery, London, 1978, no page. CHAPTER 1.Jacob Epstein, Epstein. An Autobiography Vista Books, Longacre London, 1963, p. 12.
Press,
2.Rev. Tempels considered "the vital force" as the key concept of African religion and philosophy. See Placide Tempels, Bantu Philosophy, Presence Africaine, PariS, 1959, p. 30; See also Edwin Smith, African Ideas of God: A SympOSium, Edinburgh House Press, London, 1950, pp. 5ff.
- 225 -
3.0n the African philosophical concept of 'being' see especially the exposition by Placide Tempels in his Bantu Philosophy, London, 1959. 4.For further discussions on the illustration of the relationship between the spiritual powers with the triangle see Geoffry Parrinder, African Traditional Religion, S.P.C.K., London, 1954, pp. 24-5; Also see Tempels, Bantu pp. 41-3, for the structure of African religion. 5.Parrinder, Traditional Religion, pp.37-9; also see J.S.Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, Heinemann Educational Books, London, 1969, pp. 30-1. He pointed out 6.Mbiti, Introduction African Religion, pp. 42-3. that there are thousands of names for God in Africa. He listed examples from twenty-five African countries. 7. Smith, Ideas Qf God, p. p. 45.
12; also see Parrinder, Traditional Religion,
8.Parrinder made reference to Hermann Bauhmann's analysis in Der afrikanischn Volker, Berlin, 1936. See Parrinder, Traditional Religion, pp.40-1. Also see Mbiti, African'Religion, p. 80 for the separation of God from the earth. 9.Laude, Art of Black Africa, p.
217.
10.See Wingert, Sculpture of Negro Africa, p.
19.
11.Ghana Museum and Monument Board, National Museum of Ghana Publishing Corporation, Tema, 1970, pp. 43-44. 12.See Elsy Leuzinger, The Art of Black Africa, 1972, p. 26. 13.See Leuzinger, Africa, p. 14.
Ibid., pp.
Ghana
Studio Vista,
Handbook, London,
82.
132-3.
15.See Ladislas Segy, York, 1958, p. 25.
of Black Africa,
16.Parrinder, Traditional Religion, p. 17.Fraser, Primitve Art, pp.
40-1.
18.Cornet, Art of Africa, p.
36.
Dover
New
83.
19.Ibid., p. 36; see also Leon Underwood, Figures Africa, John Taranti, London, 1947, p. xvi. 20.See de Rachewiltz, Black Eros, p.
Publications,
in Wood
of West
109.
21.Secret societies in Africa were not mysterious and illegal organisations. It means only that the members had to be admitted by ritual initiation. They learnt a special secret language and the duties of a man or woman. See Ladislas Segy, African Sculpture, Dover Publication, New York, 1958, p. 8. Also see Wingert, Negro Africa, p. 12. - 226 -
22.K.L.Little, 'The Role of the Secret Societies In Cultural Specialization', Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg, eds., Cultures and Societies of Africa, Random House, New York, 1960, pp. 199-213. 23.. Cornet , Art of Africa, p.
73
24.Wingert, Negro Africa, pp. 18-19. In addition to the rings representing corpulence and beauty, de Rachewiltz pointed out that the crests of the Bundu masks represented an open vagina. See de Rachewiltz, Black Eros, p. 107. 25.0n animism see Arnold van Gennep , The Rites and Kegan Paul, London, 1960, pp. 5-14. 26.Segy, African Sculpture Speaks, p. 27.Leuzinger, Africa, p.
of
Passage,
Routledge
31.
165.
28.Ladislas Segy, 'African Snake Symbolism', Archiv fur Volkerkunde, (Wien), Vol.9, 1954, pp. 105-6. Also for snakes in African myths see G.Parrinder, African Mythology, Paul Hamlyn, London, 1967, p. 30. 29.Segy, African Sculpture Speaks, p.
77.
30.E.E.Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft. Oracle. and Magic Among The Azande, Oxford University Press, London, 1937, pp. 9-10. He made distinctions between sorcery and wicthcraft. 31.Leuzinger, Art of Black Africa, p. Black Eros, p.108. 32.See Wingert, Negro AfriS1 pp.
172;
see
also
de
Rachewiltz,
31-2.
33.See van Gennep, Rites of Passage, pp. 34.Parrinder, Traditional Riligion, p.
65-115. 95.
35.For this operation (ie. Clitoridectomy) see Parrinder, African Traditional Religion, p. 95; de Rachewiltz, Black Eros, p. 24. It is one of the ritual practices that had been unfavourably criticised by anthropologists. Rattray in the 19208 in Northern Ghana said that it was one of the few instances where government should interfere with traditional practice and stop it because of the needless suffering and danger to life caused to young women. 36.See Cornet, Art of Africa, Africa, p. 282.
p.
37.Wingert, Negro Africa, p.
47.
48;
and
Leuzinger,
Art
of
Black
38.R.S.Rattray, Religion and Art in Ashanti, Oxford University Press, London, 1925, p. 113. Most of the drums cited by Rattray were carved in pair to represent the male and female principles of life. 39.Margaret Trowell, Classical London, 1952, pp. 25-30. 40.Ibid., pp.
30-35.
- 227 -
African
Sculpture,
Faber
and
Faber,
41.Rattray, Religion and Art, p. 42.Ibid., pp.
156.
156-7.
43.Segy, Africa Sculpture, p.
21.
44. Guillaume , Primitive Sculpture, p. 45.Ibid., p.
7.
3.
46.Kenneth Clark, Last Lectures ]y Roger Press, Cambridge, 1939, p. 76. 47.Ibid., p.
76.
48.Ibid., p.
76.
49.See Rubin, ed., "Primitivism', p.
Fry,
Cambridge University
74.
50. See H.S.Ede, Savage Messiah, William Heinemann, London, 1930, p. 51.Ibid., p.
213.
52. Haskell , The Sculptor Speaks, pp. 53.Ede, Savage Messiah, p.
87-8.
213.
54.Henri Gaudier-Breska, 'The Vortex', Blast 157-8.
(London), June 1914,
55.Henry Moore, 'Primitve Art', The Listener (London), April 24, 1944, London, p. 598. 56.Ibid., p.
70.
Vol.25,
pp.
No.641,
599.
CHAPTER 3. 1.Charles Hunt, 'Africa and Liverpool Angeles), Vol.5, No.3, 1972, p. 46.
Museum',
African
Arts
(Los
2.Ibid., p. 46; see also Andrienne L.Kaeppler, 'Cook Voyage Provenance of the "Artificial Curiosi ties" of Bullock's Museum', ManCN.S. ) (London), Vol.9, 1974, pp. 68-92. 3.E.Miller, The Noble Cabinet: A History of the British Museum, Deutsch, London, 1973, p. 221.
Andre
4.The curatorial typological indeces of the British, Bristol, Liverpool, Ipswich and other museums with ethnological collections show the names of such people. 5.Nancy Cunard, These Were The Hours, Feffer and Simons, p. 79.
London,
6.Hunt, 'Africa and Liverpool Museum', African Arts, p.
46.
7.See Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice the Victorians, Macmillan, London, 1961, pp. 1-52. - 228 -
Denny,
Africa
1969,
and
8. Steven Philips, Arts and Artefacts of the Pacific. Africa and Americas: James Hooper Collection, Hutchinson Publishers, London, 1976, p. 367. 9.See Denise Paul me , African Sculpture, Elek Books, London, 1962, pp.42-2; also see Hunt, 'Africa and Liverpool Museum, African Arts, p. 46. 10.The British Government in the first half of the 19th century sponsored expeditions to the interior of Africa with the objective of geographical studies, thereby opening up the interior as a new line of attack on the slave trade, a possibility of cutting of its supply at the source; and to open up trade relations with some powerful states and kingdoms like the Bushongo, Baluba, and others. The British Government For more information see was urged on by the Liverpool merchants. Margery Perham and J.Simmons, African Discovery. An Anthology, Faber and Faber, London, 1942, pp. 23-33; See also Robert I. Rotberg, Joseph Thompson and the Exploration of Africa, Chatto and Windus, London, 1971, pp. 13ff. See also Robert Thornton, 'Narrative Ethnography in Africa, 1850-1920: The Creation and Capture of An Appropriate Domain for Anthropology', Man(NS) (London), Vol.18, 1983, pp. 502-20. 11.C.Hose, Fifty Years of Romance and Research Or A Jungle Wallah Large, Hutchinson And Company, London, 1927, p. 60. 12.A.C.Haddon, Evolution in Art: As Illustrated of Designs, Walter Scott, London, 1895, p. 2.
Life-Histories
13.Alfred Sharpe's collected African carvings were afterwards given to the British Museum. See Alfred Sharpe, 'A Carved Stool adn Other Objects from East Africa', Man (London), Vol.39, No.39, 1901, p. 49. When Anthropology and Ethnography became disciplines collecting of artefacts became an integral part of these disciplines. 14.V.Ebin and D.A.Swallow, "The Proper Study of Mankind ••• " Anthropological Collection of Cambridge, University Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, 1984, p. 34. 15. Andrian Digby, 'Ethnography', in Frank Francis British Museum, Thames and Hudson, London, 1971, p.
ed., 105.
16.Hunt, 'Africa and Liverpool Museum', African Arts, pp.
-
great Museum of
Treasures
of
46-51.
17.Register of Ethnographic Collection in the U.K., a preliminary survey by the Museum Ethnographers Group in London in 1980. There are few museums in the U.K. which had not been covered by the survey. The copy of this survey was made available to me by Dr.George Bankes of Manchester University Museum, Manchester. 18.Kenneth Clark, Last Lectures Press, London, 1939, p. xxv.
Roger
Cambridge UniverSity
19.Keith Rober, 'Exhibition of Tribal Sculpture From New Guinea and Africa', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.CVI, No.730, 1964, p. 45. John Russell even criticised the omission of Fry's name at the First International Congress of African Cultures which was held in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in August 1962. See John Russell, 'The Challenge of African Art: The Lesson of the Salisbury Congress', Apollo (London), Vol.76, No.9, November 1962. p. 697. - 229 -
20.Denys Sutton, ed., Letters Qf Roger London, 1972, p. 407.
Vol.1,
Chatto
and Windus,
21.R.H.Wilenski,'Exhibition of the Week', The Athenaeum, No.4694, 16, 1920, p. 517.
April
22.John Murray, 'Negro Sculpture', The Nation (London), Vol.27, April 1920, p. 69.
No.641,
23.L.R.Rogers, Sculpture, Oxford University Press, London, 1969, p. and Elsy Leuzinger, African Sculpture, p. 49. 24.Clark ed., Lectures, p. 25.Ibid., p.
86;
83.
22.
26.See Roger Fry, 'The Art of The Bushmen', The (London), Vol.16, No.84, March 1910, pp. 334-8. 27.See Fry, Vision, p.
Burlington Magazine
86.
28.Lynda Morris, ed., Henry Tonks and the 'Art of Pure', Art Council Great Britain, London, 1985, pp. 30,33. 29.See Morris, Tonks, p. 30.Fry, Vision, p.
of
48.
97.
31.Emmanuel Leowy in his Rendering Nature in Early Greek Art, translated by John Fothergill, 1907, discussed the characteristics of the early Greek art in terms of simplification of form and stylization. He drew general parallels between Egyptian, Assyrian, Children's art, and also certain forms of primitive art like the art of the 'Brazilian Savages' and the drawings of the natives of British Guinea. Fry was evidently inlufnced by Leowy. 32.The review was written in two parts and published in the same issue of The Burlington Magazine; see Roger Fry, 'The Munich Exhibition of Mohammedan Art', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.17, No.87, August 1910, pp. 283-90, 327-33. 33.Fry, Vision, p. 34.Ibid, pp.
107.
287 and 88.
35.Frances Spalding, Roger p. 78.
Art and Life, Elek Books, London,
1980.
36.Morris, Tonks, p.47. 37.Anonymous Writer, 'Last Phase of Post-Impressionism' The Magazine (London), Vol.20, No.60, March 1908, pp. 272-7. 38.Ibid., p.
Burlington
375.
39.Maurice Denis's essay 'C:zanne' published in L'Occident (Paris) in September 1907 was translated and published by Fry. See Roger Fry, 'C{zanne - 1 By Maurice Denis', The Burlington Magazine (London) , Vol.16, No.28, January 1910, pp. 207-8, 275-80. - 230 -
40.Ibid., pp.
208-13.
41.Allied Artists Association was formed in 190B in London by Frank Rutter on the lines of the jury-less Salon des Independents in Paris. 42.Micbael Sadler translated Kandinsky's Concerning the Spiritual in Art in 1914. 43.Sutton ed., Letters Vol.1, p.
327.
44.See Spalding, 133; and Desmond MacCarthy, 'Art Quake of 1910', The Listener (London), Vol.XXXVIII, No.83B, 1 February 1945, p. 124. 45.The idea of Manet being the leader of the modern (Cezanne, Gauguin and Van Gogh) was borrowed from the German writer J.Meier-Graefe, Modern Being A Contribution System Aesthetics, 2vols., Willian Heinemann London, 190B, pp. 20B-30; and Vol.II, p.62. Also see Douglas Cooper, Courtauld Collection, The Athlone Press, London, 1954, pp. 50-1. 46.Desmond MacCarthy, 'Art-Quake of 1910', The Listener, 1945, p.
124.
47.William Rothenstein, Men and Memories, Faber and Faber, London, 1931, p. 213.
A Biography, Hogarth Press, London,
1940,
49.Alfred Barr Jr., Matisee: His Life and His Public, Museum of Art, New York, 1951, p. 10B.
Modern
4B.Virginia Woolf, Roger p. 154.
50.Spalding,
118-9.
51.Joseph Hone, The Life of Henry Tonks, Heinemann Press, London, p. 102. 52. Paul Nash, Outline: An Autobiography and Other Writings, Faber, London, 1949, pp. 92-3. 53.Hone, Tonks, p.
and
November
1912
104.
56.W.C.Wees, Vorticism and The English University Press, Manchester, 1972, p. 27. 57.Fry, Vision, p.
Faber
102.
54.Fry made this report in a letter which he wrote on 24 to his father, see Sutton, Letters, p. 33B. 55. Spalding,
1939,
Avant-gardes,
Manchester
291.
5B.Clive Bell, 'How England Met Modern Art' October, 1950, p. 26.
(London),
XLIX,
59.Isabelle Anscombe, Omega and After, Thames and Hudson, London, p. 12.
19B1,
60.Noel Carrington ed.,
Mark Gertler.
- 231 -
Art
News
Selected Letters,
Hart-David,
London, 1965, p.
47.
61.John Woodeson, Gertler; Biography of Johnson, Lodon, 1972, pp. 92-3.
Painter,
Sidgwick
and
62.Quoted from the exhibition catalogue: Second Post-Impressionist Exhibition, 5 October - 31 December 1912, Grafton Galleries, London, p. 14. 63.Daniel-Henri Kahnweiller, Juan Humphries, London, 1947, p. 9.
Gris.
Lund
64.Grafton Galleries, Second Post-Impressionist, p. 65.Ibid., p.
9.
12.
66.The 'Philistine' wrote to the editor of the Nation on 8 September 1919. See Osbert Sitwell, Laughter in the Next Room, Macmillan, London, 1949, pp. 343-4. 67.Fry's article, 'Art and Socialism' was reprinted with considerable alterations from H.G.Wells ed., The Great State, Harper and Haper, London, 1912. p. 173; See also Fry, Vision, pp. 55-76. See also 68.Woolf, Judith Collins, The Omega Workshops, Secker and Warburg, London, 1983, pp. 29-30 69.Undated Omega Workshops Anscombe, Omega, p. 32.
Catalogue,
probably
of
1915.
See
also
70.Undated Omega Catalogue; Anscombe, Omega, p. 39. Fry's enthusiasm for the qualities of African artefacts was demonstrated in his lecture 'Sensibility', given as a Slade Professor at Cambridge in winter of 1933-34. In the lecture Fry compared a slide of an Omega rug with a slide of Negro Textile. See Collins, Omega Workshops, p. 57. 71.Richard Shone, Bloomsbury Portraits, Phaidon Press, Oxford, 1976, 82, n10. 72.See Kahnweiller, Juan Gris, p.
p.
75.
73.Duncan Grant visited Leon and Gertrude Stein in 1909 at the rue du Fleurus where he saw and studied some of Picasso's African influence works. The hatched strokes which became Grant's hallmark in the second half of 1913 were inlfuenced by Picasso's works which Grant became acquainted with. Grant acknowledge their importance to his work, especially the Nude with Drapery, 1907 by Picasso. See Richard Shone, Bloomsbury Portraits, Phaidon Press, London, 1976, pp. 57 and 61; also see Collins Omega, pp. 57-9. 74.Ramond Mortimer, Duncan Grant, Penguin Books, Hammondworth, 1944, 9.
p.
75.See David Brown's unpublished Letter to Dr. John Golding, November 7, 1975, Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, London. 76. Shone, Bloomsbury, p. - 232 -
105.
77.W.K.Rose ed., The Letters of Wyndham Lewis, 1971, p. 407.
Methuen
Press,
London,
78.See C.R.Nevinson, Painting and Prejudice, Methuen, London, 1937, p. 30; see also Richard Cork, Vorticism and Abstract Art in the First Machine Age, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976, p. 58. 79.Richard Cork and Jane Farrington have asserted the influence of Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon 1907 by Picasso upon The Theatre Manager 1909 by 10-11, and Jane Farrington ed., Lewis. See Cork, Vorticism, pp. Wyndham Lewis, Lund Humphries, London, 1980, pp. 49-50. 80.Ibid, p.
11, n49.
81.From Modern German Art, Catalogue of Twenty-one Gallery, London, Spring 1914.
and
exhibition
held
at
the
82.Exhibition Catalogue Group X, Mansard Gallery, London, March 1920, p. 226. 83. Carrington, Letters, p.
85.
84.Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 85.See
p.
44.
225.
86.Roger Fry, 'Gaudier-Brzeska' , The Vol.29, No.161, August 1916, p. 209.
Burlington Magazine
(London),
87.Roger Fry, 'Mr. Frank Dobson'S Sculptures', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.XLVI, No.265, April 1925, p. 172. 88.For Fry's numerous visits to France see Spalding, 89. Sutton, Letters, p. 90.Ibid., p.
551.
258.
91.Ibid., p 94. 92.Clive Bell, 'Negro Sculpture', The Athenaeum (London), Vol.11, No.4712, August 20, 1920, p. 247; the same article was also published in the Living Age (London), No.306, 1920. pp. 786-9; and in Art and Decoration (London), Vol.13, August 1920, pp. 178-202. 93.Nancy Cunard, The Hours, p.
80.
94.Moore, Moore, p. 100. See also Elizabeth Cowling, 'The Eskimos, the American Indians and the Surrealists', Art History (London), Vol.1, No.4, p. 487. 95. Sutton, Letters, p. 96.Spalding,
258. 241.
97. Sutton, Letters, p.
366.
CHAPTER - 233 -
...
I
1.Wassily Kandinsky, Concerning The Spiritual in Art, translated by M.T.H.Sadler, Constable and Company, London, 1914, pp. 1-2; see also J.S.Pierce, Paul Klee Primitive Art, Garland Publishing, London, 1976, p. 4. 2.de Zayas, African Negro Art, p.
4.Ibid, pp.
5.
6-39.
5.D-H.Kahnweiller, 'Negro art and No.108, December 1948, p. 413.
Cubism',
Horizon
(London),
Vol.18,
6.Kahnweiller published the same article in French: 'L'Art Negre et Ie Cubisme' , Presence Africaine (Paris), Vol.3, 1948, pp. 367-77; and in German: Der Weg zum Kubismus, Stuggart, 1958. 7. Kanhnweiller , 'Negro art', Horizon, p. 8.Ibid., p.
419.
412.
9.For Apollinaire's writing on Matisse see Rubin ed., "Primitivism", 229.
p.
10.See Max Alfert.'Relationship between African Traditional art and Modern Western art', Art Journal, (London), Vol.3, No.4, 1972, p. 393. 11.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
190.
12.John and Vera Russell, 'Conversation with Henry Moore', Sunday Times (London), Vol.XX, No.17, 24 December 1961, p. 26. Also see John Russell, Henry Moore, Allen Lane Press, London, 1968 p. 10 13.See William Fagg, Miniature Carvings, p.
5.
14. Sidney Geist, 'Brancusi I, in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p.
348.
15.See Albert Elsen, Origin of Modern Sculpture, Phaidon Press, London, 1974, p. 19. Boccioni's caution was based on the embarassment and fear of the halt of dynamism (ie. movement) in European art which was being inspired by African and Egyptian art. Their static quality was in direct opposition with the Futurist aim of representing speed and dynamism. 16.Bernard van Dieren, Epstein, John Lane Company, London, 1920, p. 17.Ibid., p.
13.
13.
18.Kahnweiller, 'Negro art', Horizon (London), p.
416.
19.5ee Wilkinson, 'Paris and London: Modigliani, Lipchitz, Epstein Gaudier-Brzeska', in Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 262. 20.See Alfred H. Barr, Picasso: .5Q Years of His Modern Art, New York, 1946, pp. 256-7.
Art,
The
Museum
and of
21.See J.B.Donne, 'African Art and Paris Studios 1905-20', in Michael Greenhalgh and Vicent Megaw eds., Art in Society: Studies in Style and - 234 -
Culture and Aesthetics, Gerald Duckworth, London, Barr, Picasso, pp. 256-7. 22. Donne , 'African art and Paris Studios Megaw, eds. Art in Society, p. 105-20.
1978,
1905-20',
23.W.C.Wee, Vorticism, p. 10; also see Douglas Collection, The Athlone Press, London, 1954, p.
in
p.
106;
and
Greenhalgh
and
Cooper, 36.
The
Courtauld
24.Ian Dunlop, The Shock of the New: Seven Historical. Exhibitions Modern Art, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1972, p. 123. 25.Virginia Woolf,
109.
26.See Cork, Vorticism, p.
4.
27Ibid., p.
4.
28.See Charles Harrison, English Art and University Press, Bloomington, 1981, p. 20.
Modernism 1900-1939, Indiana 35; see also Spalding, Fry, p.
29.Frank Rutter, Art in My Time, Richard and 134. 30.Cooper, Courtauld Collection, p. 31.John Rothenstein, British Art 1962, p. 19.
Cowan,
London,
1933,
p.
50.
Since j2QQ,
32.See Susan Compton, ed., British Art in 20th Movement, Prestel, Munich, 1986, p. 10. 33.Ibid., p.
of
Phaidon
Press,
Century:
London,
The
Modern
10.
34.Wyndham Lewis, Group X, Mansard Gallery, London, 1920, p.
226.
35.See Rothenstein, British Art, p. 32. Also see Exhibition catalogue: Modern Sculpture from Joseph H.Hirshborn Collection, The Solomon R. Guggenhein Museum, New York, 1962, p. 140. 36.See Simon Wilson, 'Jacob Epstein, Pioneer of Modern Sculpture the early Years' in Makers of Modern Cultures, edited Justin Wintle, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1981, p. 158. 37.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.22. 38. Rothenstein, British Art, p. 39.Goldwater, Primitivism, p. 40.Ibid., p.
31. 105.
89.
41.Ibid., p.89. 42.See E. Kaplan and Susan Manso, eds. Major European Art Movements 1900-1945. A Critical Anthology, E.P.Dutton, New York, 1977, p. 65. 43.Goldwater, Primitivism, pp. - 235 -
106 and 108.
44.Ibid., p.
108.
45.L.D.Ettlinger, 'German Expressionism and Primitive Art', Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.CX, No.781, 1968, p. 192. 46.Ibid., p.
195.
47.Ibid., p.
199.
48.See Rubin, ed.,"Primitivism", p. 49.Ibid., p.
369.
50.Ibid., p.
369.
51.Goldwater, Primitivism, pp. 52.Ibid., p.
The
369.
143-6.
154.
53.Ettlinger, 'German Expressionism', The Burlington Magazine, 1961, p. 191. Ettlinger qouted John Golding, Cubism.! History and Analysis 1907-1914, Faber and Faber, London, 1959, p. 57. 54.Maria E.Allentuck, John Graham'S System of Dialectics in Hopkins Press, London, 1971, p. 168. 55.Ettlinger, 'German Expressionism', The Burlinton Magazine, 192. 56.Gaudier-Brzeska, 'Vortex', Blast 1, p. 57. Haskell , The Sculptor Speaks, p.
Art,
Johns
1968,
p.
158.
76.
58.Epstein, An Autobiography, pp.
112.
59.Mark Batten, Stone Sculpture 1957, p. 13.
Direct Carving, Alec Taranti, London,
60.Malcolm York, Eric Gill: 1981, p. 200.
Man of Flesh and Spirit, Constable, London,
61.Simon Wilson, British Art From Holbein Gallery, London, 1979, pp. 132-3. 62.Ibid., pp.
to
the
Present
Day,
Tate
132-3.
CHAPTER 2 1.The cartoon of Adrian Allison was published in the November 1914 issue of Colour and other writers to cite it inlcude Sandy Naire and Nicholas Serota, eds., British Sculpture in 20th Century, Whitechapel Art Gallery, London, 1981, p. 58; and Cork, Vorticism, p. 458. 2.Evelyn Silber, The SculptUre Qf Epstein with Phaidon, Oxford, 1986, p. 25. 3. Haskell , The Sculptor Speaks, p.
- 236 -
30.
Complete
Catalogue,
4.Ibid., p.
89.
5.Jacob Lipchitz, Primitive Art From the Lipchitz Collection, Museum of Primitive Art, New York, 1960. p. 7. 6.See Carl Einstein, Negerplastik, Verlag Der Weissen Bucher, Leipzig, 1915; Plates 42, 81, 84, 85, 86, and 87 reveal sculptures from New Guinea but are shown as African sculptures. Of the 111 illustrations shown in the book none was accompanied with geographical identification or museum location. 7.For illustrations see William Fagg, 'Two Early Masks from the Dan Tribe in The British Museum', Man (London), Vol.LV, No.175, November 1955, pp. 161-2. 8.See Rubin, ed., "Primitivism", p. 9.
Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
10.Haskell, The Sculptor Speaks, p. 11.Ibid., p.
3, notes 11 and 12. 217. 88.
92.
12.Ibid., p.90. 13.Ibid., p.
90.
14.See Epstein, There Be Sculpture, Michael Joseph, London, 1940, p. 216; The 'Brummer Head' was a Fang sculpture, which was named after the owner Joseph Brummer, who was a dealer of African sculpture in Paris from 1910 to the 1920s. Epstein bought this piece in 1935 in Paris from another dealer. 15.Ibid., p.216. 16.Ibid., p.216. 17.Ibid., p.
219.
18.Haskell, the Sculptor Speaks, p. 19.Ibid., p.
89.
92.
20. Mr. Malcolm McLeod, the Director of the Museum of Mankind in London, and author of two books on African and primitive Sculptures, has been compiling a catalogue of Epstein's tribal art collection since I visited him in his office in London in 1985. 21.According to the date of Rene Gimpel's record in his diary of 1935 published in 1966, Epstein should be in his mid-fifties and not 60s as Gimpel might have thought. See Rene Gimpel, Diary of an Art Dealer, translated from the French by John Rothenstein, with an introduction by Sir Herbert Read, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1966, p. 433. 22. Gimpel , Diary, p.
433.
23.Author in conversation with Mr Malcolm McLeod in June 1985 in London. 24.See Boris de Rachewiltz, Introduction to African Art, - 237 -
translated
by
Peter Whigman, John Murray, London, 1960, p. 25.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 25. 26.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
432; and Silber, Jacob Epstein,
p.
215.
27.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 28.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
140.
432.
215.
29.As in n.23. 30.As in n.23. 31.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
189.
32.As in n.23. 33.As in n.23. 34.H.S.Ede, Savage Messiah, William Heinemann, London, 1931, p. 35.Henry Moore, Henry Moore at the Publications, London, 1981, p. 10.
British Museum,
206.
British Museum
36.Richard Buckle, Epstein, Edinburgh Festival Society, Edinburgh, 1981, no page. 37.Francis Halliday and John Russell, Matthew Smith, Urwin, London, 1962, p. 14.
George
Allen
and
38.Ibid., p.14. 39.Noel Carrington ed., Mark Gertler, Rubert Hart-Dans, London, 1963, p. 43. 40.Henry Moore and John Hedgecoe, Henry Moore, Life as an Artist, Ebury Press, London 1986, p. 41.Haskell, The Sculptor Speaks, p. 42.Ibid., p.
Ideas, Inspiration and 49.
94.
95.
43.Epstein, An Autobiography, p. 44.Ibid., p.
52.
45.Ibid., p.
192.
52.
46.Haskell, The Sculptor Speaks, p. 47.See Denise Hooker, London, 1986, p. 36.
Nina
19.
Hamnett:
48.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
Queen
of
Bohemia,
Constable,
18.
49.See Jane Beckett, 'Cubism and Sculpture in England Before the First World War', in Sandy Nainre and Nicholas Serato, eds., British Sculpture - 238 -
in the 20th Century, London, 1981, p.
58.
50. Robert Goldwater, Primitivism in Modern Art, Vintage Books, New York, 1938, p.239. 51.Evelyn Silber, Rebel Angel. Sculpture and Watercolours Epstein, Birmingham Museum and Gallery, Birmingham, 1980, p. 52. Richard Buckle Jacob Epstein. 1963, p. 42.
Sculptor,
Faber
and
Sir Jacob 15.
Faber,
London,
53. Richard Buckle, Introduction to Epstein Drawings with Notes Epstein, Faber and Faber, London, 1962, p. 10.
Lady
54. Richard Cork, Vorticism and Abstract Art in The Gordon Fraser Gallery, London, 1976, p. 115.
Age,
First
Machine
55.A.G.Wilkinson, Gauguin To Moore. Primitivism In Modern Sculpture, Art Gallery of OntariO, OntariO, 1981, p. 168. 56.Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 57.Ibid., p.
430.
431.
58. Charles Harrison, English Art and Modernism University Press, Bloomington, 1981, p. 82. 59. Haskell , The Sculptor Speaks, p.
1900-1939,
Indiana
13.
60.See Buckle, Introduction to Epstein Drawings, p. 61.See reproductions in the Christies Sales Catalogue figs.73 and 74.
5. 1961,
Plate
14,
62.The date designated to this drawing in the Epstein File in the Witt Library, Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, London, is 1918 and was supposed to be drawn in Paris. Since Epstein was not in Paris in 1918. Dr. Evelyn Silber pointed out to me that the dating was subjective. However, according to my own view, the drawing could have been done earlier, probably between 1908 and 1910 in London. 63.A.G.Wilkinson for example compared the Sunflower with several African sculptures without explaining whether Epstein had ever seen the later works. See Rubin, ed., "Primitivism", pp. 430-1. 64.See Buckle, Jacob Epstein, p.
42.
65.Ibid., P 42. 66.Epstein,An Autobiography, p. 67.Ibid., p.
49.
49.
68.William Fagg, 'Introduction', Catalogue of Collection of Tribal and Exotic Sculptures Britain. 1960, no page. 69. Haskell , The Sculptor Speaks, p.
- 239 -
106.
Exhibition of Epstein Arts Council of Great
70.Ibid., p.
92.
71.Epstein, An Autobiography, pp. 72.Ibid., p.
46-47.
47.
73.Goldwater, Primitivism, p.
236.
74.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
49.
75.Sidney Geist, Brancusi, Studio Vista, London, 1968, p. Ionel Jianou, Brancusi, Adams Book, London, 1963, p. 68. 76.Epstein, An Autobiography, p. 77.Ibid., p.
189.
78.Ibid., p.
251.
149; also see
49.
79.Alfred Werner, Modigliani the Sculptor, York. 1962. p. xxiv.
Golden Griffin
Books,
80.John Tancock, 'Primitivism in Modern Sculpture', The Mgazine, (London), Vol.CXXIV, No.948, March 1982, p. 195.
New
Burlington
81.The term 'eroticomechanical movement' is borrowed from Octavo Paz who used it in describing the Marcel Duchamp's work. See Kaplan and Manso, eds., Maior Art Movements 1900-1945, p. 376. For similar observations in the works of Francis Pacibia and Duchamp see Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New Art and The Century of Change, British Broadcasting Corporation, London, 1980, p. 48. 82.Roger Fry, Transformations. Critical And Speculative Essays Chatto and Windus, London, 1926. p. 141. 83.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
86.Ibid., p.
140.
87.Ibid., p.
140.
Art,
60.
84.T.E.Hulme, Speculations, Essays on Humanism and The Art, Routledge And Kegan Paul, London, 1924, p. 81. 85.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
on
Philosophy
of
130.
CHAPTER Q 1.See Kaplan and Manso, eds., Maior Art Movements, p.
77.
2.See Roger Fry, tGaudier-Brzeska', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.29, No.161, August 1916, p. 209; and Ezra Pound, Gaudier-Brzeska: A MemOir, John Lane, London, 1916. Also see Richard Cork, Henri Gaudier and Ezra Pound: A Friendship, Anthony d'Offay Gallery, London, 1982, p.
9. 3.See H.S.Ede, Savage Messiah, William Heinemann, London, 1931, p.
- 240 -
28.
4.See Roger Cole, Burning to Speak: The Life and Art of Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Phaidon, Oxford, 1978, p. 12; also see Ede, Savage Messiah, pp. 15 and 69. 5.Cole, Burning to Speak, p.
21.
6.Dr.Uhlemayr was responsible for organising Gaudier-Brzeska's travelling scholarships in 1909, Gaudier-Brzeska stayed with him in April 1909 at Nuremberg. He became Gaudier-Brzeska's patron and confidant, in Nuremberg. Gaudier-Brzeska continually corresponded with him for a long period. See Cole Burning to Speak, pp. 11-13, 17, 21-2, 28, 29, 77. 7.Cole Burning To Speak, p.
21.
8.Epstein, An Autobiography, p.
45.
See also Cork Vorticism, p.
169.
9.Miss Sophie Brzeska was a Polish woman of 38 whom Gaudier befriended. They both came to in London in 1911. Since they were not married Gaudier added her surname to his to avoid scandals and to suggest that they were brother and sister. 10.See Ede, Savage MeSSiah, pp. 11.ibid., p.
212-213.
50.
12.Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, 'The Vortex', Blast i, 20 June 1914, p. 13. Ibid. ,p.
156.
158.
14.Archer and Melville, 40,000 Years, p.
19.
15.Gaudier-Brzeska's works exhibited at the Allied Artists Exhibition are Oiseau de Feu 1912,(Rodin style), Wrestler 1913 (Maillol style), Madonna 1912 (Rodin style), Haldane MacFa11 1912 (Rodin style), Horace Brodzky 1913 (Cubist style) and Alfred Wolmark 1913 (Cubist style). See Cole, Burning to Speak, p. 38, and Cork, Vorticism, p. 171 and n.104. 16.Ede, Savage MeSSiah, p.
247.
17.Jeremy Lewison ed., Henri Gaudier-Brzeska 1891-1915, Kettle's Cambridge University, 15th October - 20th November 1983, p. 47. 18.Ibid., p.
Yard,
47.
19.Ezra Pound, 'The New Sculpture', The 1914, pp. 67-8.
Egoist
(London),
20.Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, 'The New Sculpture', The Egoist March 1914, p. 117-8. 21.See Ede, Savage MeSSiah, p. 22. Harrison , English Art, p.
16
February
(London),
16
256. 177.
23.Edward Fry, 'Cubism As A StylistiC and Historical Phenomenon', in Kaplan and Manso, eds., Major European Art Movements, pp. 109, 110-111. 24.See Cole, Burning to Speak, p. - 241 -
30.
25.Letter from Gaudier-Brzeska to Sophie Brzeska written November 1912; see Ede, Savage Messiah, p. 206.
on
Monday
25
26.See Horace Brodzky, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska 1891-1915, Faber and Faber, London, 1917, p. 56. 27.Ibid., p.
130.
28.Anton Ehrenzweig, The Hidden Order of Art, Weidenfeld London, 1967, pp. 130-1.
and
Nicolson,
29.Gaudier-Brzeska could have been inspired by a strange concept as Kenneth Clark observes: "The vulva, like the phallic may be worn as an amulet usually as a lozenge ••• ". See Clark, The Nude, p. 344. The erotic symbolism of geometric shapes in some African tribal customs are discussed by Boris de Rachewiltz in his Black Eros. 30.Cork, Vorticism, p.
88.
31.See Brodzky, Gaudier-Brzeska, p. 32.Ibid., p.
90.
130.
33.Nina Hamnett, Laughing Torso, Constable and Company, London, 1932, p. 41 34.Cork, Vorticism, p.
182.
35.See Brodzky, Gaudier-Brzeska, p. 36.Ede, Savage MeSSiah, p.
62.
141.
37.Ezra Pound, Gaudier-Brzeska Yorkshire, 1960, p. 40.
MemOir,
The
Marvell
38.Winifred Gill, 'Gaudier-Brzeska', A Foggot of Verses: Women, London, 1930, p. 55. 39.See Ede, Savage Massiah, p.
Press,
East
Poems
Five
269.
40.Letter to Mrs Bevan, 12.11.1914, Private collection and unpublished; Letter to Wadsworth, 14.2.1915, Private collection and unpublished. Also see Cole, Burning to Speak, p. 42. 41.See Cole, Burning to Speak, p. 42.Ibid., p.
133.
112.
CHAPTER I 1.See John Piper, 'Michael Sadler: Friend and Encourager' in Michael Sadleir, Michael Ernest Sadler <Sir Michael Sadler K.C.S.I.)1861-1943, Constable and Company London, 1949. p. 397. See also Hilary Diaper, 'The New Spirit', The New Spirit. Patrons. Artists and The University of Leeds in the 20th Century, Exhibition Catalogue, University Gallery, Leeds. February 1986. p. 3. 2.Sadleir, Sir Michael Sadler, p. - 242 -
397.
3.See Donald Hall, Henry Moore, The Life and Work of Harper and Rows, New York, 1966, p. 42.
Great
Sculptor,
4.See John Russell, Henry Moore, Allen Lane Press, London. 1968. p. 6. Also see Geoffrey Gregory, Henry Moore, Penguin Books, Middlesex. 1943. pp. 5-6. 5.By 1932 Sadler had a collection of masks, wooden bowls, figures and what not, from the Ivory Coast, Sudan, Gabon, Nigeria, etc. His interest in African art led him to the membership of an official committee concerned with native art in West Africa. See Sadleir, Sir Michael Sadler, p. 388-9. 6.Henry Moore, Henry Moore at the Publications, London, 1981, p. 7.
British Museum,
7.See Frances Spalding, British Art London. 1986. p. 62.
Since
8.See Fry, Vision.
p.
1900,
British Museum
Thames
and
Hudson,
101.
9.The illustration of Seated Female Figure Baule, Ivory Coast, is a photograph of an African sculpture from Paul Guillaume's collection in Paris. 10.Moore, Moore at the British Museum.
p.
10.
11.See A.G.Wilkinson, The Drawings of Henry Moore, Art Gallery of Toronto, Toronto, 1977, p. 147; and Will Grohman, The Art of Henry Moore, Harry N.Abrams, New York, 1960, p. 15. 12.See Philip James ed., Henry Moore on 1966, p. 49. 13.Gaudier-Brzeska, in Blast 1. 14.
See Russell, Moore, p.
p.
Sculpture,
MacDonald,
London,
156.
7.
15.The books of Carl Einstein and Ernst Fuhrmann were in German which Moore could not read but the several illustration of African and other Primitive arts were significant to Moore in studying sculpture. See Carl Einstein, Negerplastik, Verlag Der Weissen Bucher, Leipzig, 1915; and Ernst Fuhrmann, Afrika, George Muller, Munchen. 1922. 16.See Jazzaro D.di San, ed., Homage to Henry Moore: Special Issue Q( the XXe Siecle, Tridor Publishing Company. New York. 1972. p. 21. 17.Moore began to write on sculpture in 1930 and his First publication was an untitled article in Architects' Association Journal (London), Vol.XLV, 1930. pp. 408-13. 18.Gaudier-Brzeska in Blast 1. pp. 155. Gaudier-Brzeska stated that the sculptural energy was a mountain and sculptural feeling was the appreCiation of masses and planes in relation; while Moore wrote that the sculpture which moved him most gave out 'something of the energy and power of great mountain'. 19.5ee Henry Moore, 'Primitive Art', No.641, 24 April 1941. p. 598. - 243 -
The Listener
(London),
Vol.25,
20.Ibid., p.
598.
21.Ibid., p.
598.
22.Henry Moore, 'The Sculptor Speaks', The Listener, Vol.28, No.449, August 1937, p. 338.
18
23.See Hall, Moore, p. 53. See also John Hedgecoe, Henry Moore, Thames and Hudson, London, 1968, p. 40. 24.See Grohman, The Art of Moore, p. 15; also see Hedgecoe, Henry p. 45. See the Bibliography of this thesis for Underwood's Moore. publications on African sculpture. 25.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p.
603
26. Moore , 'The Sculptor Speaks', The Listener, p. 27.See Hedgecoe, Henry Moore p. 28.Ibid., p.
45.
29.Ibid., p.
49.
30.Ibid., p.
45.
338
55.
31.A letter from Henry Moore to Jocelyn Horner written on 29
October 1921. Bequested by Miss Jocelyn Horner in 1973 to the Henry Moore Centre for the Study of Sculpture, Leeds City Art Gallery, Leeds. 32.See Moore, Moore at the British Museum, p.
7-16.
33.See Nairne and Serota, eds., British Sculpture, p. Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p. 596. 34.James ed., Henry Moore on Sculpture, p.
49.
35.Moore, Moore at the British Museum, p.
7.
37.Ibid., pp.
94-6.
38.Ibid., p.
104.
39.Ibid., p.
96.
40.Ibid., p.
101.
41.Ibid., p.
7.
42.See Clark, Last Lectures, p.
104.
Also
see
80.
43.Alan G. Wilkinson testified that Henry Moore had a personal copy of Ernst Fuhrmann's Reich der Inka, of 1922, in 1928. The Inca pot was published in this book as p1.15. See Rubin "Primitiyism", p. 600. 44.Moore, Moore at the British Museum, p.
- 244 -
11.
45.Moore 'The Sculptor Speaks', The Listener (London), 18 August 1937, p. 340. 46.Ibid., p.
Vol.28,
No.449,
40.
47.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", p.
596.
48.Henry Moore, 'On Sculpture and Primitive Art', in Robert L.Herbert ed., Modern Artists on Art: Ten Unabridged Essays, Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, New Jersey, 1964. p. 139. 49.See Rubin ed., "Primitivism", 456-9.
p.
596;
50.Moore, Moore at the British Museum, p. 51.Ibid., p.
104.
52.Ibid., p.
104.
and
Cork,
Vorticism,
pp.
96.
53.For illustrations of some African sculptures seen at the exhibition by Moore and information, see The Sphere, Vol.XCVII, No.1278, 19 July 1924, pp. 90-1. 54. The round forms in Maternity Dobson's influence.
1924
by
55.Moore, Moore at The British Museum, p.
Henry
Moore
reflects
trans.
by
Frank
10.
CONCLUSION 1.Claude Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, and B.G.Schoel, London, 1965, pp. 101-2 2.Ibid., pp.
101-2; and Rubin, "Primitivism", pp.
C.Jacobsen
5-6.
3.Joseph Herman, 'The Modern Artists in Modern Society' in Michael Greenhalgh and Vicent Megaw eds., Art in Society: Studies in Style. Culture and Aesthetics, Duckworth Press, London, 1978, p. 130.
- 245 -
APPENDIX I AN ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF PRIMITIVE ART 1900 The catalogue classifies the items according to their briefly
describes
them
giving
their sizes and prices.
enables us to compare the prices of African sculpture at of
the
and
The catalogue the
beginning
century in Britain with the prices quoted nowadays in the Sales
Catalogues of Christies and other dealers. trend
regions
of
This
reveals
the
soaring
the aesthetic value of African sculpture and how well it fits
into the contemporary history of art in Britain in
terms
of
aesthetic
and monitary values. The plates (ie. and
back
I to VIII) in this appendix
reproduce
the
front
covers, African section and the price list of the items of An
Illustrated Sales Catalogue
Primitive art printed and distributed
1900 by the dealer W.D.Webster of Bicester, Oxon.
- 246 -
in
...
.,.
1
, . '.
.
'::'
t,)
;
PLATE Cover) (Front
..
l'
;,>0(
,
,
-"'!"'--r.
.... - - " -.....- - , . . , . _.....
CATALOGUE 21
(93 2 9)
No. 25.
Elaborately carved wood ma5k ornamented with birds, &c, aboYl-, decorated in red, black and white, inches high '"
22 (9334) Elaborately carved wood idol in the mouth of a fish, the tail of whIch
holds the evil eye, decorated in blue, black and white, 44 inches high
28 (9337) Elaborately carved wood hird holding in its beak a snake, decorated in red, black and white, 9i inches high, 30} inches wide
24
(93 26 )
Elaborately carved wood mask with a bird above, decorated in red, black and white, 22 inches high .. , .,. ... ... , ..
25
(9343 A )
Carved wood ornament in the form of an eye,
by 3i inches
26 (93 2 5) Elaborately carved wood mask in the form of a boar's head, decorated in red, black and white, I9j inches high
27
(9339)
Dancing ma.sl made of cane, fibre and cloth, unusual type
:£EYLON. .
-: .
,'.,;:.
<! :
.r.
d,
7 10
0
[; 10 0
from a temple, representing nine masks and decorated in nrious c01ours, 4 I inches high, 12 inches wide ,.,
0
8 10
8 10 0 0 7 6 0
i 0 ;4 4
:;::.:.:,,!
<
":'0:--,:
£.
0
.
.
••. ".-:5 -:0
0
19 (9724-) Carved wood figure standing on a mask; rising from his head are five_ cobras' heads and on his breast is a. child; the dress is oflnstre glass beads; on side of mask is a chlld ; from the back of each rises a cobra with its head protmding over the back of the figure, de::orated in various colours, 44 inches high
6
0
0
AFRICA. 11
Carved wood fetish mask covered wilb skin, bone, teeth, and metal eyes, partly coloured black .: at base is a canework flange, I I inches high .. , (ASHANTEE)
8 8 o
Carved wood mask decorated in red, black and white, 10 inches high (NIGER PROTECTORATE)
o 17
Can'ed wood figure, lIt inches high
... (WEST COAST)
1 10 0
(883 1 )
Carved wood figure with movable joints, pounding corn, decorated in black and white, 13 inches high (NIGER PROTECTORATE)
1 15 0
(9345) (79So)
Carved wood figure, I I inches high
1 10
0
Carved wood double mask, ",ith canework flange at base, partly coloured black,.12 inches high (NIGER PROTECTORATE)
2
2
0
Carved wood ceremonial staff, ornamented 'with a double·mask at top, inches high ... PROTECTORATE)
8
3.0
Caned wood figure,
1
5
0
Idol of wood and plaster in which is embedjed several DO:;'T tusks, dt'corated in rtoJ :md black, I inche, hi,:h
5
0
0
Carved wood fifure standins in a creSCent, p3.;,ly coL-nlTed bJJck. I S inches high (\']: l:F l'Rc'Th-Wnn'!
2
2
0
ins
.4 85
86 87
( 882 9)
88 (9 6 3 I ) 89 (934-4)
... (WEST COAST)
inches high 0..
40
(8S64)
39 PLATE
II
6
CATALOGUE No. 41
25.
(;lJ9 Q )
Can'ed wood figure decnrated in Llack :1nd white, 161 inches high
42
(SOOI)
C:1 n:o wood figure, 13 inches high
43
(9 63(.)
1 arge carved wood female figure ",earing a grass dress, 57 inches high
(8835)
Carved -.-ood fetish ortl.1mented with two masks coloured black, :md a cane-work base, 30! inehes high (NIGER PROTECTORATE)
(\\-EST CC1.\C;T)
... (\\"I:.n COAST)
r
(ASHANIEE)
44
i' ?'
("
d_
1 10 1 10
0 0
7 10
0
(ASHANTEE)
8 10 0 8 0 0
(NIGER PROTECTOILHE)
1 15 0
405 (7974) Luge carved ",ood figure, 65 inches high 48 (88n) Carved ..-ood m3sk, coloured bl3ck, 91 by 8 inches 1:':
s_
.£
00_
47 (Q-,80) Carved ..-ood figure wearing a cowrie shell necklet, decorated in red, bb.ck and ..-hile., 241 inches high
41 (8006)
000
'00
000
(LoBO)
t 10 0
I..3rge canoed wood drum covered ith skin, ,,-hich is fastened with cane and tightened with wood wedt;es, 48 inches high, 14i inches diameter (EQUATORIAL AntICA)
F:
5 0 0
"'-MISCELLAN EOUS. 49
(7988)
Carved soapstone Buddha,
4t inches high
60 (9420) Bronze Buddha, 5i inches high .0. 61 (7986) Canoed wood Buddha decorated in gold and colours, (799 0 )
1
(INDIA)
0 10 0
inches bli!;b (INDIA) 0 15
,.
52
Two c.irved wood figures, male and fc!male., decorated in yellow and black, 5 inches high (WEST AFlUCA)
0-
t
5 0 (RANGOON) 0 10
58 .(798 7) Carved white stone Buddha, 6! inches high
54 (8968)
Carved wood figure decorated in gold and colours, lSi inches high-::'-
56
Carved wood Buddha, partly gilt, loi iriches'high
(19B 1 )
0
0
(CHINA)
-
17.,.
_
lli';.t:
58
do.
8
do.
57 (798 9) 51 (8967)
do.
9-l
do.
Carved wood figure decorated in gold and colours, 8 inches high (Clmu)
0 1"7
• -:'
59
Gilt bronze Buddha on stand,7! im hes high
0 17
i
(9·P9)
.•
00
1,5'ji -- ' - t
(hinIA)
(EURMAH) 1 60 (548 5) Carved wood Buddha, partly gilt, I6i inches high 61 (89 6 !) Carved wood figure decorated in gold and colours, 13k inches high (CHINA) 1
Carved. wood figure decorated in gold and colours, 13 inches high (CHINA)
1
5
0
0
0
5
0
(LET!)
1 10 0
64 (54 8z ) Caryed stone idol, 131 inches high 65 (79 8 3) Can'ed white stone Buddha, 9 inches high 66 (i99 I) Canoed white stone reclining Buddha, on a carved wood st.1nQ, 9t
1 10 0
63 (6675) Carved wood idol, 13 inches high...
inche s high,
inches long
(RA1\GOON)
40 PLATE
III
0 10 0 500
•
CATALOGUE No.
25. £
s,
d.
(SonHER!' INDIA)
3
3
0
69 ( 86 4 6 ) Brass coffee pot, 14 inches high ,. (ABYSSINIA) 70 ( 86 5 1 ) Bishop\ cro\\'n of gilt brass set with \'arious pieces of coloured glass and
1
0
0
5 0
0
67 (i9 84) Carved stone Buddha. I:?! inches high (RA!,Goos) 68 (95:9) ElaboratelY carved stune idol taken from the Temple of Halabeide; 13J inches high...
ornamented with small bells, 14 inches high, This specimen and Nos. 69 and 7 [ were brought home by the Rev. E. Goodhart, who was chaplain of the forces in the Abyssinian War ". (ABYSSINIA)
0 15 0
... (ABYssINlA)" tOO 71 ( 86 47) Brass coffee pot, lOt inches high... 72 (9S30) Elaborately carved stone idol taken from the Temple of Halabeide, J st inches high ... (SOt:THERN INDIA) 5 5 0 ••• (bmIA) 6 10 0 73 (8843) Gilt bronz.e Buddha, Z31 incbes high (BUDUH) 4 4 0 74 (7993) Carved wood Buddha, 30 inches high
75
Carved white stone Buddha, Z5 inches high
(7994)
(RANGOON)
2 2 0
AFRICA. 76 (83 z6 ) Sword with wood handle and engraved steel blade, full length 231 inches, blade 16t by 4l inches...
...
(CENTRAL AFRICA)
)to 77
( 882 3)
Carved wood mask decorated in black and white, si by 4l inches (NIGER PROTECTORATE)
78
(6S7 8)
Hom snuff bottle, 4i inches high
0
150
(FA..'l - COUNTRY)
076 1 5 0
80 (7181) Wood pillow, 16 inches long, 4 inches high '" (NYA¥-NYAll) 81 (8176) Wood with the bowl lined with metal ,LFFllt.) 8t::.·lS724) Carved wood staff ornamented with a figure, 19 inches long .... -::;
0 12 6 0 7 6 1: 0 0
': mf' (8312) Assegaiwith ,'ii " -, 62
(KAFFUt)
Cross-bow of wood, 46 by 141- inches
79 {8S6S)
.it
o 15
steel head. full length 63incbes, head loi
...
.',
.:. :.:'
10- 0
.-
'}97 )_
2
, - ",
,-
.
(6733)
87
(6329)
leaves. 13t:br -4 inches
Pipe with
...
.c•• ::
.,.
•••
___ . -:_
...
. __
wh-e andiron
•
0 15 0
Sword with broad two-edged blade and brass handle, sheath of leather with engraved metal mounts, full length 38 inches (SoUDAN)
220
•..
•.•
..•
...
inches
90 (8327) Sword with steel blade and ivory handle, fun length zli inches, blade 17i by 31 inches
(8325)
0-
(CO!iGO)
inches lOng
SI {9763} Horn spoon ornamented with iron rings, 9! inches long 8t (8903) Assegai with engraved iron head, full length 641 inches, head 13t
91
- 5
010 0
o 10
0
(CONGO)
1 10 0
Sword with engraved steel blade and 'l';ood handle bound with copper, full length 221 inches, blade Ii by z! inches ... (CONGO)
0 17 6
41 PLATE
IV
CATALOGUE
No.
25. £
lOt inches long
0 4 0
(OLD CALAolIAR)
(BASUTOS)
0 2 0 0 10 0
with wood handle and steel blade, sheath of hide decorated in black, full length 211 inches, blade Ii by Ii inches ... (ANGOLA)
0 15 0
(8177)
Wood pipe,
93
(S6oj)
Wood spoon wIth burnt decoration, 12i inches long
94
(8-129)
BattJe axe with iron head and wood haft, 30t inches long
95
s. d.
(KAFFIR)
92
TAHITI. 96
97
(8528)
Adze with stone head and wood haft, bead 4t by Ii inches
do.
(8530)
91 by 21 indles
do.
810 0 4 10 '0
"'".:
MANGAIA. 98 (942i) Ceremonial adze with stone head and !indy carved wood haft, head 1 by 21 inches, full length zo! inches
. ",-
....
... -
I 1& -0
..."C::' :,,,
61
Ceremor:iaI adze with stone hea.d and finely carved wood haft, head by mches, fulllenglh zd Inches .... ... '" ... "_a
2t
100 (9426) Ceremonial adze with stone head and finely carved wood haft, head 6
518 -0
by 2 inches, full length 28:1 inches
MARQUISAS. 101 (8.H4) Waist band composed of thirty-three white shells bound to a strip of bark with sinnet...
...
..,
...
...
...
...
J Hl _0
..,
i
GREENLAND.
--
-_. 102 (8534) Snow spectacles made of wood t 08 (8S0I) Spear head made of two pieces of bone, 161 inches long 1M (941:,8) ,Bone spear head copper, 6f inches long.::' .. j Oi -c: Barbed groo>ed spear bead;·· tipped
:'
.
. 108
slate
mw:
__
•• :: - .:...
1rith bone bead arid drift 1t'oOdlliaft 1ea.thered--at -, ....
o'llPl. . . . .'
.', . _.:'. "_ 51 inches, length 22 inches - '"
109 (8764) Arrow with bone head and drift wood ·shaft feathered at end, head 5 inches. length 28 inches
.. -
.;.,
o 12 •
...
- ..•
0 6 •
110 (3165) Arrow with bone head and drift wood shaft feathered at end, head 6 inches, length 30i inches
0
6 0
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. 111
(1000)
Kris with carved wood handle and waved steel blade, full length· 18i inches 0 15
112
(8886)
Kris with carved; wood handle and waved steel blade, full length T9 inches. -.
42 PLATE
V
0
0 15 0
I
PLATE
VI
iI
.\FRIC\
PLATE VII
PLATE VIII (Back
Cover)
APPENDIX II CHRONOLOGY OF EXHIBITIONS OF AFRICAN ART IN BRITAIN FROM 1887 TO THE PRESENT DAY
This chronology is compiled from sales and
reviews from various periodicals.
and
exhibition
catalogues
It is difficult to establish the
precise dates of all the exhibitions because in
many
cases
catalogues
were printed in very limited numbers and distributed to selected people. It is difficult to trace such catalogues
were
printed
catalogues,
at all.
whilst
in
other
cases
no
The chronology indicates the rate at
which African sculpture has been exposed
to
public
it, and the continuity of its
in
the
attempt
to
re-evaluate
the
artists
These
exhibitions
the
afforded
and the public a unique opportunity to
artists,
critics
study African art at first modern
British
Some
hand.
of
day.
and
appreciation since the 1880s to the
present
British
the
exhibitions
combined
or European works and African art and these demonstrate
the impact of African sculpture on modern art and reveal the
harmonious
marriage of aesthetic ideas of the two traditions. This chronology is not exhaustive, escape
the
notice
of
the author.
for
a
few
could
The ten years gap between 1909 and
1920 noticed in the chronology indicates that there exhibition
exhibitions
was
of African art in Britain at this period.
apparently
no
This could be due
to the anger and hostilities among the art loving world against the
art
of
the
non-European
traditional
forms,
which
Post-Impressionist Exhibitions of 1910 and 1912. Fry,
Clive
Bell
was
aroused
However, the effort of
and a few critics in promoting this art after the two
exhibitions brought a better understanding of African art. to
manifest
at
by
the
This
began
beginning of the early 1920s when exhibitions of
African art were enthusiastically resumed.
- 247 -
1887. London Colonial Exposition. Imperial Institute, London. All objects of material culture from various regions including African sculpture were exhibited. The exhibition was basically ethnographically oriented. Robert Goldwater pointed out that the works were exhibited in confusion. (See Robert Goldwater, Primitivism in Modern Art. 1938, p. 247) 1898 (June). and Exhibition Ethnographical Specimens Prehistory and Other Antiques, Oxford House, Bicester. Illustrated catalogue was printed and distributed by the dealer W.D. Webster. 1900 (April) Shows and Sales of Ethnographical Specimens from New Zealand, New Ireland, Ceylon, Africa, Tahiti, Mangala, Marquisas, Greenland and Malay Archipelago held by W.D.Webster, at Oxford House, Bicester, Oxon. 1909 (November). Shows and Sales of African Curios and Trophies comprising Binin bronzes, ivory and wood carvings and other artefacts were held at the Great Rooms of Mr.J.C.Stevens, Coventry Gardens, London. The collection of one Dr J.W.Ansorge was also sold by auctions. 1920 (April). Exhibition of Negro Sculpture, Chelsea Book Club, London. It was organised by a French collector (probably Paul Guillaume of Paris) and the works were from the Ivory Coast, Congo, Mali and Guinea. The exhibition was reviewed by Roger Fry, Clive Bell and C.K.Murray and it coincided with the publication of Andre Salmon's article 'Negro Sculpture' in The Burlington Magazine (London) , Vol.36, No.205, April 1920, pp. 164-72. 1921 (June). Exhibition of Negro Sculpture, Goupil Gallery, London. The exhibits were wood carvings from Nigeria, the Congo Basin and the Ivory Coast. Catalogue text by Guillaume Apollinaire. See The Burlington Masgzine (London), Vol.38, No.229, June 1921, p. 150. 1924 (May - August). British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, London. Items included textiles, pottery, metal work, leather work, carvings and other crafts from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and other British Colonies in Africa. Editorial Review, 'Among The Wood-Carvings of Nigeria', The Sphere (London), Vol.XCVIII, No.1278, 19 July 1924, p. 90, 3ills. 1928-29 (October 1928 - January 1929). Modern and African Sculpture, Sidney Burney's Gallery. This exhibition was organised by Leon Underwood and it comprised modern works of British artists and African sculptures. The artists involved were Epstein, Hepworth, Skeaping, Dobson, Underwood and Zadkine. The African sculptures were lent by Fry, Sadler, Burney, Underwood and other collectors. (See Apollo (London), Vol.9, No.49, January 1929, p. 72. - 248 -
1932. Sculpture Considered Apart from Time and Space, Sidney Burney's Gallery, London. The works of Degas, Gaudier-Brzeska, Modigliani, Moore, Hepworth and Underwood were shown alongside works from Mexico, India, China, Egypt, Africa, Persia and New Zealand. African masks and figures were lent by Fry, Sadler, Burney, Underwood and other collectors. 1933 (May). Negro Art, Lefevre Galleries, London. It was a exhibition of African sculpture and textiles. Review: 'Negro Art', The Listener (London), Vol.IX, No.227, 17 769-71, 5ills.
representative Stanley Casson, May 1933, pp.
1935 (19 January - 16 February). Negro Art, Adam'S Gallery, London. The exhibition was arranged in conjunction with the publication of Arts of West Africa (Excluding Music) edited by Michael Sadler. African sculptures, works by living African artists and contemporary British artists influenced by African sculpture were shown. It was reviewed by Frank Rutter under the title of 'African Art in the West End', The Sunday Times, 3 February, 1935, and by Juan Gordon, 'The Influence of Negro Art', The Observer 27 January 1935, pp. 167-8. 1935 (8-28 February).
An Exhibition of East African Art, Imperial
Institute PaVilion, South KenSington, London. The works exhibited comprised paintings, carvings, terra cottas, and textiles by the students of the Makerere College, Uganda. 1935 (March). Exhibition Q! African SculptUre, Adam'S (London), Vol.21, March 1935, p. 169.
Gallery,
London.
See
Apollo
1935 (June - August). The Art of Primitive Peoples, The Burlington Fine Art Club. Contributors were: Henry Balfour Esq., Walter P.Belk Esq., The City Museum and Art Gallery of Birmingham, University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, Cambridge, Frank Carpenter Esq., The Public Library and Museum of Maidstone, W.O.Oldman Esq., The Pitt-Rivers Museum of Oxford, Sir William Reynolds-Stephens, Prof C.G.Saligman and Archibold G.B.Russell Esq. M.V.O. Review: 'The Art of Primitive Peoples', The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.67, No.388, July 1935, p. 42. 1935 (25 November - 14 December). African Art: Binin and Ivories, Knoedler Galleries, London. Bronzes and Ivories from the Old Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria were shown. 1937. African Sculpture, Zwemmer Gallery, London. 1937 (6 July - 20 August). - 249 -
African Art. The exhibition which comprised modern Nigerian carvings, terra cotta, and watercolours was opened by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. (See Africa (London), Vol.10, No.4, 1937, pp.482-4. 1946-47 (11 December - 30 January 1947) Art of Primitive Berkeley Galleries, London. The exhibition was opened by the Right Hon. Lord Hailey GCSI, GCMG. There were 30 works from Africa and Oceania. The Introduction to the catalogue was written by Prof Frans Olbrechts, University of Ghent, an authority in African art. The exhibition was aimed at offering the British public an opportunity to see works of art that had never found their way into museums, and that for generations past had belonged to private collections that were often difficult to gain access to. 1947-48 (1 December 1947 - 31 Januar,y 1948) Art of Primitive Peoples, Berkeley Galleries, Catalogue by William Fagg, 5ills. 1948 (July - September). The Exhibition of Ife Bronzes.
London.
Foreword
of
British Museum, London.
1949 (21 June - 23 July). Exhibition of Nigerian Masks and Headdresses, Zwemmer Gallery, London. Reviewed by K.C.Murray in Man (London), Vol.49, No.147, 1949, pp. 114-115, 1ill. 1949 (21 June - 27 September). Traditional Art of the British Colonies, Royal Anthropological Institute, London. There was a large collection of African artefacts including sculptures. Over 2,500 visitors including distinguished British artists and a large number of British and foreign press attended, (though the reviews are not specific in their references). The purposes of the exhibition were: (i) To put before the public some of the highest manifestations of the artistic genius of Colonial Peoples and to demonstrate that, if they lagged behind the British in material progress and in various other ways, there was still much for the British to learn from them. (ii) To bring anthropology and the work of the Institute to the attention of a wider public. See Man (London), Vol.49, No.145, October 1949, pp. 109, 4ills. 1951 (25 May - 30 September). Traditional Sculptures the Art Gallery of the Imperial Institute, London. At the exhibition Henry Moore and William Fagg saw a Bende Ibo Headdress from Nigeria which greatly interested Moore. According to Fagg this sculpture encouraged Moore to re-explore his own ideas of sculpture in the 1930s. The text of the catalogue was written by Fagg. See Fagg, 'Tribal Sculpture and the Festival of Britain', Man (London), Vol.51, No.124, June 1951, pp. 73-6, 1ill; Henry Moore, 'Tribal Sculpture', Man (London), Vol.51, No.165, June 1951, pp. 95-7; and K.C.Murray, 'Traditional Sculpture from the Colonies', The Magazine (London), Vol.93. No.581, August 1951, pp. 259-61, 5ills.
- 250 -
1952 (7 May - 2 June). Primitive Art at the Manchester Museum, Manchester Museum, Manchester. Introduction and text catalogue were written by A.C.Sewter and Frank Willet. 1953 (September). The Webster Plass Collection Art. A memorial exhibition held in King Edward VII Galleries the British Museum, London. It comprised the collection Mr. Plass and his Philadelphia made between 1945 and 1952. The catalogue text was written by William Fagg. The collection was bequeathed to the British Museum in the same year the death Mr.Plass. 1957. The Institute Contemporary Arts organised an sculpture which consisted metal casting
1957. The County Borough sculpture.
Swansea,
Swansea,
exhibition the Guinea Coast
organised
an
exhibition
1958. Exhibition
Nigerian Pottery, Berkeley Galleries, London.
1959. Sculpture
the Tellem and Dogon, Hanover Gallery, London.
1960 (26 January - 25February). A Small Anthology the Human Figure, Arcade Gallery, London. 1960 (May - July). Epstein's Collection Tribal and Exotic Sculputre, The Gallery, London. About the exhibits were Catalogue introduction by William Fagg, pp. 42, ill. 1960 (November) An Exhibition Commonwealth Art including organised by the Commonwealth SOCiety in the home Carlton Gardens, London.
Arts
Council
sculpture was Lord Bosson in
1962 (24 February - 24 March). An Exhibition Royal Scottish Museum. It organised by the UniverSity Edinburgh. Catalogue, pp. 63, ill.
was
1964. Exhibition Tribal Sculpture New Guinea and Brook Street Gallery, London. Reviewed by Keith Roberts in The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.106, No.730, p. 45. - 251 -
1966 (February). Exhibition of the Ethnographic Collection, Main Exhibition Hall, University Museum, Oxford. Items included African sculptures in wood, terra cotta and bronze. See The Burlington Magazine (London), Vol.103, No.755, February 1966, p. 102. 1966-67 (30 November 1966 - 21 January 1967). Primitive Art From 2500BC, Gimpel Fils, London. The exhibition comprised Anatolian, Cycladic, South Arabian art, Pre-Columbian terra cotta and golds. The African work included Ashanti weights. The rest of the exhibits were Eskimo contemporary carvings, stones, prints and coloured drawings. 1967 (October - November). Tribal Art From Africa, Malanesh and South Ameriga, Gallery Fourty-Three, London. See Studio (London), Vol.174, No.893, October 1967, p. 170. 1967 (May - September). The exhibition of African Art, O'Hana Gallery, London. Masks and figures from Dahomey, Nigeria and from the Baule, Dan, Balumbo, Bini and Bambara tribes were shown. These works were shown alongside a selection of works by the 19th and 20th century masters. These included Cezanne, Dardenne, Degas, Chagall, Jongkind, Maillol, Pissaro, RenOir, Sisley and Vuillard. See Studio (London), Vol.174, No.892. September 1967, p. 118. 1967. West Africa: Court and Tribal Art. The exhibition was organised by the Arts Council of Great Britain and William Fagg. It toured to the following venues: The Arts Council Gallery, London; Cambridge (22 April 13 May); The Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal (20 May - 11 June); The Cliffe Castle Museum, Keighley (17 June - 8 July). Introduction to the Catalogue was by Fagg. 1967-68 (30 November 1967 - 20 January 1968). Magic in Art, Gimpel Fils, London. Paintings by Primitive art including African sculptures were shown. 1968-69. Primitive Art From ZSOO BC London.
5Q
Ivory
Coast
Alan Davie
Masks,
Gimpel
and
Fils,
1969-70 (25 November1969 - 27 February 1970). Makonde Art, Grosvenor Gallery, London. 1970. Divine Kingship in Africa. The Museum of Mankind, London. See William Fagg, Divine Kingship in Africa. British Museum Publications, London, 1970, pp. 64, 35ills.
- 252 -
1970. Upon the Edge of' An Abyss, Gallery Fourty-three, London. 1971 (25 May - 2 July). Fine African Sculpture, Alexander Martin, London. 1973 (21 January - 15 April).
A Still Ecstasy, Walker Gallery, Liverpool. Collectors' Guide 1973, p.
100.
See
Antique
and
1973. Makonde Art, Search Gallery, London. The exhibition was reviewed by C.Burlard in Art Review (London), Vol.25, No.3, 10 February 1973, p. 68, 1i l l . 1973. The Collection of' African art f'ormed by the late Prince William of' Gloucester and presented by the royal Anthropological Institute to the Museum of' Mankind, London was exhibited. 1974 (1 February - 31 May). Masks of' Africa, City of' Exeter Museum and Art Gallery, Exeter. Af'rican masks and royal headdresses in the collection of' the Exeter Museum were exhibited. They dated f'rom 19th century to the 1970s. 1974 (February). Contemporary Makonde Sculpture, The Commonwealth Art Gallery, London. The exhibition was reviewed by C.Burland in Arts Review (London), Vol.26, No.3, 8 February 1974, p.58. 1974 (May - August). Traditional Tribal Sculpture, Arcade Gallery, London. Of' the 105 Nigerian sculptures displayed more than half were wood carvings and were datable between 1830 and 1940. The exhibition was reviewed by Keith Robert in The Burlington Magazine (London), Vo1.116, No.857, May 1974, p. 287; and by J.B.Donne in Connoisseur (London), Vo1.186, No.750, August 1974, pp.12-13, 6i11s. 1974 (October - November). Masks and Figures. Arcade Gallery, London.
Catalogue, pp., 8i11s.
1974 (August - December). See The Yoruba Religious Cult, Museum of Mankind, London. Magazine (London), Vol.116, No.857, August 1974, p. 487. 1975 (10 July - 30 September). African Fine Art Then and Now: Tribal Sculpture and ContempQI'lU'Y Art, The Royal Commonwealth SOCiety Hall, London. The exhibition was organised by the Trustees of' African Fine Art Gallery. In addition - 253 -
there were many traditional and contemporary African works on sale at 'very reasonable prices'. The invitation card reproduces a photograph of a wooden male figure from Dogon, Mali, with the following words by William Fagg: One is tempted to think that the Colossus of Rhodes looked something like this.
may
have
1975 (November). Shona Sculpture, Anthropos Gallery, London. The exhibition was reviewed by C.Burland in Art Review (London), Vol.27, No.24, 28 November 1975, p. 688. 1976 (13-28 January). Exhibition of Joseph Herman Drawings, Paintings and Negro Primitive art from his own Collection. The exhibition was held at the Department of Fine Art, West Surrey College of Art and Design, Surrey. 1976 (March - May). African Tribal Sculpture, Arcade Gallery, London. 1976 (April). The Art of the Hausa, Commonwealth Institute, London. (London), Vol.191, No.770, April 1976, p. 322.
See
Connoisseur
1978 (August - October). African Tribal Sculpture, Arcade Gallery, London. introduction was written by David Attenborough.
The
catalogue
1981 (13 January - 5 April). Art From Africa, Commonwealth Institute London, and presented by the visiting Arts Unit of Great Britain. The exhibition was assembled for the first Festival of World Cultures, Horizons, Berlin, in the summer of 1979, following which it toured to Bremen, Stockholm, Erlangen, Amsterdam and Frankfurt. The London show was the last one before the exhibition was dispersed. It was a mammoth survey of a contemporary African art. 1981. An Exhibition of Baule Sculpture, The Arcade Gallery (The Royal Arcade), London. Catalogue, pp.67, 97ills. 1982-83 (30 October 1982 - 23 January 1983). Treasures of Ancient Nigeria, Royal Academy of Art, London, The exhibition was sponsored by Mobil and it was reviewed by David Thompson, 'Treasures of Ancient Nigeria:An African Legacy', Studio International (London), Vol.196, No.998, January 1983, pp. 44-5, 3ills. 1984 (4 August - 9 September). Into The Mappin Art Gallery, - 254 -
Sheffield.
(London), August 1984, p.
- 255 -
47 and September 1984, p.
47.
APPENDIX III MUSEUMS AND GALLERIES WITH AFRICAN COLLECTIONS IN BRITAIN The list below is based upon an unpublished register of Ethnographic Collections in museums in the United Kingdom, compiled in 1980 by the Museum ethnographers' Group through a preliminary survey. The Group's list is not complete and comprehensive for there are still more museums to be covered. The Register indicates about 188 museums and galleries with African collections with items ranging from 1 to a few thousands. The list below is limited to museums and galleries with over 100 items from Africa which include wood sculptures and other artefacts. Art Gallery and Museum Services, Cheltenham
198
Bexhill Museum
100
Birmingham City Museum and Art Gallery, Pinto Collection, Birmingham
700
Bradford Metropolitan D.C. Arts And Museum Division, Bradford
200
Central Museum and Gallery, Manchester
820
City Museum and Art Gallery, Bristol
3,205
Clifton Park Museum and Gallery, Rotherham
100
Castle Musem, Norwich
100
Darlington Museum, Darlington
100
Department of Anthropology, University College of London, London
600
Dorman Museum, Middlesbrough
110
Gray Art Gallery and Museum, Cleveland
100
Hertford Museum, Hertford
100
Horniman Museum and Library, London Horsham Museum, Horsham Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool
6,650 100 7,400
McLean Museum and Art Gallery, Greenock
200
Montrose Museum, Montrose
187
Museum of London, London
100
Museum and Art Gallery, Kilmarnock
500
- 256 -
Museum Services, Poole
130
Nuneaton Museum and Gallery, Nuneaton,
102
Perth Museum and Art Gallery, Perth
100
Reading Museum and Art Gallery, Reading
176
Rhodes Memorial Museum and Commonwealth Centre, Herts
200
Rossendale Museum, Rossendale
192
Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter
5,000
Royal Pavilion Art Gallery and Museums, Brighton
2,670
Sainsbury Centre for The Visual Arts, University of East Anglia, Norwich
103
Sheffield City Museum, Sheffield
500
Stirling Smith Art Gallery and Museum, Stirling
537
The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
800
The Castle Museum, Nottingham
350
The George Brown Collection, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne The George Museum, Bath The Hunterian Museum, Glasgow The Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, Manchester
3,100 400
1,080 500
The Museum, Ipswich
2,200
The Museum of Mankind, London
77,000
The Museum, Saffron Walden The Powell Cotton Museum, Birchinton
850 17,000
The University of Birmingham, Centre for West African Studies Birmingham
500
Torquay National Historic Museum, Torbay
155
Townsley Hall Art Gallery and Museum, Burley
150
Ulster Museum, Northern Ireland
1,716
University Museum of Archeology and Anthropology, Cambridge
11,500
- 257 -
Wallace Collection, London
351
Wednesbury Ary Gallery, Wednesbury
140
Wigan Museum, Wigan
202
Winchester City Museums, Winchester
106
Wisbech and Fenland Museum, Wisbech
270
Woods pring Museum, Western Super Mare
130
I
- 258 -
I.
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and
Influence
On Modern
Art.
Its
'Negro Art', The Arts (London),
- 276 -
Styles' ,
A Biography.
de ZAYAS, Marius. Negro Africasn Art: Museum of Modern Art, New York. 1916. de ZAYAS, Marius. pp. 199-205.
African
African Arts
WINGERT, Paul S. 'African Masks: Structure, Expression, African Arts (Los Angeles), Vol.6, No.2, 1973, pp. 56-64, 84. Roger
Oxford
Columbia University
WINGERT, Paul S. 'Style Analysis in African Sculpture', (Los Angeles), Vol.5, No.4, 1972, pp. 56-62.
WOOLF, Virginia. 1940.
Man
Press,
Vol.3,
No.6,
London.
1923.
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MAP 1
AF RICAN
WHERE
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF
WOOD
SCULPTURES
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THE
SAHARA
PRODUCED
\.
. <\ "
D
o MAP2
CONCAVE
FACE
CONVEX
FACE
REGIONAL
DISTRIBUTION OF
CONVEX
AND
CONCAVE
FACES
B;> P3 76
&4
81
B$
111
til;
- ,8a 89
MAP3
POSITIONS
OF
TRIB[S
ME NlIOHD
Iii
TH[
THE SIS
Key to Y.I8p 3 Afo Akan Anyi Ashanti Atye Azande Babembe Babuye Bafum Baga Baganda Bagirmi Bajokwe Bakete Bakongo Bakota Bakuba Bakwele Balega Baluba Balumbo Balunda Balwahra Balwena Bambale Bambara B&mbole Bamileke
36 19 18 20 17
57 68 93 48 4 99 105 89 96 70 64 85 61 95 92 66 90
88
67 84 23 77 53
Barnum 52 Bangloie 50 Bakuna 78 Bapende 81 Bapere 98 Bapuni 65 Barotse 107 Basongye 91 Basuku 83 Bateke 69 Baule 16 re-II'?-Yo 73 Bayaka 82 reyanzi 79 Benin 33 Beiri 63 :Sene l(ani eka 87 Bene Lulua 86 Bete 14 Bijugo 1 Bobo 25 Bomu 74 ChCiWba 47 Dan 11 10 De 26 D0';;: on Duala 54
Ekoi Ewe Fang Fon Guro Ibibio Ibo Idom Ife Ijo Junkun Kikiyu Kisi Kru Kurumba Kuyu Kwangwa Landuman Lobi Lozi !>:akonci.e !-:alinke Y.blLa !-:angbetu Kbuun 1-:ende
Eb ti
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42
43 34 56 29 15 39 38 37 32 41 45 100 8 13 28 71 106 3 24 i 10 102 22 60 75 49 7 27 51
Ngbaka Ngere l\koli Nula Nupe Ogoni Oron Ossyeba Ovambo Ovimbundu Pangwe Popo Sakalave Sen ufo Sberbo Swazi Temne Tiv Toma Uganbi y,'abeZllbe \',"atussi 'riazaramo Yangere Yaude Yor.l.ba Zulu
76 12 11 1 2 35 40 46 72 104 80 62 30 103 21 5 108 6 44 9 55 94 97 101 58 59 31 109
Numbers refer
to
Fac _
Type ..
MAP4
DISTRIBUTION
OF CONCAVE
FACES
(back) (front) FIG.1.1. Female Figure, Baluba, Zaire. British Museum, London.
t
,
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,t
.. 57
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.33
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FIG.1.2. A Diagram of Formal Analysis of African Wood Sculpture.
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FIG.1.3.
=1
4.10
3.5'10
Stages of Carving Showing Examples of Proportions.
A
FIG.1.4A.
B
Female Figure, Kulango, Ivory Coast. Private Collection, New York. FIG.1.4B. Mbuun, Zaire. Private Collection, Berkeley.
A
c
B
I D
E
G
FIG .1. 5 HEAD TYPES
F
H
BAULE
\
TYPE 1
T'fPE I
TYPE 1
BAKWELE MASK
FANG MASK
MASK
\'
SENUFO
TYPE 4
TYPE 3
TYPE 2
BALEGA
FIGURE
TYPE 5 6ALEGA FIG URE
FIG.1.6
BAULE
FIGURE
MASK
TYPE 6 TOMA
MASK
TYPES OF CONCAVE FACES
i
I
FIG.1.7.
FIG.1.8.
Two Masks with heart-shapes Ending in Upper and Lower Lips respectively. British Museum, London.
Headdress, Bamum, Cameroon. Private Collection, Paris.
FIG.l.9. Ndop, Bakuba, Zaire. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.10. Standing Male Figure, Basongye, Zaire. British Museum, London.
Female Figure, Dogon, Mali. Musee de L'Homme, Paris.
(front
side)
FIG.1.12. Female Figure, Mende, Sierra Leone. British Museum, London.
TYPE B
TYPE A
Cl
B2
Bl
A2
Al
C4
C3
C2 TYPE C
o
El
TYPE 0
Fl
G2
Gl
F2 TYPE
E3
E2 TYPE E
TYPE
F FIG.l.13.
EYE TYPES
G
I
A
B
c
D
E
F
FIG.1.14
NOSE TYPES
\
I
A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
FIG.1.1S MOUTH TYPES
B
A
o
G
E
H
J
FIG.1.16. EAR TYPES
c
F
FIG.1.17.
Male Figure, Bajokwe. British Museum, London.
A
B
c
o
E
F
G
H
I
FIG.1.18
BREAST TYPES
A
c FIG.1.19.
B
D
Types of Male Sexual Organs in African sculpture.
FIG.1.20.
Female Figure, Baluba, Zaire. Private Collection, London.
i
FIG.1.21.
Female Figure, Azande, Central African republic. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.22. Ritual Female Figure, Balwena, Congo. Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgium.
I
I
FIG.1.23. Woman on Horseback Carrying a Bowl, Fang, Gabon. British Museum, London.
I
B
FIG.1.24A. Human Figure, Bakete, Congo. British Museum, London. FIG.1.24B. Fetish Figure, Bakete, Congo. British Museum, London. FIG.1.24C. Fetish Figure, Bakete, Congo. British Museum, London.
-_
FIG.1.25.
..
Dancing royal Couple, Bangwe, Cameroon. Private collection, Los Angeles.
FIG.1.26. Akuaba, Ashanti, Ghana. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.28.
FIG.1.27. Reliquary Figure, British Museum, London.
(front side) Two Ikenga, Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.29. - Mask, Senufo, Ivory Coast. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.30.
Throne, Bam i1 e ke
• British Museum, London.
FIG.1.31.
(front) (side) Epa Mask, Yoruba, Nigeria. Private Collection, London.
I
I
!
I
FIG.1.32. Mask, Ogoni, Yoruba. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.33. Human Figure, Wazaramo, Tanzania. Museum fUr Volkerkunde, Berlin.
FIG. \. 3'+
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wo-vo.
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FIG.1.36. Milkpot, Swazi, Namibia. Private Collection, London.
FIG.1.37A. Headrest, Bambala, Mali. British Museum, London.
FIG.1.37B. Stool, Ashanti, Ghana. British Museum, London.
(Front)
( Back)
FIG.1.38. Doll, Bagirmi, Chad. Private collection, Paris.
FIG.2.1. Sanctuary Shutter, Dogon, Mali. Private Collection, Cannes.
FIG.2.2.
(front) (back) Mythical Ancestors, Dogon, Mali. Rietberg Museum, Zurich.
FIG.2.3. Sbango Sacred Staff, Nigeria. Ipswich Museum, Ipswich.
FIG.2.4.
Chi wara Headdress, Bambara Mali.
FIG.2.5. Two Masked Dancers with Male and Female Chi wara Headdresses, Bambara, Mali.
FIG.2.6.
Deble (Ryhthm Pounder), Senufo, Ivory Coast. Private Collection, Paris.
(front)
FIG.2.7A.
(side) Odudua (Fertility goddess), Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
(front)
FIG.2.7B.
Odudua (Fertility goddess), Horniman Museum, London.
APo
(side) Nigeria.
!
FIG.2.8. Nimba Baga, Guinea. British Museum, London.
I
FIG.2.9. Nimba Figure, Baga, Guinea. Rietberg Museum, Zurich.
FIG,2.10. Bundu Mask, Bundu, Sierra Leone. British Museum, London.
FIG.2.12. Bowl, Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London. FIG.2.11. Starr, Bundu, Sierra Leone. University Museum, Philadelphia.
i
B
A
c
FIG.2.13.
TypeS
of Fetish Figures.
I
FIG.2.14A. Gelede Mask, Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
FIG.2.15.
FIG.2.14B. Egungu Mask, Yoruba, Btenstrauch-Joest Museum Cologne.
Kneeling Female Figure, Baluba, Zaire. British Museum, London.
___ IL,.;;..-
_.or-
FIG.2.16. Ibeji Figures, Yoruba, Nigeria. British museum, London.
A
B
c FIG.2.17.
o
A Bowl and Lids with Animal and Human Forms. Bawango, Congo.
!
FIG.2.18.
Types of Bakuba Wodden Cups.
I
I
I
I
FIG.2.19.
Grave Post, Sakal ave , Madagascar. Musee de 1 t Hamne, Paris.
B
A
c
D
FIG.2.20.
E
Types of' African Carved Drums.
!
FIG.2.21. Door Frame, Bamileke, Cameroon. British Museum, London.
I
A
D Sculptures Showing Tattoo, Scarification and Cicatrices.
c
FIG.2.22.
B I
I
!
FIG.3.1.
I
Equestrian, Yoruba, Nigeria. Britsh Museum.
" I
(front) FIG.3.2.
(side) (back) Stool, Baluba, Zaire. British Museum.
1·
FIG.3.3.
Spirit Head, Fang, Gabon. FIG.3.4. Henri Matisse, Girl with Green Eye, 1909. San Francesco Museum of Art, San Franceso.
FIG.3.5.
Pablo Picasso, Head of a Woman, 1909. Museum of Modern Art, New York.
FIG.3.6. Pablo Picasso, Head and Shoulder of a Woman, 1909. Gallerie Beyer, Basel.
FIG.3.7.
Pablo Picasso, Buffalo Bill, 1912. Present collection unknown.
(front) (back) FIG.3.8. Henri Matisse, La Serpentine, 1912. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.
FIG.3.9. Seated Ancestor Figure, Dogon, Mali. Formerly Matisse Collection now in Private Collection.
FIG.3.10.
Duncan Grant, Queen of Sheba, 1912. Tate Gallery, London.
FIG.3.11. Pablo Picasso, Head of a man, 1909. Private Collection, Paris.
Ducan Grant, Dancing Couple, 1912. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. FIG.3. 12 •
FIG.3.13. Pablo Picasso, Nude with raised Arms, 1907. Thyseen-Bornemizza Collection, Lugano, Switzerland.
FIG.3.14. Pablo Picasso, Nude with Drapery, 1907. Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.
FIG.3.15. Ducant Grant, Head of Eve, 1913. David Garnet Collection, London.
FIG.3.16. Duncan Grant, Adam and Eve, 1913. Damaged in the Tate Gallery flooding in 1928.
FIG.3.17. Pablo Picasso, African Head, 1907. Claude Picasso Collection, Paris.
FIG.3.18. Pablo Picasso, African Head, 1907. Claude Picasso Collection, Paris.
FIG.3.19. Duncan Grant , The Tub, 1912. Tate Gallery, London.
FIG.3.20. African sculpture in Matisse's collection in his appartment at Hotel Regina, Nice.
,
I
FIG.3.21A. Wyndham Lewis, Design for Drop-Curtain, 1912. Theatre Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
FIG.3.21B.
Wyndham Lewis, Indian Dance, 1912. Tate Gallery, London.
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FIG.3.22. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Marquetry Try, 1913. Charles L.Strong Collection, London.
FIG.3.23. Pablo Picasso, Dryad, 1908. Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.
FIG.3.24. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Bird Bath (two views), 1913. Mercury Gallery, London.
FIG.3.25. with Monkey Hair, Dan, Liberia. British Museum, London.
FIG.3.26. Roger Fry, Mother and Children, 1913. Private Collection, London.
FIG.3.27. Boger Fry, Marquetry cupboarb, 1915-16. Private Collection, London.
FIG.3.28.
Roger Fry, Essay in Abstract Design, 1914. Tate Gallery, London.
FIG.3.29. Roger Fry, Tennis Players, c1914. Private Collection, London.
FIG.3.30. Roger Fry, Reclining Nude, c1914. (Whereabout of original is unknwon).
FIG.3.31. Wyndham Levis, Circus Scene, 1913. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
FIG.3.32.
Wyndham Lewis, Omega Workshops Letter Head, 1913. Private Collection, London.
FIG.3.33. Wyndham Lewis, Theatre Manager, 1909. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
FIG.3.34.
N1mba Headdress,
Bags, Guinea.
Rietberg Museum, Zurioh.
FIG.3.35. Wyndham Lewis, Fire Plcae, 1913-14. Private Collection, London.
FIG.3.36.
FIG.3.37.
Duncan Grant, Decorated Omega Plates, c1914. Private Collection, London.
Pablo Picasso, Standing Nude and a Foot, 1909. Musee Picasso, Paris.
FIG.3.38A. Frederick Etchells, Head, 1914. (Lost).
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r
FIG.3.38B. Frederick Etchells, Head, 1914. (Lost).
FIG.3.39. Mask, Ulvira, Zaire. Courtauld Institute Galleries, London.
/ FIG.4.1.
Wyndham Lewis, Three Figures (Ballet Scene), 1919-20. Private Collection, London.
FIG.5.1. Adrian Allinson, Mr Epstein doutbing the authenticity of a South Sea Idol, 1914. Reproduced in Colour (London), November 1914, p. 142.
(front) FIG.5.2.
(side) "Brummer Head", Fang, Gabon. Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection.
FIG.5.3. Jacob Epstein, Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1912. Pere Lachaise Ceme try , Paris.
FIG.5.4. Jacob Epstein, Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1912. (detail).
FIG.5.5. Winged Man-Headed Lion, Assyrian, 880-860 BC. British Museum, London.
,.
I
FIG.5.6.
Jacob Epstein, Sketch for the Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1910. Anthony d'Offay Gallery, London.
,. -
FIG.5.7.
Jacob Epstein, Sketch for the Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1911. Simon Wilson Collection, London.
FIG.5.8. Jacob Epstein, Study for Girl with Dove, 1906. Walsall Museum and Gallery, Walsall.
FIG.5.9. Jacob Epstein, Head, 1910. Private Collection, London.
FIG.5.10. Jacob Epstien, African Carving, c1908-10. Courtauld Institute of Art, London.
FIG.5.11. Jacob Epstein, Crouching Sun Goddess, 1910. Nottingham Castle Huseum, Nottingham.
FIG.5.12. Jacob Epstein, SufI ower , 1910. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne.
FIG.5.13. Head, Fang, Gabon. Jacob Epstein Collection now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
,
I
I
(front)
(side)
(back)
FIG.5.14. Jacob Epstein, Ymternity, 1910. Henry Moore Centre for the Study of Sculpture, Leeds.
FIG.5.15. Ritual Bowl, Fon Dahomey. British Museum, London.
FIG.5.16. Jacob Epstien, Cursed Be The Day Wherein I Was Born, 1912. CLost).
,
J.
_/ FIG.5.17. Amedio Modigliani, Caryatid, 1913. Walsall Museum and Gallery, Walsall.
FIG.5.18.
Analytical Study of Modigliani's Caryatid of 1913.
FIG.5.19.
Jacob Epstein, A Nude Figure, 1913. Epstein Estate, London.
FIG.5.20. Constantin Brancusi, First Step, 1913. Destroyed by the artist in 1914 except the head.
FIG.5.21.
A Male Figure, Bambara, Mal i. Mua'e de l'Homme, Paris.
•
(front)
(back)
FIG.5.22. Jacob Epstein, Mother and Child, 1913. Museum of Modern Art, New York.
FIG.5.23. Reliquary Head, Fang, Babon. For'merly Jacob Epstein Collection now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
,
FIG.5.24.
Jacob Epstein, First Venus with Doves, 1913. Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore.
!
(side)
(front)
FIG.5.25. Jacob Epstein, Second Venus with Doves, 1914. Yale Gallery, Yale.
I
FIG.5.26. Seated Figure, Dogon, Mali. Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
FIG.5.26.
Detail.
FIG.5.27.
Jacob Epstein, Drawing for Birth, 1913. (Lost).
FIG.5.28. Jacob Epstein, Birth, 1913. Art of Ontario, Toronto.
,
FIG.5.29.
Jacob Epstein, Study for Man and Woman, 1913. British Museum, London.
FIG.5.30. Funerary Post, Sakalave, Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection.
FIG.5.31.
Jacob Epstien, Totem, 1913. Tate Gallery, London.
FIG.5.32.
Jacob Epstein, Study for rock Drill, 1913. Anthony d'Offay Gallery, London.
FIG.5.33. Baule, leory Coast. Formerly Paul Guillaume Collection, Paris.
FIG.5.34. Mask, Baule, Ivory Coast. Formerly Paul Guillaume Collection, Paris.
r
FIG.5.35.
Jacob Epstein, Study for Rock Drill (back views) 1913. (A) Anthony d'Offay Gallery London. (B) Lost.
FIG.5.36. Jacob Epstein, Study for Rock Drill (front views), 1913. (A) Tate Gallery, London. (B) Walsall Museum and Gallery, Walsall.
FIG.5.37. Jacob Epstein, Rock Drill, 1914. A construction after the lost original, Birmingham Museums and Gallery, Birmingham.
(front)
(side)
FIG.5.38.
Jacob Epstein, Genesis, 1930. Gr'anada Television L::IJDited, London.
FIG.5.39. Seated Female Figure, Dogon, Mali. Albert Barnes Collection, New York.
FIG.5.40. Yale Figure, Baule, Ivory Coast. Albert Barnes Collection, New York.
FIG.5.41A. Jacob Epstein, Study for Genesis, 1929. Private Collection. London.
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FIG.5.41B. Jacob Epstein, Study for Genesis, 1929. Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery, Birmingham.
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FIG.5.42. Mask, Dan-Ngere, Liberia. Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection.
FIG.5.43. Female Figure, Bakota, Zaire. Formerly Jacob Epstein Collection.
B(back)
A(front)
C(side)
FIG.6.1.
Divination Bowl, Yoruba, Nigeria. Bristol Museum, Bristol.
FIG.6.2.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Ornament Mask. 1912. du Petit Palais, Geneva.
OSCAR 'tV I LDE
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FIG.6.3. Renr-i Gaudier-Brzeska, A Letter from Gaudier-Brzeska with a Sketch of Epstein's Tomb of Oscar Wilde, 1912. Private Collection.
FIG.6.4.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Head of a Young Man, 1912. Stadt Bielefeld, Germany.
A(front)
C(back)
FIG.6.5.
B(side)
D(side)
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Redstone Dancer, 1913. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.6.
Fertility Doll, Bambala, Congo. British Museum, London.
FIG.6.7. Mask, Bapende, Congo. British Museum, London.
FIG.6.8. /Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Study for Redstone Dancer, 1913. Musee d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges, Pompidou, Paris.
FIG.6.9. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Portrait of My Fatber, 1910. ,. Husee des Baeux Arts, Orleans.
FIG.6.10. Auguste Rodin, Man with Broken Nose, 1864. Rodin Museum, Paris.
FIG.6.11.
A(fr-ont)
FIG.6.12.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Imp (two views), 1914. Tate Gallery, London.
C(back) B(side) Female Figure, Bambala, Congo. British Museum, London.
FIG.6.13. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Drawing of Imp, 1914. The St.Louis Art Museum, St.Louis.
A
FIG.6.14. Doll, Baule, Ivory Coast. British Museum, London.
B
FIG.6.15. Henri Self Portrait with Pipe, 1913. Kettle's Yard, Univer-si ty of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.16. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Three Women, 1913. Private Collection, London.
!
FIG.6.17. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Woman with Dog, 1913. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.18. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Vase, 1913-14. Ezra Pound Collection, Brunnenburg.
FIG.6.19. Snuff Mortar, Bambala Congo. British Museum, London.
I
A
B
c
FIG.6.20. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska Garden Ornament 2, 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
A
FIG.6.21.
B
c
Chief's Stool, Baluba, Zaire. British Museum, London.
o
c
E
.. 1
F
•
I
•
I
G
FIG.6.22. The Possible Process of Development of Gaudier-Brzeska's Garden Ornament 2 of 1914 by Author of this Thesis.
FIG.5.23. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Garden Ornament 3, 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
r I
FIG.6.24. Henri Gaudeir-Brzeska, Men with Bowl (two views) 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.25. Kneeling Woman with Bowl. British Museum, London.
FIG.6.26A. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Design for A Door-Knocker, 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Camdridge.
FIG.6.26B. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Design for A Door-Koncker, 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.27. Henri Gaudeir-Brzeska, Door-Knocker, 1914. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
FIG.6.28.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Couple, c1914. (Lost)
\',
FIG.6.29.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Female Figure, 1914. Private Collection, London.
FIG.6.30.
(front)
(side)
(side)
(back)
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Hieratic Head of Ezra Pound, 1914. Private Collection, London.
(front)
(back)
FIG.6.31.
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Ymternity, 1913. Musee d'Art Moderne, Paris.
A(Side)
C(Side)
B(Front)
D(Back)
FIG.6.32. Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Charity, 19'14. Kettle's Yard, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
(front) FIG.6.33.
(back)
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Carved Toothbrush Handle, 1914. B.A.Beven Collection, London.
FIG.6.34. Ivory Baton, Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
FIG.6.35. Fetish Staves, Yoruba, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
A
B
c
FIG.7.1.
Seated Female Figure, Baule, Ivory Coast. Formerly Paul Guillaume Collection, Paris.
FIG.7.2. Henry Moore, Head of the Virgin (after Virgin and Child by Dominic Rosselli in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London), 1922-23. Ramon Coxon Collection, London.
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FIG.7.3. Henry Moore, Studies for Reclining Figure (page 39 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham.
FIG.7.4.
Mask, Baule, Ivory Coast.
Br'itish Museum, London.
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FIG.7.S. Henry Moore, Ideas from Negro Sculpture (page 102 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham.
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FIG.1.6. Henry Moore, Sketches of African and Oceanic Sculptures (page 103 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. Henry Moore Foundation Much Hadham.
FIG.1.7.
Standing
Figure, Junkun, Nigeria. British Museum. London.
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FIG.7.8.
Henry Moore, Sketches of Negro Sculpture (page 105 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham.
FIG.7.9.
Standing Female Figure, Mumuye, Nigeria. British Museum, London.
FIG.7.10.
Head, Baga, Guinea. British Museum, London.
FIG.7.11. Henry Moore, Head (page 126 No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham.
FIG.7.12. Henry Moore, Drawings of African and Inca Sculptures (page 120 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Mqore Foundation, Much Hadham.
FIG.7.13.
Negro Head, Ubangi, Central African Republic. Private Collection, New York.
FIG.7.14. Henry Moore, Sketches of Standing Figures (page 143 from No.3 Notebook), 1922-24. The Henry Foundation, Much Hadham.
I
I I... FIG.7.15.
3,;'..
Henry Moore, Studies of African and Eskimo Sculptures, 1931. Private Collection.
FIG.7.16. Henry Moore, Girl, 1932. Private Collection.
FIG.7.17.
FIG.7.18.
Stone Figurines, Nkole, Zimbabwe. British Museum, London.
Henry Moore, Bead of a Girl, 1922.
City Art Galleries, l1anchester.
FIG.7.19. Henry Moore, Standing Woman, 1923. City Art Galleries, Manchester.
FIG.7.20.
Henry Moore, Caryatid, 1924. Private Collection.
FIG.7.21. Henry Moore, Torso (two views), 1927. Marboruogh Fine Art Gallery, New York.
FIG.7.22.
Pipe-bowl in Human Form, Azande, Sudan. British Museum.
FIG.7.23.
Henry Moore, Mother and Cild, 1922. Private Collection.
FIG.7.24. Henry Moore, Maternity, 1924. Leeds City Art Galleries, Leeds.