MARCH 2026
Issue Nº 24
OF FERTILE BROILER
BREEDER EGGS Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondon
p. 18 Hy-Line International Celebrates 90 Years!
Our Roots Run Deep. Our Foundations are Strong.
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INNOVATIONS AND CHALLENGES IN POULTRY HEALTH, PROCESSING, AND SUSTAINABILITY
T
his edition of AviNews International underscores the importance of Process Control in poultry production. Inspired by Toyota’s managerial approach, the article highlights how attention to micro-details ensures quality and yield in daily processing. Success depends on the ability to detect special situations, integrate them into operational decision-making, and act swiftly to maintain efficiency and consistency across every stage Eduardo Cervantes López tells us about The Ishikawa Diagram, also known as the fishbone diagram, a management tool designed to identify the root causes of problems in a structured way. By grouping immediate or direct causes into six categories—the “six M’s”— this method ensures a rigorous analysis of the central issue. For this March edition, Dr. Edgar Oviedo returns with an article entitled Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs, in which he tells us that eggshells naturally contain a mixed microorganism community or microbiota with bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mycoplasma, and even viruses originating from the hen’s cloaca and reproductive tract. In Setting the Global Standard for Soy, Soy Connext 2025 gathered over 700 industry leaders in Washington, D.C., to advance sustainable soy. Hosted by USSEC, the event showcased innovations from climate-smart farming to aquaculture, reinforcing U.S. Soy’s role in global food security and resilient trade.
Rasel Ahmed, Incubation Specialist, explains in his article Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking that in modern commercial hatcheries, incubation management is not only limited to controlling the machine’s air temperature but also focuses on the biological temperature of the embryo itself. Abongile Balarane, CEO Egg Organisation of South African Poultry Association (SAPA), instructs us about The Reality of the South African Egg Industry. On the other hand, Dr. Oviedo provided us with a Mycoplasmosis update, wich remains of great clinical and economic importance in the poultry industry worldwide. In the article Future Flock: Antibiotic-Free Solutions for a Rising Population, of the doctors Faran Hameed and Ahmad Safi, we learn that the poultry industry’s historical reliance on antibiotics as a quick fix for disease prevention and growth promotion is now unraveling. What once revolutionized farming is evolving into a profound threat through antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Closing the March edition, we have an interesting and informative Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser, a researcher in food security from the Poultry Science Department at Auburn University.
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1 aviNews International March 2026
CONTENTS 04
Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
18
Eduardo Cervantes López
Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón
International Consulting - Productive and Innovative Management in Poultry Processing, Barranquilla, Colombia.
Process control focuses attention on the details and/ or micro-details that affect the quality and yield of the chickens processed daily.
10
Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing Eduardo Cervantes López International Consulting - Productive and Innovative Management in Poultry Processing, Barranquilla, Colombia.
The Ishikawa diagram (also called fishbone diagram) is a type of Mind Map, in which the immediate or direct causes of the Central Problem are grouped into six (6) categories, called the six “M’s”.
2 aviNews International March 2026
Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC Egg disinfection in many countries still relies on formaldehyde, but there is a clear trend toward alternative methods and chemical products.
26
Setting the Global Standard for Soy Isa Tan
aviNews Asia
Soy Connext 2025 convened over 700 soybean suppliers and customers in Washington DC in August to shape the future of sustainable soy.
34
Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
Precision Matters: Tackling
60 Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
Kévin Gandon1, Pascal Paulet2, & Jaime Sarabia3
Rasel Ahmed
Marketing & Technical Specialist. Digital & Smart Solutions Accelerator at Ceva Santé Animale 2 Poultry Corporate Marketing Director at Ceva Santé Animale 3 Poultry Global Corporate Veterinary Services Manager at Ceva Santé Animale 1
Incubation Specialist
One of the most reliable and practical indicators of embryo health and metabolic activity during incubation is the eggshell temperature.
40
The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
Vaccinating pullets is fundamental to safeguarding layer and broilerbreeder flocks during rearing. Accurate immunization supports consistent egg output and fosters a uniform, high level of maternally derived antibodies in breeders throughout the production cycle.
Abongile Balarane
CEO Egg Organisation of South African Poultry Association (SAPA) Executive Board Member of World Egg Organisation
66
Dr Faran Hameed1 & Dr Ahmad Safi2
The South African egg industry is fragmented, with a few major players and several small and medium-sized producers.
46
Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
Future Flock: AntibioticFree Solutions for a Rising Population
Senior Consultant (Animal Production & Feed Business) 2 Technical Marketing Manager (SAFA Agrifood Marketing) 1
The poultry industry’s historical reliance on antibiotics as a quick fix for disease prevention and growth promotion is now unraveling. What once revolutionized farming is evolving into a profound threat through antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC Avian mycoplasmosis remains of great clinical and economic importance in the poultry industry worldwide and can cause significant economic losses.
76
Interview Dr. Nivin Nasser
Dr. Nivin Nasser
Post-doctoral fellow, Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
On the second day of the International Production and Processing Exhibition held in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, the aviNews International team had the opportunity to speak with Dr. Nivin Nasser from the Poultry Science Department at Auburn University.
3 aviNews International March 2026
PROCESS CONTROL:
Processing
30 SPECIFIC ASPECTS TO EVALUATE FROM PRE-SLAUGHTER TO SLAUGHTER Eduardo Cervantes López International Consulting - Productive and Innovative Management in Poultry Processing, Barranquilla, Colombia.
P
rocess control focuses attention on the details and/ or micro-details that affect the quality and yield of the chickens processed daily. Process control is a managerial concept used by Toyota.
The purpose of this article is to relate the most important aspects in each of these stages, in order to keep all the variables that govern them under control. Those who carry out this activity must develop the ability to visualize special situations, which should be kept in mind in the mental map of each operation and, when detected, should go directly to the point.
4 aviNews International March 2026 | Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
PRE-SLAUGHTER Caged by the legs Cages are part of the enclosures. The workers take the chickens by the legs, walk a little, and place them perpendicularly into the cages, taking two precautions: No part of the body touches the perimeter area where the lid is held.
Truck loading If the cages are filled inside the sheds, once the loading is completed, they are moved manually and/or automatically. The stacks are connected to each other, like train cars pulled by a winch operated by remote control, leaving them near a reversible conveyor that lifts them onto the platform.
Processing
In that place there are two groups of two operators, who place the stacks on special carts until reaching the height of 8 or 9 cages. Once completed, they are taken to the site next to the cabin where their The place where they are placed in the
organization begins.
cage is unoccupied. Collectors catch the birds and walk with them, keeping their arms straight and without moving them, a distance greater than 20 meters on some occasions, to where the trucks are parked. The cages are next to the platform, which, once weighed, are loaded: manually and/or automatically onto the trucks.
5 aviNews International March 2026 | Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
Transport to the plant In hot climates, some companies wet the chickens to cool them down at the farms.
JOURNEY
Once this activity is finished, the vehicles
of these trucks remember that they are
must depart immediately for the processing
transporting a live, fragile load. Therefore,
plant, to dissipate the evaporative heat that
they must strictly comply with the rules
gradually increases.
established by the companies that own the
It is very important that the operators
chickens: Reduce speed on curves so that the action of centrifugal force is reduced, preventing the wings from hitting the inner walls of the crates. Speed bumps to reduce speed so that,
pathology
when the vehicle passes over them, the platform rises as little as possible. In this way, the blows the animals receive on their backs are also reduced. The manufacturers of trucks intended for this daily task offer platforms with all the best possible technologies so that the chickens remain within the comfort zone, regardless of environmental conditions that reach extreme levels. Reference Parameters: Hot climates: 0.05% up to 0.10% of the total processed chickens. Example: 100,000 birds. Dead chickens - DOA-, between 50 and 100 animals. Cold climates: 0.05%. Example: Process: 100,000 chickens/day. DOA: Maximum 50 chickens
6 aviNews Latin America September 2023 | How to Obtain the Maximum Benefit from an Anticoccidial Sensitivity Test (AST)
PROCESSING Arrival at the plant
Live chicken hanging area
Warm climate, after weighing, the trucks go
The birds arrive in this area in cages or in bulk; during this transfer, the animals remain inside their containers. For this purpose, a grid is placed to prevent the chickens from leaving the crates.
to a washing station similar to those that exist on the farms. Depending on the size of the vehicles and the load, the time ranges between 30 seconds and 1 minute. Subsequently, they are moved to the
In this way, no time is lost collecting the birds that walk on the floor of this section.
waiting area where there must be adequate and effective infrastructure to
The monitoring of temperatures and relative humidity – RH – in this area is of utmost importance, so that the birds remain calm while waiting for their turn to be processed. In the market, sophisticated systems are available that allow the maintenance of the control parameters for these variables: 22ºC to 26ºC – RH: 65%. Each company sets these values.
The live chicken hanging station must have, among other ergonomic aspects, the following:
Two types of lights: White which is used when the plant is not operating and/or during cleaning. Blue when birds are being processed. Currently, double-filament bulbs are available, which facilitate their operation.
Processing
extract evaporative heat.
Adequate air renewal received by the operators on the upper back and neck, preventing the dust from the birds' feathers and skin from reaching their faces and obstructing their vision. When handling the chickens, removing them from the cages or from where they are in bulk, the workers hang the animals on the shackles forming an angle of approximately 45 degrees, a condition known as Normal Working Distance. This detail allows the staff to perform their work with minimal fatigue, increasing their productivity, measured in chickens/hour-worker, achieving up to 1,800 birds/hour-operator. This approach of the birds to the shackles represents a 1-hour break during the shift.
7 aviNews International March 2026 | Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
The metal guide behind the shackles must be in permanent contact with them. In this way, the staff always has the shackles at the same distance. The shackles must not be broken or bent The shackles must be complete and connected to each other, in order to ensure the same distance in each of the operations carried out. All shackles must be filled The chickens' legs must reach the bottom of the shackles gently, avoiding damage or fractures to the legs.
Processing
Depending on the type of shackles, these can be modified to be expandable along the path the legs travel.
Objective; Once the animals are placed on the shackles and released, they should not flap their wings, because the breast immediately comes into contact with this surface, which may be flat or circular. If this special condition is not met and the chickens flap their wings, more blood begins to accumulate in the wings. These extra amounts of blood affect the Grade A quality of the wings.
Important aspect: As far as circumstances allow, the route between hanging and entry into the stunner should have the
The movement of the trolleys – wheels – must be carried out smoothly, without jolts. Under these conditions, the tranquility that the birds must have until reaching the stunner is not disturbed.
fewest possible turns or changes of direction, in order not to disturb the calm state that the animals must maintain before entering the stunner cabinet.
The time for the last section from the hanger to the stunner entrance should range between 20 and 30 seconds, preventing blood from accumulating in the wings. Additionally, it is covered with a type of tunnel made of plastic canvas. The breast massager: It must be rigidly installed, allowing for horizontal and/or vertical adjustment according to the average weight of the animals.
8 aviNews International March 2026 | Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
Stunner The critical points to be continuously checked
Pre-shock: the entry of the chickens into
so that the adjustments of this equipment are
the tank must be unobstructed, as occurs
made according to the average live weight, sex,
in scalders.
etc. are as follows:
The water level in the tank must always
Electrical: Frequency, waveform type,
remain at the initial height. Some plants
voltage, amperage
have established that the chickens' heads
Time inside the tank: 10 to 12 seconds Tank height: the water level must be
must be separated by approximately 2.5 centimeters from the perforated sheet through which the current is distributed.
3 centimeters below where the neck connects with the breast. This detail breast, which is made up of two pectoral muscles that function antagonistically: Hinge type.
Processing
ensures that the water will never touch the
Slaughter and bleeding In practical terms, a good stunning is
Since the current consists of impulses and contractions, it promotes the rupture of blood vessels, resulting in hemorrhages and fractures of the fragile bones that make up the thorax.
confirmed when the chickens leave the stunner tank initially vibrating – tonic phase – and then completely relax – clonic phase –. In this calm condition, they must enter the guides of the automatic slaughter machines – killer –. This time ranges between 10 and 12 seconds, during which the animals fully recover their heart rate.
Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Be Evaluated from Pre-slaughter to Slaughter
DOWNLOAD PDF
9 aviNews International March 2026 | Process Control: 30 Specific Aspects to Evaluate from Pre-Slaughter to Slaughter
ISHIKAWA DIAGRAM APPLIED TO CHICKEN PROCESSING Processing
Eduardo Cervantes López International Consulting - Productive Management and Innovative in Poultry Processing Website: www.icproave.com
T
his Management tool helps to analyze the factors that contribute to a problem in a structured manner, in order to identify the root causes that generate it. Identifying these causes facilitates the design of actions to be taken in order to control or eliminate the problem. The Ishikawa diagram (also called fishbone diagram) is a type of Mind Map, in which the immediate or direct causes of the Central Problem are grouped into six (6) categories, called the six “M’s”. The purpose of grouping the causes in this way is to try to be as rigorous as possible in the analysis of the problem.
Environment
Machinery
Around
Inputs Raw Material
Materials
Method
10 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
Manpower
Equipment
Standards Procedure
Staff
Controls Supervision Inspection
Measurement
In turn, for each immediate cause, second-order, third-order, etc. causes can be identified, depending on the level of detail one wishes to achieve. To illustrate the application of this technique, examples are presented of two situations that are highly relevant to the performance, quality, and safety of processed chickens.
CASE # 1 POORLY BLED CHICKENS
Blood represents approximately 7% of the live weight. Commercially, between 45% and 50% of it is evacuated. It should be noted that blood is distributed as follows: 84% in the network of blood vessels and 16% in the various organs.
To keep this process within parameters, it is suggested to select a group of chickens during the shift and weigh them individually. Their live weight is equivalent to 100%. Before the animals enter the scalding tank, remove them from the hooks and weigh them again.
Processing
Depending on the climate and altitude above sea level, the control parameters change. Furthermore, when the people performing the slaughter do not carry out their work properly and the automatic equipment is not properly calibrated, this quality issue also arises.
Poultry Slaughter in Warm Climates and altitude below 800 meters Their cardiovascular physiology is characterized by vasodilation, to dissipate heat. Additionally, air enters the lungs with the highest possible pressure. The appropriate bleeding time ranges from 1 minute and 30 seconds to 1 minute and 45 seconds. Each plant must establish the most suitable time.
This weight difference should be around 3%. Therefore, the chickens should weigh 97% compared to the live chicken.
11 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
Slaughter of chickens in temperate to cold climates, with altitudes above 800 meters. The animals arrive at the plant with dilated blood vessels. This specific detail can be clearly observed when opening the wings from the inside. In these climates, their physiology promotes vasoconstriction to conserve heat.
Processing
If to the previous situation we add the increase in altitude, which induces the birds to produce more red blood cells – the only ones capable of transporting oxygen – at the time of venous exchange, returning the blood to the heart properly oxygenated. Homeostasis is maintained because the pressure with which this gas enters the lungs is increased.
Result: The extra amount of red blood cells increases the viscosity of the blood.
These special circumstances require increasing the bleeding time to between 3.0 and 3.5 minutes, thus avoiding the accumulation of blood in the wings. During the animals’ journey from the last plucking machine to the first automatic evisceration equipment, or in the carcass when the process is carried out manually, the floor is covered in blood just below the chickens’ path.
In some plants, when the situation becomes critical, they resort to Electrical Stimulation, in order to increase the amount of blood evacuated. This detail – blood stored in the chickens – leads Quality Inspectors to partially or totally reject the birds. Such a decision affects the yield of the chickens being processed.
Slaughter Regardless of whether it is manual or automatic the trachea and the nerve cord must be avoided from being severed. If this occurs, the birds die from asphyxiation and the interruption of messages sent by the brain that do not reach the heart, causing it to stop beating. In some countries, the trachea is cut due to special requirements. Depending on the presentation of the animal, quality inspectors partially or totally reject them, affecting the dry yield of the processed chickens.
The control parameter for poorly bled chickens is 0.03% of the total number of processed birds.
12 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
Diagram case 1 - POORLY BLED CHICKENS
Manpower
Environment Warm temperature
Inadequate training
Cold temperature
Low motivation
Raw Material
POORLY BLED CHICKEN Parameter < 0.03%
Processing
Height above sea level
Method
Insufficient fasting
Improper slaughter
Chicken unevenness
Lighting is inadequate
Required average live weight not met
Insufficient bleeding time
Machinery Malfunctioning automatic slaughter machine Inadequate maintenance Insufficient spare parts inventory
Measurement Ishikawa diagram. Simplified version. Each plant can expand it according to its needs.
Inadequate monitoring Measuring equipment (stopwatch, thermometer) is not calibrated
13 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
CASE # 2 POORLY PLUCKED BIRDS A good plucking requires that the previous operations be carried out correctly, from hanging the birds on the overhead slaughter conveyor to their entry into the plucking machines. In fact, the removal of feathers requires careful handling.
Hanging Keep all hooks filled. Furthermore, the legs must be well secured and symmetrical. During plucking, empty hooks move excessively, injuring the chickens on the sides.
Stunning This equipment meets one of the requirements of Animal Welfare. As the current increases, as mentioned previously, it causes greater muscle contraction, which tightens the feathers more within the follicle. The consequences of this anomaly are detected when the birds leave the last plucking machine. Feathers on the wings, thighs, and tail. Remember that the feathers of the wings and tail are the only ones inserted into the muscles.
Processing
Scalding
Path of the last hanger entry to the stunner If the birds are unsettled, during their transport they flap their wings with varying levels of intensity.
To achieve good quality in this operation, it is necessary for the following aspects to function properly: Temperature according to the type of chicken to be slaughtered: White (without epidermis) yellow (with epidermis). Time in accordance with the characteristics of the birds to be processed.
Causes The breast massager is not properly adjusted and the path is not suitably darkened. For this reason, they arrive at the stunner stressed, preventing them from immersing their heads in the water tank and losing consciousness upon arrival. They pass through this section with their necks raised and flapping vigorously. This behavior is the result of the Pre-shock they feel upon entry. In some processing plants, this situation is not resolved; instead, the voltage and consequently the amperage are increased.
Water agitation, uniform throughout the surface of the tanks, maintaining the initial level. When this requirement is not met, the water does not reach the skin, preventing the opening of the follicles and the detachment of the feathers. Consequently, their removal becomes more difficult.
14 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
Plucking During this operation, the following specific details must be taken into account so that the chickens are plucked more than 96%. The discs must be complete and in good condition. The fingers on each of the discs must also be in proper condition. All hooks must be connected.
Since in the scalding tank the surface temperature measured at the breast is increased, it is necessary to maintain it until entry into the first plucking machine. Some plants have built tunnels in stainless steel for sanitary reasons.
Processing
Total immersion of the animals while they move inside the tanks. This condition is of utmost importance, since when the birds float, they tilt, causing the tail and wing feathers— which are the most difficult to remove, as previously mentioned—to rise to the surface.
The sprayers must supply water at a temperature between 34ºC and 38ºC. This film is directed towards the fingers in order to prevent them from overheating. Furthermore, it acts as a lubricating layer between the fingers and the chickens. The bodies of the plucking machines must be centered with respect to the path of the hooks. To increase the effectiveness in removing the wing feathers, these machines must have a downward inclination at the exits.
When these aspects among others, are not fully met, the birds are subjected to greater pressure that can tear the skin in the most fragile area: breasts, wings, and the upper part of the thigh near the tail. These damages may be considered partial or total, according to the quality inspectors, affecting the dry yield of the chickens involved.
15 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
Diagram case 2 - DEFICIENT PLUCKING
Manpower
Environment Warm temperature
Poor worker training
Cold temperature
Early staff fatigue
Unsuitable ergonomic conditions
DEFICIENT PLUCKING
Raw Material
Processing
High temperatures and RH. Section: Scalding Scalding-Plucking Method Chickens Float
Inadequate fasting
Inadequate scalding Badly hung chickens Heat loss at the exit of the scalding tank and during passage through the plucking machines
Greater muscle contraction causes feather retention Cold water
The infrastructure is not available
Excessive stunned Machinery
Measurement Ishikawa diagram. Simplified version. Each plant can expand it according to its needs.
Equipment incorrectly calibrated
They are not well trained
Poor maintenance
Inadequate monitoring
Insufficient spare parts inventory
They lack all control elements: stopwatches, thermometers, etc
Incomplete spare parts inventory
Poorly trained maintenance staff Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
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16 aviNews International March 2026 | Ishikawa Diagram: Applied to Chicken Processing
DISINFECTION OF FERTILE BROILER BREEDER EGGS
Reproduction
Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondon Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC
E
ggshells naturally contain a mixed microorganism community or microbiota with bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mycoplasma, and
even viruses originating from the hen’s cloaca and reproductive tract. Bacterial counts will range from hundreds (300-500) to thousands of colony-forming units (CFU) within minutes. One day after the egg is laid, the bacterial count can reach 20,000-30,000 CFU.
18 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
In contrast, dirty eggs can have more
This natural phenomenon can be
than 80,000 CFU bacteria on the
enhanced by washing or spraying eggs
eggshell surface and organic matter
with water or solutions at temperatures
that protects them from sanitizers and
below 32 °C.
disinfectants. However, contamination primarily arises from dust, litter, excreta, other broken eggs, contaminated surfaces, equipment, and hands. Eggshell integrity and manipulation play a pivotal role in
•
consider that the part of the egg most exposed to the disinfectants is the outermost organic layer, the
controlling pathogens. •
Additionally, it is important to
cuticle, an important barrier to
Eggshell microorganisms
microbial invasion. Any damage
from hens are a fundamental
to the cuticle due to sanding,
component of egg protection
washing, or disinfecting eggs
mechanisms, chicken immunity,
may have serious consequences
and microbiota development.
with recontamination during egg storage and incubation (Figure 1).
Excessive egg disinfection can and adversely affect immune
Under commercial conditions, reducing
development in newly hatched
•
chicks.
microbial contamination on eggshells
This factor should be considered
disinfection programs is fundamental
through effective cleaning and
when implementing egg sanitizing and disinfection procedures. •
Reproduction
reduce microbiota diversity
to preventing contamination of eggs and chicks and maintaining good performance. This is more important in
Clean eggs from healthy,
antibiotic-free systems or for integral
pathogen-free breeder flocks
pathogen control programs.
with intact eggshells and good cuticle may not require
The need for egg disinfection has
disinfection before incubation,
been recognized since the early
without causing internal
1900s. Disinfecting commercial
contamination or chick infection.
hatching eggs before incubation is a common strategy to reduce potential vertical transmission
On the other hand, the sanitization and
of bacterial, fungal, viral, and
disinfection of surfaces, equipment, and
mycoplasma infections from the
hands that will come into contact with
eggshell to one-day-old chicks,
eggs are always required. Once the egg is
which may persist in birds,
laid, a change of temperature occurs that
contaminate poultry products,
generates a vacuum in the egg’s internal
and eventually reach the end
structure, allowing the surface bacteria
consumer.
to enter through the pores.
19 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
Reproduction
2%
5%
70%
95%
40%
50%
98%
100%
Figure 1. Cuticle that is more effective 96 hours after it is laid. Source: Hatchability.com
The objective of egg disinfection is to reduce
•
Formaldehyde is inherently hazardous
microbial counts and minimize adverse
and corrosive for farm and incubation
effects of contamination whilst causing as
equipment.
little damage to the developing embryo, the eggshell, and egg microbiota diversity
•
application and the use of appropriate
as possible. Then, independently of the
protective equipment are essential.
procedures selected for this purpose, a balance must be achieved between these objectives.
Ensuring proper ventilation after
•
It is never recommended to fumigate these products during the first 9 days of
EGG DISINFECTION WITH FORMALDEHYDE OR PARAFORMALDEHYDE
incubation. •
Repeated and prolonged exposure to formaldehyde can harm human health and may also affect the mucosa of chickens.
•
In the presence of an oxidizing agent and
Fumigation with formaldehyde or
a small amount of water, formaldehyde
paraformaldehyde has been the most widely
spontaneously polymerizes to form
used disinfectant worldwide for more than a
solid paraformaldehyde, which coats the
century.
eggshell during fumigation.
20 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
•
The concentrations previously discussed are enough to kill 99.8% of microorganisms after 20 minutes of exposure.
•
Higher concentrations of formaldehyde (1,696 mg/m3 and 2,827 mg/m3) have not demonstrated improved efficacy.
•
After completing the disinfection process, a minimum of 10 minutes of exhaust time is required before opening the disinfection chamber.
typically involves using 4 to 6.07 g/ m³ of paraformaldehyde to reduce bacterial contamination on eggshells. However, protocols vary significantly with product concentration. Alternatively, egg disinfection before incubation with formaldehyde gas should have a minimum concentration of 600 mg/m³ (489 ppm) for at least 20 minutes and at 25 oC (room temperature). This concentration can also be obtained with 11 mL/m³ of 40% formalin, typically prepared by mixing 10 g of paraformaldehyde with 30 g of potassium permanganate in 45 mL of 40% formalin at 21 °C. Smaller amounts of formalin can be used in chambers by combining 1.2 mL of formalin (37.5%) with 0.6 g of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) per cubic meter, yielding a concentration of 565 mg/m3 for a maximum of 20-minute exposure. These concentrations should not damage the eggshell cuticle or cause changes in egg conductance. It is feasible that formaldehyde gas, which diffuses into the egg during early embryonic development, alkylates the nitrogen atoms of purine and pyrimidine bases in DNA and RNA, thereby inhibiting their function. This, in turn, can block embryonic development at an early stage, even before incubation. Developing embryos are particularly sensitive to formaldehyde gas between 24 and 120 hours of incubation, or even up to 9 days of incubation, and embryonic mortality increases if exposed during this period.
Some microorganisms persist after formaldehyde disinfection, even after 3 hours of exposure. Eggs heavily contaminated (floor or dirty eggs) with microorganisms, with counts of 105 CFU or more, show a lower reduction in microorganisms than those with clean eggshells, reaching a maximum of 104 CFU after 30 minutes of exposure. Hatchability can be reduced by up to 8% when eggs are exposed for more than 20 minutes to formalin concentrations of 56 mL formalin and 28 g KMnO4, releasing 747 mg formaldehyde/m3.
Reproduction
The optimal disinfection of fertile eggs
The effective concentration of formaldehyde depends upon the temperature in the fumigation chamber. At an incubation temperature of 37.5 °C, the terminal formaldehyde concentration for effective 20-minute disinfection should be at least 6-7 mg/ft3 (212-247 mg/m3). At room temperature (25 °C), the value should be at least 17 mg/ft3 (601 mg/m3). If a 10-minute exposure period is used at an incubation temperature of 37.5˚C, the maximum final formaldehyde concentration should be 25 mg/ft3 (883 mg/m3).
21 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
However, formaldehyde disinfection is recommended for periods of no more than 20 minutes at temperatures not exceeding
ALTERNATIVES TO FORMALDEHYDE
25 °C to avoid adverse effects on embryo development. Exposure exceeding 40
Since the 1990s, the poultry industry
minutes or 32 oC is always detrimental to
has sought alternative methods of
incubation parameters.
egg disinfection that do not rely on
•
Studies using electron microscopy have shown that pre-incubation fumigation of eggs for as little as 20 minutes adversely affects the tracheal epithelial cells of 18-dayold embryos and 1-day-old chicks (Hayretdag and Kolankaya, 2008).
•
Fauziah et al. (1996) reported that
formaldehyde. Physical, chemical, and organic methods have been evaluated. Diverse methods of disinfecting fertile eggs have yielded highly heterogeneous results, attributable to variations in dosages, treatment durations, application methods, combinations of products in a single treatment, and the use of bacterial challenges.
exposure of hatching chicks to 130
Reproduction
ppm formaldehyde vapour during
•
the last 3 days of incubation had
Most reports indicate that the
adverse effects on the health of
evaluated products can reduce
chicks.
microbial loads, and no significant differences in hatchability
Moreover, Zulkifli et al. (1999)
have been observed. Even
reported that exposure of hatching
when sanitizer concentration
chicks to 23.5 ppm formaldehyde
increased, hatchability was
vapour resulted in poor production
unaffected and was slightly
performance.
higher than with formaldehyde. However, depending on the
Fumigation with formaldehyde may have
product concentration and the
different effects on embryos obtained from
time of exposure, some numeric
flocks of different ages. Higher embryo
differences in hatchability are
mortality is observed in embryos of young-
observed, and some lesions
parent stock. Smaller eggs have a higher
in chicken tissues have been
surface-to-mass ratio, a thinner cuticle,
reported.
and would absorb a relatively greater amount of fumigants than larger eggs. Thus, embryos in smaller eggs may be
Exposure to ultraviolet light has been the
exposed to a higher dose of fumigant when
physical method evaluated. The eggs are
the gas penetrates the shell and negatively
exposed to UV light at a mean intensity of
affects the germinal disc. In contrast, eggs
8.09 mW/cm2 for 120 s. Ozone gas is used
from older hens have a lower surface-to-
at 5-15 ppm for 30 minutes.
mass ratio and thicker cuticles, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the fumigant.
22 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
•
Chemical products evaluated include ozone, halogens such as sodium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide, and oxidant disinfectants (peroxygen and peroxyacetic acids, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), glutaraldehydequaternary ammonium, peracetic acid, benzalkonium bromide, propionic acid, oxidation of electrolyzed water, and slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW).
A
Other disinfectants are generally applied via low misting, which produces a very fine fog with a maximum droplet size of 10 µm, or via nebulization, which produces smaller particles (<5 µm).
B
•
The H2O2 is applied to eggs by spraying a fine mist of a 3 or 5% vol/vol (1280 ppm) aqueous H2O2 solution at approximately 0.69 mL/ egg.
•
Nebulization with 6% H2O2 can cause air quality to exceed recommended
Reproduction
•
C
safety limits.
Several combinations of glutaraldehyde with quaternary ammonium are available in the market. These products are highly effective in reducing bacterial loads in eggs. However, a few reports indicate that hatching may have negative effects on the mucosa and ciliated epithelium of hatchlings (Figure 2), effects not observed with peracetic acid.
Figure 2. Histologic photomicrography of the tracheal cilia of chicks exposed to microspraying with A) water (control); B) peracetic acid; and C) glutaraldehyde associated with quaternary ammonia in the hatcher machine. Note that both the mucosa and the ciliated
Peracetic acid is applied to eggs by spraying a fine mist of 0.3% PAA with a handheld manual sprayer. The use of chemicals also requires observing exhaust times before the
epithelium show no lesions in the control
disinfection chambers are opened.
Source: Teixeira et al., 2018.
and the group sprayed with peracetic acid. In contrast, the group treated with glutaraldehyde + quaternary ammonia shows areas lacking cilia.
23 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
Electrical Chemical Activation (ECA) of a saturated sodium chloride solution has been developed by the Dutch company Watter BV to deliver a disinfectant solution that contains
CONCLUSIONS •
still relies on formaldehyde, but there
active chlorine compounds, hydroxyls,
is a clear trend toward alternative
hydroxyl radicals, and oxygen-containing
methods and chemical products.
compounds. The SAEW with a pH value of 5.0-6.5 is a
•
chick’s mucosa damage, and costs,
mg/L ACC, 0.5 mL/egg spray volume, and a
options such as ECA and SAEW are
disinfection time of 180 s, owing to its high
gaining market share.
efficiency and lack of residue. The disinfecting of formaldehyde or benzalkonium bromide,
•
and eggshell quality and hatching performance have been equal to or better than controls.
Reproduction
There are multiple chemical options, but to minimize residues, cuticular and
novel disinfectant for egg sterilization at 150
efficacy of SAEW has been comparable to that
Egg disinfection in many countries
Even natural or biological products are receiving greater attention, at least for research purposes.
For visibly dirty eggs, adding a chlorine wash can improve disinfection efficiency and
Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
maintain a similar microflora after the final
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disinfection step. The application of natural or biological products has also been evaluated in multiple experiments. •
These products include propolis, allicin, oregano essential oil, garlic, thyme essential oil, lysozyme, clove oil, eucalyptus extracts, transcinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion, lavender oil, cayenne pepper, essential oils of Citrus aurantifolia and Ocimum basilicum, and phage suspension.
•
In most cases, the efficacy in reducing bacterial loads is comparable to that of chemical products.
•
Some tests indicate no significant differences in hatchability, but in many cases, reductions in average hatchability values are evident.
24 aviNews International March 2026 | Disinfection of Fertile Broiler Breeder Eggs
© Petersime 2026 - All rights reserved.
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SETTING THE GLOBAL STANDARD FOR SOY
Nutrition
Isa Tan, aviNews Asia
USSEC Chair Janna Fritz and USSEC CEO Jim Sutter
S
oy Connext 2025 convened over 700 soybean suppliers and customers in Washington DC in August to shape the future of sustainable soy.
Hosted by the U.S. Soybean Export Council (USSEC), the three-day event showcased cutting-edge insights from producers, buyers, researchers and innovators across the value chain.
26 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
From climate-smart farming to aquaculture expansion, the event underscored U.S. Soy’s evolving role in global food security and trade resilience.
GLOBAL MARKETING AND MARKET ACCESS
Trade teams from 59 countries representing key markets across Asia, Latin America, Europe, and Africa participated. These teams visited U.S. soybean farms, processing facilities, grain terminals, and key industry groups before and after the main Soy Connext event, gaining firsthand insight into the U.S. soy value chain.
During a press briefing, USSEC CEO Jim Sutter explained that differentiating U.S. soy from those from other origins is a key objective because “all soy are not created equal. We have to educate consumers on why soy grown in the U.S., in temperate climate, is different from soy grown in other climates.
USSEC CEO Jim Sutter responds to a question as USSEC Chair Janna Fritz looks on. Mr Sutter highlighted US Soy’s key advantages: high quality, strong nutritional profile, and a low carbon footprint. These are attributes increasingly valued by global buyers.
Nutrition
The event kicked off with the Trade Team Invitational (TTI), a series of oneon-one meetings between U.S. Soy stakeholders and international soybean users. This structured matchmaking effort connected buyers, sellers, and supply chain partners to explore new opportunities, negotiate deals, and strengthening long-term relationships.
“We want to elevate the preference. We want to be the soy that everybody wants to buy,” Mr Sutter remarked, noting that among the key advantages of U.S. Soy are its high quality and nutritional characteristics and its low carbon footprint, which is very important to soy buyers today.
MORE SOYBEAN MEAL AVAILABLE During the event, Bruno Coletti, Lead Market Analyst – Oilseeds at Cargill Inc, described U.S. soy as a resilient and strategic asset in a changing global market. While Brazil leads in production growth, U.S. Soy stands out for its reliability, quality, and infrastructure. Backed by transparent standards and robust logistics, it remains a cornerstone of global supply.
27 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
Figure 1. Comparison of area and yield of main origins Harvested Area of 3 Main Origins
Soybean Yield (bu/acre) 60.0
60,000
55.0 50.0
40,000
Bushels per acre
1,000 hectares
50,000
30,000 20,000
45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0
10,000
United States
Argentina
Brazil
United States
Argentina
2018/2019 2019/2020 2020/2021 2021/2022 2022/2023 2023/2024 2024/2025 2025/2026
2000/2001 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 2004/2005 2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018
1993/1994 1994/1995 1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 2004/2005 2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020 2020/2021 2021/2022 2022/2023 2023/2024 2024/2025 2025/2026
20.0
1990/1991 1991/1992 1992/1993 1993/1994 1994/1995 1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000
25.0
1990/1991 1991/1992 1992/1993
0
Brazil
Yield Growth from 2010 to 2024:
Area Growth from 2010 to 2024:
CAGR (%)
Bu/ac
Bu/ac per year
Kg/ha
Argentina
0.5%
3.1
0.21
13.8
1,546.7
Brazil
0.9%
6.7
0.45
30.3
254.7
USA
1.0%
7.3
0.48
32.5
CAGR (%)
1,000 ha
1,000 ha per year
Argentina
-0.4%
-1,000
-66.7
Brazil
4.6%
23,200
USA
0.8%
3,820
Nutrition
Source: Bruno Coletti presentation at US Soy Connext 2025, Washington DC
U.S. crush capacity is expanding rapidly, with 10 new facilities expected by the end-2025.
This will add an estimated 9 million tons of crush capacity, translating into roughly 7 million tons of extra soybean meal.
Figure 2. US domestic crush in rapid expansion. US, soy crushed between September and June
US Soy Crush by Crop Year
58,000
75,000 55,577
56,000
70,000
54,000 1,000 metric tons
1,000 metric tons
52,376 52,000 50,278 50,000 48,000
49,134
50,570
49,151
47,219
65,000 60,000 55,000 50,000
46,000 45,000 44,000 42,000
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
Crush estimates
Long Term Forecast (Nov25)
Crop Year
•
Since 2023: 8 new projects online (greenfields + expansions)
•
2 new plants likely starting up by the end of this year for a total of 10 facilities (+9 Mmt of crush, +15% increase in 3 years).
•
Another 7 projects have been announced or are under construction.
•
Potentially another +9 to +10 Mmt of crush by 2028 (i.e., potentially a total 30% total increase in 6 to 7 years)
Source: Bruno Coletti presentation at US Soy Connext 2025, Washington DC
28 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
SETTING THE GLOBAL STANDARD As supply expands, quality remains a key differentiator. German Bosch, founder of AG Com, said consistency is king—and U.S. soybeans continue to lead the pack. He compared the quality of soybeans from the US, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, revealing why U.S. soybeans remain the benchmark for reliability.
Infrastructure advantage: The U.S. boasts a mature logistics network of highways, railroads, and inland waterways, ensuring efficient transport and minimal damage farm to port.
Favorable climate: Temperate harvest seasons and lower humidity result in soybeans with lower moisture levels and reduced heat and total damage. In contrast, Brazil’s tropical climate, while boosting oil and protein content, also increases variability and risk.
Quality metrics: U.S. soybeans average lower moisture and damage rates, with stable table oil and protein levels across seasons. While Brazil allows up to 8% total damage and 1% heat damage, U.S. standards cap those at 3% and 0.5%, respectively. This ensures a cleaner, more uniform product.
Nutrition
As global incomes rise, demand for animal protein and soybean meal continues to grow. U.S. soybean meal is prized for its consistency and nutritional quality, making it a preferred choice in key growth markets like China, India, and Southeast Asia.
Figure 3. U.S. soybean has much lower moisture content than Brazilian soybean.
US & BR Moisture Content Jan 2020 – July 2025
12.39% 2%
1.03% Average 11.36% During Feb-Mar 25 moisture difference increased up to 2% on average
Source: Presentation of German Bosch at US Soy Connext 2025, Washington DC
29 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
Figure 4. Second figure – Total soybean damage from Brazilian soybean higher than US soybean.
US & BR Total Damage Content Jan 2020 - July 2025
5%
US soybean has much lower total damage
US soybean is much more stable
Brazil allows a max of 8% of Total damage while US allows a max of 3% for Grade 2.
Nutrition
Source: Presentation of German Bosch at US Soy Connext 2025, Washington DC Mr Bosch concluded that while Brazil’s soybeans offer nutritional highs, U.S. Soy delivers dependable quality.
This positions U.S. Soy as the gold standard for buyers prioritizing consistency, lower risk, and strong infrastructure.
RECOGNIZING SUSTAINABLE BUYERS As part of Soy Connext 2025, USSEC also honored companies from across the globe that are making sustainability a core part of their business.
USSEC recognized companies from across the globe, including those from Vietnam and Indonesia, that are making sustainability a core part of their business.
30 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
Sustainability is a core strength of U.S. Soy, thus it is the preferred choice of environmentally conscious buyers.
147 companies across 12 countries that now carry the ‘Sustainable U.S. Soy’ or ‘Fed with Sustainable U.S. Soy’ label on their products:
Americas – 48 South Asia – 16 Greater China – 27 Northeast Asia – 36
Nutrition
Southeast Asia – 20
This growing global footprint reflects rising demand for responsibly sourced ingredients, with U.S. Soy setting the benchmark for sustainability worldwide.
31 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
NAVIGATING COMPLEXITY, SEIZING OPPORTUNITY As global trade adapts to shifting demographics, inflationary pressures, and geopolitical uncertainties, Mr Sutter noted that challenge often breeds innovation. He reaffirmed the enduring relevance of comparative advantage, with U.S. agriculture—especially soy— standing as a prime example of how trade enables both export strength and consumer choice.
Finally, Mr Sutter underscored the power of connection. Whether through shared insights or collaborative partnerships, relationships are the engine of smart business.
“Great things in business are never done by one person,” he said. “They’re done by a team.”
His message: collaboration is key to building a resilient, sustainable soy future.
Setting the Global Standard for Soy
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Nutrition
Demand is rising in new markets, driven by population growth and expanding disposable incomes. While global supply may tighten slightly, the long-term outlook remains stable. Farmers are navigating unpredictability with resilience and ingenuity.
What sets U.S. Soy apart, he argued, are the “little extras”: From amino acid profiles that boost animal performance to nutritional benefits for human health. These differentiators, backed by data, drive real value across industries.
He also emphasized that sustainability is no longer optional. With the lowest carbon footprint among global soy sources, U.S. producers are raising the bar through yield improvements, not land expansion.
32 aviNews International March 2026 | Setting the Global Standard for Soy
The Best Mycotoxin Binders MYCOAD MYCOAD AZ specialnutrients.com
IMPORTANCE OF EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE CHECKING AND RECORD KEEPING IN A COMMERCIAL POULTRY HATCHERY Hatchery
Rasel Ahmed, Incubation Specialist
INTRODUCTION
I
n modern commercial hatcheries, incubation management is not only limited to controlling the machine’s air temperature but also focuses on the biological temperature of the embryo itself. One of the most reliable and practical indicators of embryo health and metabolic activity during incubation is the eggshell temperature.
Monitoring and recording eggshell temperature give real time insights into the embryo’s metabolic activity and the actual microclimate inside the egg. Proper eggshell temperature management is a key factor in achieving: •
High hatchability
•
Uniform embryo development
•
Excellent chick quality
34 aviNews International March 2026 | Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
WHAT IS EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE AND WHY IT MATTERS? Eggshell temperature represents the actual micro-environment of the embryo in the incubator. While the air temperature or set point on the machine gives an estimate of the incubator’s climate, it does not always represent the exact thermal condition of each egg.
On the other hand, inadequate warming or overcooling can lower embryo metabolism and delay development. Maintaining the correct eggshell temperature ensures that: •
Embryo metabolism progresses at ideal rate.
•
Trays and trolleys all have uniform hatches.
•
The risk of overheating, late mortality or poor chick quality is minimized.
Hatchery
As they grow especially after 10 days incubation embryos produce metabolic heat. The temperature of the eggshell may rise above the ideal range if the incubators airflow or cooling system is unable to efficiently dissipate this heat.
OPTIMAL EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE RANGE Research and field experience have shown that the ideal eggshell temperature for chicken embryos is typically between 37.8°C and 38.2°C (100-100.8°F). Deviations outside this range can have direct biological impacts: Eggshell temperature (°C)
Effect on embryo
< 37.0
Slower development, delayed hatch, increased weak chicks.
37.8–38.2
Optimum range for uniform development and chick quality.
> 38.5
Risk of heat stress, early pipping, increased late dead embryos.
35 aviNews International March 2026 | Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
Procedure of eggshell temperature checking: •
Ensure the infrared thermometer is properly calibrated and clean.
•
Open the incubator door only for the minimum time necessary to avoid temperature fluctuation.
•
Select representative eggs from top, middle and bottom trays of the trolley.
•
Hold the thermometer approximately 3-5 cm away from the eggshell surface (for infrared thermometer and by Braun thermometer touch the eggshell).
•
Aim at the equator (side surface) of the egg, not the pointed or blunt end.
•
Wait for the thermometer to stabilize (typically 1-2 sec) and record the reading.
•
Document the reading immediately in the eggshell temperature record sheet with the following details:
Hatchery
Date of time Machine number Flock number and age Position
EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE MONITORING USING THE OVOSCAN SYSTEM IN COMMERCIAL HATCHERIES The OvoScan system developed by Petersime, is one of the most advanced technologies that continuously monitors and controls the eggshell temperature in real time during incubation. Unlike traditional systems that maintain air temperature, OvoScan regulates the embryos actual temperature, ensuring that all eggs in the machine experience the optimal thermal environment for uniform development and maximum chick quality.
Average eggshell temperature Air temperature (set point & display actual) Relative humidity Incubation days
Principle of operation: •
Sensors are placed in direct contact with eggshell at multiple positions within the setter.
•
These sensors continuously measure the surface temperature of the eggshell which reflects the embryo metabolic heat.
•
The readings are transmitted to the Petersime control computer.
•
The system automatically adjusts the incubator air temperature and cooling system to maintain the desired eggshell temperature, typically around 37.8°C (100°F).
36 aviNews International March 2026 | Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
Advantages of OvoScan based eggshell temperature control: Benefit
Real time control
Immediate adjustment based on embryo feedback.
Precision
Maintain uniform embryo temperature across trays.
Energy efficiency
Reduce excessive heating and cooling cycles.
Improved hatchability
Prevents overheating and late embryonic mortality.
Enhanced chick quality
Promotes uniform hatching, better navel closure and vitality.
Data recording
Automatic storage of temperature data.
IMPORTANCE OF EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE RECORD KEEPING Recording eggshell temperature data whether measured manually or via OvoScan, it provides a foundation for data driven hatchery management. Accurate record keeping enables hatchery managers to:
Hatchery
Parameter
LINKING EGGSHELL TEMPERATURE TO CHICK QUALITY Chicks hatched from eggs maintained within the optimal eggshell temperature range exhibit:
Identify trends and compare machine performance.
•
Uniform hatch window
•
Well closed navels
•
Detect early signs of imbalance in temperature or airflow.
•
Better chick yield
•
Correlate temperature data with hatchability and chick yield.
•
Higher first week survival and livability
•
Support calibration, maintenance and performance audit.
•
Thus, eggshell temperature management is not just a measurement, it is a quality assurance process directly influencing farm performance.
37 aviNews International March 2026 | Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
CONCLUSION Eggshell temperature checking is the most direct and reliable indicator of embryo wellbeing and incubator performance. By focusing on the embryo’s actual experience rather than relying solely on machine readings, hatcheries can enhance both biological efficiency and economic return which is the ultimate goal of modern poultry hatcheries.
Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
Hatchery
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38 aviNews International March 2026 | Importance of Eggshell Temperature Checking and Record Keeping in a Commercial Poultry Hatchery
THE REALITY OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN EGG INDUSTRY
Health
Abongile Balarane CEO Egg Organisation of South African Poultry Association (SAPA) Executive Board Member of World Egg Organisation
HOW THE HIGHLY AND LOW PATHOGENIC AVIAN INFLUENZA IS HANDLED IN SOUTH AFRICA The rise in Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) or bird flu worldwide is alarming for South Africa. Presently HPAI is rampant in the USA with multiple cases reported involving tens of millions of birds. UK, Europe, New Zealand, Australia. In 2017 South African poultry industry reported its first case of HPAI on poultry, which was followed by the 2021 outbreaks and then the most devastating outbreaks in 2023.
40 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
test positive or suspected farms are
HPAI
immediately placed under quarantine
Passive and active six-monthly surveillance in
and no movement of birds, eggs, or
the country is ongoing. In terms of the Animal
products are allowed on, off or through
Disease Act, 1984 (Act No 35 of 1984) any
these farms.
suspect or confirmed outbreak of any avian
In South Africa all HPAI farms that
influenza strain must be immediately reported Samples are collected for verification
to the state veterinarian responsible for
of the suspicion and back and forward
immediate investigation.
tracing is implemented to detect any If HPAI is suspected or detected in
possible spread of the disease.
poultry, there is no scientific justification So far most of the affected properties are subjected to culling the chickens
for placing a radius around the affected farms as a controlled/ protection zone,
and carcasses that were affected by
due to the mode of transmission,
the diseases and dispose of them
primarily by wild birds.
hazardous dump site, incineration,
However, all neighboring farms
rendering or composting on the farm,
are immediately visited, and all
or on-farm burial are also allowed
epidemiologically linked properties to
by the Government Department of
an affected farm are immediately placed
Environmental Affairs.
under quarantine until preliminary
Health
by dumping them at an approved
investigations can be conducted. Eggs are then taken under veterinary supervision for pasteurization or moved after double fumigation or fogging.
LPAI In accordance with Chapter 1.3 of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH or OIE) terrestrial animal health code, the low pathogenic avian influenza (poultry) disease code has been delisted. As of 1 January 2022, LPAI is only reported to WOAH as part of a country’s six-monthly surveillance. All Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza strains, however, are still controlled animal disease in terms of the Animal Disease Act, 1984 and the control and notification measures remain unchanged.
41 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
SOUTH AFRICA STANCE ON CAGE FREE WITH THE EXISTING CONCERNS OF THE HIGHLY PATHOGENIC AVIAN INFLUENZA The following section focuses on the current existing production systems in South Africa highlighting the concerns of the HPAI and the push from the welfare lobbyists for only cage free production systems. As stated above how the HPAI disease is
We have never been against cagefree systems but, however, we find ourselves operating in a very difficult space, with slow economic growth. We ultimately leave us with no options but to produce eggs on all 3 existing production systems (Cages, Free range and Barn). In 2021, research was conducted to assess the cost, and the unintended consequences should we consider a 100% move to cage free systems. Below are more details about our research.
managed and handled in South Africa, I would like to state that as at this stage South Africa is not vaccinating for this disease, there are negotiations between
Health
the Government and the South African Poultry Association to consider the possibility of vaccinating as the backup mechanism against this disease, also
SOUTH AFRICA IS A MEMBER OF THE WORLD ORGANIZATION FOR ANIMAL HEALTH (WOAH)
boosting the biosecurity measures.
The OIE’s development started in 1920
In recent months there has been a high
Belgium because of zebus (Bos Indicus)
pressure on the South African Egg farmers to move or scrap out the cageproduced eggs completely and only
with the outbreak of rinderpest in originating from India and destined for Brazil via the port of Antwerp.
produce free-range eggs.
The world organisation for animal
We are currently producing our Eggs
looking after the protection of animals
from the cages, free range, and barn production systems. We are a country of about 63 million people with an estimated 32% of the population unemployed, with many people depending on Government grants, and with high food insecurity individuals, coupled with that as stated we are currently not vaccinating for HPAI disease.
42 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
health (WOAH) is a global institution and preserving our future in several categories.
The primary objective of the (WOAH) is to
The poultry industry remains the
ensure transparency in the global animal
largest single contributor to the
disease situation, collect, analyse and
country’s agriculture sector GDP
disseminate veterinary scientific information,
and employment.
encourage international solidarity in the control of animal diseases, safeguard world trade by publishing health standards for international trade in animals and animal products, improve the legal framework and resources of national Veterinary Services, to provide a better
Eggs are one of the most versatile food products and one of the most affordable sources of protein compared to other animal proteins, as well as being very easy to obtain. Population and real income
guarantee of food of animal origin and to promote animal welfare through a sciencebased approach.
growth are the two most important factors influencing egg demand, other factors influencing demand include change of
SAPA (2012) published a code of practice for
lifestyles due to health scares, and egg
pullet rearing and table egg production and
production systems.
systems. Further South African Poultry
The results of the research that was
Association and the World Egg Organisation
conducted by the National Agricultural
(WEO) continue to work with the WOAH
Marketing Council found that the
to develop global standards for laying hen
macro-economic and socio-economic
housing.
impact indicates that it is foreseen that
Health
focus on the housing of different production
egg production in South Africa will decline by approximately 26.3% in
SOUTH AFRICAN EGG INDUSTRY
line with a 36% increase in production costs due to the implementation of
The South African egg industry is fragmented, with a few major players and several small
the additional regulations on the layer hen production systems.
and medium-sized producers. Egg production takes place throughout the country and rearing of good quality pullets requires an extreme cold temperature, which is why the KwaZulu– Natal midlands seem to be the pullet-rearing capital of South Africa. There is a consensus that the South African poultry industry, which comprises of poultry for meat and eggs including the end of lay spent hens, provides the largest source of animal protein in the human diet in the country.
43 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
The impact on the various economic indicators is presented as follows:
Health
The impact of the decline in production is very differe nt for the various economic var iables.
n the GDP e impact o th , ce an st y For in ill decline b industry w se u of the egg e th t on s the impac d 21%, wherea an y 27%, ill decline b of Capital w ent will only n employm o t ac p im the ecline. be a 12% d
at rtant to note th It is also impo g ct within the eg the direct impa se ea cr in ctor is an production se that which means , of 6,014 jobs in be experienced job losses will d to indirectly linke other sectors n. egg productio
A positive poin t is that the de crease was not that high with regards to un skilled workers, which only decrease d by -0.4% whereas the to tal contributio n of egg production re garding employ m en t will decrease by -12 %.
The contribution to employment of the egg industry will decline by 6,158, down fro m a total of 49,776 jobs be fore the regulations to 43 ,618 jobs after the implementation of additional regulations.
44 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
ely of approximat State revenue d ite rfe will be fo R1 092 million of ementation due to the impl regulations. the additional
This macroeconomic impact study does not
From the producers’ side, more
only consider the fact that the cost of local
concerns are on the HPAI, zero
egg production will increase, but that the
compensation for the culling of infected
cost structure will also change significantly.
chickens from HPAI and unfortunately
Now looking at the current situation in South
in 2023 about 30% of the local
Africa zooming into the socio-economic,
production was destroyed by the HPAI.
and economic impact and the viability of the Egg industry versus the animal humanitarian
This then suggests that all 3 existing
(Animal welfare lobbyists) side for layers to
production systems should remain in
walk around in a free-range system will only
South Africa and allow the consumer
be possible if policymakers contribute in terms
to choose which eggs to purchase
of subsidies, assist farmers with improvements
based on their affordability.
on biosecurity and also allow the vaccines furthermore improve the economic situation of
From the South African Poultry
the country.
Association, we are not against free-
for cage-free eggs and then farmers will produce eggs based on the rise in demand, which unfortunately, currently, there is no demand for these particular
range eggs, however, we believe our members should not be forced by animal welfare lobbyists to only produce cage-free eggs and burn cages.
Health
We need to first see the demand rising
eggs. The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
DOWNLOAD PDF
45 aviNews International March 2026 | The Reality of the South African Egg Industry
MYCOPLASMOSIS
UPDATE:
ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE, VACCINES, AND
CONTROL CHALLENGES Pathology
Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondon Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC
A
vian mycoplasmosis remains of great clinical and economic importance in the poultry industry
worldwide. Mycoplasma infection causes significant economic losses in terms of: •
Decreased weight gain,
•
Feed conversion efficiency,
•
Egg production,
•
Hatchability,
•
An increase in embryo and broiler mortality,
•
Eggshell defects,
•
Carcass condemnation,
•
Prophylaxis with vaccination,
•
Susceptibility to bacterial or viral infections,
•
Treatment cost in broiler, layer, turkey, and breeder flocks.
Mycoplasmas are the smallest known prokaryotes capable of self-replication. They have a very small genome and have evolved to this ‘minimalist’ status by losing non-essential genes, including those involved in cell wall synthesis. Strains vary in tissue tropism and virulence depending on the route of infection. 46 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
Four species are frequently related to poultry mycoplasmosis. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) are the two most pathogenic avian mycoplasma species. However, Mycoplasma meleagridis (MM) and M. iowae (MI) can be relevant respiratory pathogens for turkeys. Nevertheless, 25 Mycoplasma species are associated with poultry.
WORLDWIDE PREVALENCE OF MYCOPLASMAS Prevalence varies widely worldwide.
CHINA
Pathology
In a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chaidez-Ibarra et al. (2021) summarized 85 publications from 33 countries that reported studies with 22,162 samples for Shandong
MG and 48 studies with 26,413 samples for
Jiangsu
MS. This Mexican research group concluded
Henan
38.4% (95% CI: 23.5–54.5%) for MS and
HuNan Yunnan
that the pooled global occurrence was
Fujian
27.0% (20.4–34.2%) for MG.
Guangxi Guangdong
MG Positivity Rate of PFEs Unserveyed
Across regions, Europe and Central
Fujian: 45.00%(18/40)
Asia had the lowest incidence of both
Yunnan: 58.97%(46/78)
pathogens, whereas MG and MS were
HuNan: 73.33%(22/30)
highly prevalent in South Asia and
Guangdong: 77.00%(328/426)
sub-Saharan Africa, respectively. At the
Shandong: 86.11% (31/36)
national level, MG occurrence was higher
Jiangsu: 92.50%(74/80)
in Algeria, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan,
Guangxi: 93.67% (148/158)
whereas China, Egypt, and Ethiopia
Henan: 100.00%(40/40)
reported higher MS values. Heterologous
Figure 1. Map of China illustrating the M. gallisepticum positivity rate of live pipping failure embryos across eighteen provinces.
mycoplasma infections or co-infections are becoming more frequent. 47
aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
A recent Chinese study (Fang et al., 2025) reported 80% MG positivity in dust and feather samples from hatcheries and up to 100% positivity in pipping-failure embryos (Figure 1). Yin et al. (2025) reported a 52% positivity for MS in 3,284 choanal cleft swab samples collected from 2- to
5000 μm
300 μm
25-week-old indigenous chickens. However, these researchers did not detect MS infection
Number of MG isolates
in embryos but reported 54% positivity for MG. In another study, Tu et al. (2026) detected
7 Fujian
MS positivity with PCR in 14% of 450 samples
3 Guangdong
collected in 643 broiler farms across 15
1 Guangxi
provinces in 2024.
2 Hunan 4 Jiangsu 1 Shandong 1 Yunnan 2 Henan
Pathology
29 isolates
Figure 3. Morphological characteristics of M. gallisepticum under microscopy. The colonies exhibited a distinct “fried-egg” appearance, with a raised, opaque center. The number of M. gallisepticum isolates in different provinces. Source: Fang et al. (2025).
Figure 2. Air sacculitis in live pipping failure 21-day old embryos, varying degrees of yellow caseous exudates (red circle marking).
48 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
PATHOGENICITY AND DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS The MG is a motile species that possesses a terminal tip structure that mediates adherence
MG causes chronic respiratory disease
to target tissues and can invade cells. New
(CRD), coughing, nasal discharge, and
virulent strains have been detected in the
reduced growth performance in chickens,
past decade, and reports of mycoplasma
as well as infectious sinusitis in turkeys. MS
antimicrobial resistance are increasing.
causes synovitis, inflammation of tendon sheaths, swelling of tarsal joints and paws, paralysis, and airsaculitis in birds.
Mycoplasmas in chickens may appear like respiratory diseases caused by other pathogens, such as those that cause mild Newcastle disease
Turkeys infected with MG may be misdiagnosed as avian pneumovirus infections, and sinusitis may also suggest infection with Pasteurella multocida, Chlamydomonas, or MS.
Moreover, care should be exercised in distinguishing between MS-related infectious exudative synovitis, tenovaginitis, bursitis, Staphylococcus aureus infections, and reovirus-related infectious tenosynovitis. • The infection is transmitted both horizontally and vertically. • Mycoplasmas spread rapidly horizontally In the past two decades, eggshell apex
within a flock via aerosols, particle matter
abnormalities have also been linked to
dust 2.5, feed, water, and contact.
MS infections. A significant reduction
• Vertical transmission occurs through
in the daily average egg weight and in
hatching eggs, enabling long-distance
the number of eggs was observed in
spread.
MS-infected birds. 49 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
Pathology
and avian infectious bronchitis.
DIAGNOSIS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF ANTIMICROBIALS Culturing MG and MG requires specialized, It is widely accepted that early diagnosis
nutrient-rich broth and agar media such
and strain identification within typical
as Fery’s medium supplemented with
species are essential for effective control.
10-15% horse or swine serum and yeast
Although time-consuming, the traditional
extract. They are cultured in microaerophilic
cultural approach remains the gold
conditions (5-10% CO2) at 37°C for up to
standard for MG and MS diagnosis.
28 days, requiring blind passage.
The PCR-based methods are more specific and faster than traditional culture-based methods; however, they should be performed in parallel with the latter. Periodic in vitro testing of the minimum inhibitory concentration
Pathology
(MIC) of antibiotics against Mycoplasma field isolates is required to monitor the impact of mass medication programs and to inform the development of effective therapies.
The in vivo effectiveness of antimicrobials can be indirectly assessed by in vitro susceptibility testing, which determines the MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of an antimicrobial agent against Mycoplasma strains.
Strain titration is important because the
• Titrations are performed in different
inoculum concentration can affect MIC
broths or agar media, depending on
values obtained in broth or on agar.
the Mycoplasma species studied. • The MIC methods for MG and MS use
• Because of their small size, mycoplasmas cannot be titrated by
FM4, Frey’s, Frey’s modified, Friis’s, and Hayflick’s modified media.
optical density measurements, as is done for classical bacteria. 50 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
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ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE OF MYCOPLASMAS Mycoplasmas are intrinsically resistant to antimicrobials targeting the cell wall (fosfomycin, glycopeptides, or β-lactam antibiotics) and to sulfonamides, firstgeneration quinolones, trimethoprim, polymixins, and rifampicin.
• Standardization of methods for determining
• Some reports have shown that MG were
susceptibility levels is difficult because
5 to 10 times more sensitive than the MS
no quality-control strains are available and
strains in Mexico (Petrone et al., 2020).
because species-specific growth
However, resistance may develop depending on the type of antibiotics used in the area.
Pathology
requirements exist. • Reduced susceptibility to, or resistance
• For example, in Egypt, Tiamulin (450
to, several classes of antimicrobials has
mg/g) and spiramycin (150,000,000 IU)
been reported in field isolates of pathogenic
have been detected as the antibiotics
Mycoplasma species.
of choice for the treatment of MG and MS infections, respectively.
• However, Mexican isolates of MS were less sensitive to tiamulin and tylosin.
Several studies in China, Southeast Asia, and Europe have shown that resistance to
• Diverse degrees of antimicrobial resistance
fluoroquinolones, such as enrofloxacin and
or lower efficacy for control have been
erythromycin, has increased rapidly. There is
observed with chlortetracycline, lincomycin,
still a bimodal MIC distribution for enrofloxacin
erythromycin, and Doxycycline.
and the macrolides (spiramycin, tilmicosin, and
• Tylvalosin is the antibiotic of choice in some
tylosin), indicating that both mycoplasma species
areas, while in others, lower efficacy has
have sub-populations that are less susceptible in
been reported.
vitro to those antimicrobials. High MIC values for enrofloxacin were observed across all isolates, with MICs ranging from 4 to 32 μg/mL.
Consequently, antimicrobial treatment may not be an effective or sustainable strategy and should be used only in combination with epidemiological management and vaccination programs.
53 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
MOLECULAR METHODS CURRENTLY USED FOR MYCOPLASMA TYPING Mycoplasmas can vary considerably in
• Currently, it is important to continue
antigenicity, pathogenicity, and virulence.
the identification of mycoplasma
MS has two major phase- and size-variable
species traditionally conducted using
antigens, MSPA and MSPB, expressed
PCR-based methods, with a
as a prolipoprotein from the variable
description of genetic diversity and
lipoprotein and haemagglutinin A (vlhA),
the detection of virulence genes.
encoded by a single gene (vlhA).
• The most reported virulence genes are the MG cytadhesin 2 (mgc2), the cytadhesin (gapA), and the vlhA. • These genes are essential for cytadherence, the process by which bacteria bind to host cells, a necessary step in initiating infection.
Pathology
• VlhA is also linked to immune evasion via phase variation.
Molecular typing approaches for MS and MG
MLST was originally developed for MG and
include DNA fingerprinting, whole-genome
adapted for MS by Mohamed El-Gazzar in 2017,
sequencing, and multilocus sequence typing
incorporating seven housekeeping genes and
(MLST). Among these methods, MLST has
the variable vlhA locus. By sequencing seven
emerged as the preferred method for MS
housekeeping gene fragments from the vlhA
typing, offering high sensitivity and specificity
locus, MLST enables the determination of
and being directly applicable to clinical
genetic relationships among strains.
samples. 54 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
Studies have reported concurrent circulation of multiple MS strain types within the same poultry operation across time and space,
Molecular studies have also identified the
underscoring the critical importance of robust
pMGA and pvpA gene families as markers
strain typing for effective MS control.
of major surface proteins that drive pathogenicity, antigenicity, and immune evasion among MG isolates.
Some isolates exhibit high similarity to vaccine strains such as F and S6 (Yasmin et al., 2018; Taiyari et al., 2024). This genetic variation highlights the need for targeted control efforts and continuous monitoring. Additionally, conserved mycoplasma antigens such as GrpE (a heat-shock protein cofactor) and CrmA (a cytadhesin-related protein) have been identified as potent immunogens with the potential for cross-strain protection and broad immunogenicity.
Pathology
PREVENTION, VACCINES, AND CONTROL Biosecurity, antimicrobial treatment, and vaccination are the main methods of prevention and control. For vaccination of birds, live-attenuated, inactivated bacterins, and/or recombinant live vaccines are commercially available against MG and MS infections.
• Currently available vaccines for MG include attenuated live vaccines: the F-strain (FVax-MGH), 6/85 (Mycovac-LH), Ts-11 (MG ts-11H), and the K-strain; and for MS, the H-strain (Vaxsafe MS) and the NADindependent MS1 vaccine (Nobilis MS Live). • These vaccines are commercially available in lyophilized form for administration via nasal, coarse-spray, or eye-drop routes. • Inactivated heterologous oil-emulsion and subunit vaccines (rFP-MG) are also commercially available and have made great contributions to the control of MS.
55 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
In live vaccines, the F-strain vaccine is highly immunogenic and widely used in chickens, displacing field-virulent MG strains. The F-strain is mildly virulent in chickens but virulent in turkeys and should be avoided, as it can cause clinical outbreaks. A single dose of F-strain is needed for lifelong immunization and protection against MG. This F-strain persists in
Pathology
the trachea of vaccinated chickens, inducing a consistent serological response in the flocks.
The 6/85 and Ts-11 vaccine strains may elicit a milder post-vaccination respiratory reaction
The MS-H and the MS1-strain vaccines
and confer lower immunity than the F-strain,
have minimized vertical and horizontal
but they also provide lifelong protection. The
transmission of MS and reduced air sac
K-type vaccine strain is highly efficacious
lesions and eggshell abnormalities.
compared to the F or Ts-11 strains. These three vaccines can be administered to chickens and
However, to be effective, MS-H must
turkeys because they are avirulent and have a
be applied to non-infected birds, and it
lower capacity for horizontal transmission than
complicates monitoring because it does not
the F-strain.
prevent infection of wild strains. Liao et al.
(2024) developed a real-time PCR method to differentiate vaccine from wild-type MS strains.
56 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
Inactivated vaccines have been used to control poultry mycoplasmas since the 1960’s, because live vaccines may mutate. Compared with the live attenuated vaccine, the oil-in-water emulsion inactivated vaccine offers the greatest advantages in reducing virulence and inducing higher levels of humoral antibodies, while facilitating vaccine storage. However, a disadvantage is that it requires multiple immunizations to elicit a robust immune response, thereby increasing costs.
The R-strain has been used to control MG in
Pathology
univalent inactivated vaccines. Multivalent inactivated vaccines are also used to prevent MG infection. For example, inactivated pentavalent vaccines for chickens have demonstrated favorable preventive efficacy against Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella kentucky, MG, and MS.
At present, the inactivated MS vaccine has not been commercialized. Gong et al. (2020) reported that the ISA 71 VG vaccine, with chitosan as an adjuvant, can induce both cellular and humoral immune responses in broilers against MS. The recombinant fowl pox-MG vaccine that possesses and expresses protective MG immunity is found to be less effective in both chickens and turkeys as compared to live attenuated vaccines but has the advantage of not introducing the live MG vaccine strain into a flock. 57 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
• Recently, a research group from Nanjing University in China (Sabir et al., 2026)
• The inactivated plus subunit vaccine contained Cfba, Ppht, EF-G, MSPB, and
reported that a live recombinant vaccine
inactivated HB03-strain as antigens.
using Salmonella enterica expressing the
• The antigens were emulsified with the
mycoplasma antigens GrpE and CrmA
P178 adjuvant (a specific peptide antigen)
elicited robust humoral, innate, and mucosal
to form a water-in-oil-in-water
immune responses that conferred significant
double-emulsion vaccine. • The final protein concentrations were
protection against MS and MG. • The efficacy of a combination of inactivated and subunit vaccines against MS was
30 μg/mL, with the HB03 strain at 0.7 × 10⁹ CCU/mL.
evaluated by Yi et al. (2025).
• Interestingly, vaccine-induced antibody
• The results indicated that an inactivated
levels did not strongly correlate with
vaccine combining whole-cell and subunit
protective efficacy, underscoring the
components of MS offered effective
importance of host cellular immunity
protection in layers during the pullet-rearing
in combating MS infection.
Pathology
phase with a single immunization.
Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
DOWNLOAD PDF
CONCLUSION In conclusion, mycoplasmosis is a highly prevalent disease worldwide that is difficult to control with antimicrobials. The control methods require comprehensive molecular studies to characterize the strains, assess their epidemiology, and identify the strains to control and their susceptibility to antimicrobials. Vaccination programs are rapidly evolving, and greater attention needs to be paid to control options.
58 aviNews International March 2026 | Mycoplasmosis update: Antimicrobial Resistance, Vaccines, and Control Challenges
SETTING NEW STANDARDS IN
ADVANCED VENTILATION AND CLIMATE CONTROL
+45 75 77 19 22 | mail@dacs.dk | www.dacs.dk
PRECISION MATTERS: TACKLING QUALITY ISSUES IN ON‑FARM VACCINATION
Health
Kévin Gandon1, Pascal Paulet2, & Jaime Sarabia3 1 Marketing & Technical Specialist. Digital & Smart Solutions Accelerator at Ceva Santé Animale 2 Poultry Corporate Marketing Director at Ceva Santé Animale 3 Poultry Global Corporate Veterinary Services Manager at Ceva Santé Animale
V
accinating pullets is fundamental to safeguarding layer and broiler‑breeder flocks during rearing. Accurate immunization
supports consistent egg output and fosters a uniform, high level of maternally derived antibodies in breeders throughout the production cycle. This baseline immunity supports a robust start for chicks and steadier flock performance over time.
60 aviNews International March 2026 | Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
For vaccines to deliver their full benefit, every bird must receive the exact dose at the precise anatomical site. This requirement makes the operation both critical and demanding. When speed takes priority, consistency suffers and protection becomes uneven. The solution is rigorous attention to detail by all stakeholders, supported today by advanced equipment and automation that maintain high‑quality vaccination for each bird while sustaining performance. Clear standard operating procedures and paced workflows help preserve accuracy at scale.
Intramuscular administration is the most common route because it is simpler to implement than
ON‑FARM VACCINATION CHALLENGES On‑farm vaccination often unfolds
Health
subcutaneous injection. Yet when handled with manual syringes, outcomes become heavily dependent on the operator.
in demanding environments. Many poultry operations face frequent
Dose volume and needle
turnover, limited formal training, and
placement may vary, birds can be
non‑standardized procedures, making
injured, product may be delivered
consistency hard to achieve. Added to
subcutaneously or lost through
this, housing systems and flock sizes
backflow, and oily adjuvants
vary widely, so vaccination approaches
pose a real hazard in the event of
must adapt to diverse production
accidental self‑injection.
realities. For these reasons, ongoing training and simple, standardized
Reducing this dependency
playbooks are critical across sites.
on individual skill calls for engineered controls that lock in depth, angle, and dose.
61 aviNews International March 2026 | Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
Manual vaccination is repetitive
CEVA IMVAC SAFE IMPROVES INJECTION QUALITY
and physically taxing, which contributes to operator fatigue. As
Moving from manual
hours pass, precision in handling
syringes to intelligent
and injection quality can decline,
automated systems
with knock‑on effects for bird
keeps vaccination
welfare. These realities make
quality consistently
consistent, high‑quality vaccination
high while protecting
a persistent challenge across the
operators from injuries
sector. Planned breaks, ergonomic
and self‑injection risks.
benches, and task rotation can help maintain execution quality.
IMVAC Safe delivers a complete dose precisely into the pullet’s breast muscle, with high accuracy and repeatability. Real‑time monitoring of injection counts
Health
aligns the number of doses ordered with the number of birds actually vaccinated. This traceability strengthens inventory control and purchasing forecasts.
The operator positions the bird on the device’s morphological mold, which activates three sensors. Injection only occurs when positioning is correct, allowing one or two injections to be delivered simultaneously with 100% accuracy. Electronic control confirms that the full dose reaches the muscle. The safeguard reduces unnecessary handling and helps standardize the rhythm of operations.
A patented penetration angle combined with controlled needle depth optimizes dispersion within muscle fibers, prevents backflow, improves absorption, and strengthens the bird’s immune response.
62 aviNews International March 2026 | Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
To accommodate layers and breeders of different ages and body weights, IMVAC Safe is supplied with four distinct breast plates. The patented sensor concept authorizes injection only when positioning is correct, which standardizes handling time and avoids unnecessary manipulation. If a bird is removed before the cycle completes, an alarm sounds and the event is logged as ‘non‑fully vaccinated’, providing end‑to‑end control throughout the day.
With the system ready, needles, pistons,
Over five years, 100% of vaccination‑related
and syringes remain protected from start
accidents occurred with manual syringes, while
to finish. The three‑sensor activation logic
none were reported when electro‑pneumatic
means only a correctly positioned bird can
systems such as IMVAC Safe were used. The
initiate injection, effectively eliminating
contrast highlights the safety gains made
the chance of self‑injection.
possible by electro‑pneumatic designs.
Health
FULL OPERATOR SAFETY AND REDUCED WORK HARDSHIP
Accidental reports during intramuscular injection process Manual Syringes
Electro-pneumatic equipment (eg: IMVAC Safe)
18
0
Type of accident Type of accident
Operator
Consequences
Puncture wound
10
0
Self injection
8
0
Vaccinator
4
0
Catcher
14
0
Medical break
13
0
Request of change area
2
0
Resignation
3
0
Table 1. Accident reports with injection equipment, during IM vaccinations in laying hens in the raising phase on an intensive breeding farm in the southern area of Lima Eficacia y seguridad de un dispositivo electro-neumático en la vacunación intramuscular de gallinas de postura J.C. Romero, C. Santa-Cruz, F. Alva, A. Yataco, J.L. Torres
63 aviNews International March 2026 | Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
Automation also eases physical workload and reduces hardship. Better ergonomics help teams sustain
CONCLUSION •
In today’s poultry sector, vaccination
consistent performance throughout the
is no longer a routine technical step
day, supporting both worker safety and
but a strategic pillar for health,
bird welfare.
productivity, welfare, and workforce durability. •
By replacing manual tools with advanced automated solutions like
BIOSECURITY AND OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY
IMVAC Safe, producers combine precision, repeatability, operator protection, and reduced hardship in every injection, supporting sustainable farm performance over time. •
In short, automation turns vaccination into a controlled, auditable process
Health
with measurable outcomes.
Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
DOWNLOAD PDF
IMVAC Safe features a visual guidance system that assists positioning and confirms correct injections at rates up to 1,200 birds per hour. The device is simple to clean and disinfect after each session, helping secure biosecurity for subsequent vaccination days. Quick, thorough sanitation between flocks reduces cross‑contamination risks and supports biosecurity plans.
64 aviNews International March 2026 | Precision Matters: Tackling Quality Issues in on‑Farm Vaccination
FUTURE FLOCK: ANTIBIOTIC-FREE SOLUTIONS FOR A RISING POPULATION
Nutrition
Dr Faran Hameed, Senior Consultant (Animal Production & Feed Business) and Dr Ahmad Safi, Technical Marketing Manager (SAFA Agrifood Marketing)
T
he global population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 (Abbas, Nassar et al. 2025). According to the United Nations, the demand for sustainable, proteinrich foods, such as poultry, is surging at an unprecedented rate. Poultry production, a cornerstone of global food security, must expand sustainably to meet this need, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Yet, the industry’s historical reliance on antibiotics as a quick fix for disease prevention and growth promotion is now unraveling. What once revolutionized farming is evolving into a profound threat through antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
66 aviNews International March 2026 | Future Flock: Antibiotic-Free Solutions for a Rising Population
In the mid-20th century, antibiotics revolutionized the poultry industry, transforming what was once seen as a risky endeavor into a dependable and high-yielding enterprise. Discovered in the 1940s, compounds like penicillin and tetracyclines were initially hailed for their ability to combat bacterial infections that ravaged flocks. In the post-World War II boom, as global populations swelled and urbanization accelerated, poultry farming shifted from small-scale backyard operations to intensive commercial systems. Antibiotics played a pivotal role in this scaling. Therapeutically, they treated outbreaks of diseases such as coccidiosis, salmonellosis, and necrotic enteritis, which could wipe out entire flocks. By the 1950s, sub-therapeutic doses—administered at low levels in feed—were found to enhance growth rates by up to 20-30%, according to early studies from the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).
This ‘growth-promoting’ effect stemmed from antibiotics’ ability to modulate the gut microbiome, reducing competition from harmful bacteria and allowing birds to absorb nutrients more efficiently. Economically, this was transformative. Antibiotics lowered mortality rates from 10-20% to under 5% in many operations, slashing costs and enabling the production of cheaper meat to feed expanding populations. World chicken meat production, which was 7.56 million tons in 1961, is predicted to increase to 139.19 million tons in 2025, and this production per capita is predicted to increase to 17.0 kg in 2025 from 2.4, 5.35, 9.80, and 15.0 kg in 1961, 1981, 2001 and 2018, respectively (Uzundumlu and Dilli 2023).
Nutrition
THE GOLDEN ERA OF ANTIBIOTICS IN POULTRY FARMING: A HISTORICAL LIFELINE
Developing countries, facing food shortages, adopted these practices in collaboration with organizations promoting antibiotics as essential tools for food security. Environmentally, at the time, they seemed benign, allowing for denser stocking without immediate ecological backlash.
In essence, antibiotics democratized poultry production, making it a viable solution to hunger in a world population that doubled from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 5 billion by 1987. They bought time for agricultural innovation, but at a hidden cost: the unchecked proliferation of resistant bacteria.
67 aviNews International March 2026 | Future Flock: Antibiotic-Free Solutions for a Rising Population
THE DARK TURN: AMR AS A LIFE-THREATENING CRISIS What began as a boon has morphed into a global health catastrophe. AMR occurs when bacteria evolve to withstand antibiotics, rendering treatments ineffective.
Nutrition
In poultry, the overuse of these drugs— often prophylactically in crowded, stressful farm environments—has accelerated this process. Pathogens like Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter in flocks can transfer resistance genes via horizontal gene transfer, creating ‘superbugs’ that jump species barriers to humans through contaminated meat, eggs, or environmental runoff. The scale is alarming, and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that AMR already causes 1.27 million direct deaths annually, with projections soaring to 10 million by 2050 if unchecked— surpassing cancer as a leading killer (Ferraz 2024).
These bacteria do not respect borders; a resistant Salmonella from an Asian poultry operation can end up in imported feed or travel via migratory birds. Life-threatening implications extend beyond infections. Common ailments like urinary tract infections or pneumonia, treatable with basic antibiotics in the past, now require last-resort drugs like colistin—a poultry growth promoter in some regions—leading to hospital stays, higher mortality, and ballooning healthcare costs estimated at USD 100 billion globally per year by the CDC. Vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and those in low-income countries, bear the brunt; in sub-Saharan Africa, where poultry is a dietary staple, AMR exacerbates malnutrition cycles. The poultry-population nexus amplifies the threat. With demand expected to double by 2050 (FAO data), intensified farming without antibiotics risks a vicious cycle: more crowding leads to more diseases due to increased pathogenic load, more resistant pathogens, and ultimately, threatening food security. Economists warn of a USD 100 trillion GDP hit by 2050 from AMR (Shedeed 2024), underscoring why the ‘future flock’ must evolve beyond this legacy.
68 aviNews International March 2026 | Future Flock: Antibiotic-Free Solutions for a Rising Population
Recognizing AMR’s urgency, governments and international bodies have imposed stringent rules on antibiotic use in agriculture, particularly poultry. These regulations aim to curb non-essential applications while preserving antibiotics for human medicine. At the global level, the WHO’s 2015 Global Action Plan on AMR calls for reduced veterinary use, urging countries to phase out growth-promoters by 2030. The FAO and the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) advocate for ‘One Health’ approaches, integrating human, animal, and environmental health. Treaties like the 2016 UN Declaration on AMR commit nations to surveillance and alternatives. In the European Union (EU), the vanguard of regulation, antibiotics for growth promotion have been banned since 2006 under Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 (Castanon 2007). The 2022 Farm to Fork Strategy targets a 50% reduction in antimicrobial sales by 2030, with strict veterinary oversight requiring prescriptions only for confirmed infections. Non-compliance can result in fines or farm shutdowns. The EU also mandates residue monitoring, with zero tolerance for growth-promoting antibiotics in exported meat.
The United States (US) followed suit with the FDA’s Guidance for Industry #213 (2013) and Veterinary Feed Directive (2017), effectively ending over-thecounter sales of medically important antibiotics for growth promotion. Producers must now obtain veterinary prescriptions, and the USDA’s National Residue Program tests for violations, imposing recalls or penalties. A poultry trade industry publication recently announced 60% of US broiler chickens are now raised without any antimicrobials (Wallinga, Smit et al. 2022). In key poultry-producing nations like Brazil and India, progress is uneven but accelerating. Brazil’s 2018 National Action Plan phases out non-therapeutic use, aligning with export requirements to the EU and US.
Nutrition
NAVIGATING THE REGULATORY MAZE: BANS, RESTRICTIONS, AND GLOBAL MANDATES
India, facing massive domestic demand, introduced the 2019 ban on colistin as a growth promoter following WHO pressure, though enforcement challenges persist due to informal farming sectors. These rules are not just punitive; they incentivize innovation. Subsidies for alternative adoption, like the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy funds, and certification programs (e.g., Global G.A.P. for antibioticfree standards) reward compliant farms. Violations carry severe repercussions: product seizures, market bans, and reputational damage in an era of traceability via blockchain and DNA testing. As population-driven demand grows, adherence to these regulations is nonnegotiable for sustainable trade.
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PIONEERING ALTERNATIVES: IN-DEPTH STRATEGIES FOR ANTIBIOTIC-FREE POULTRY
Mechanistically, probiotics compete with pathogens for adhesion sites in the intestines, produce antimicrobial compounds like bacteriocins, and modulate immune responses by stimulating antibody production. Prebiotics are fermented into short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate, lowering gut pH to inhibit harmful bacteria like Clostridium perfringens.
Nutrition
With the antibiotics’ era disappearing, the focus shifts to multifaceted alternatives that mimic their benefits—disease prevention, growth enhancement, and flock resilience— without the resistance risks. These solutions are grounded in science, scalable for global production, and tailored to meet the nutritional demands of a rising population. Below, we explore key alternatives in detail, including their mechanisms, evidence-based efficacy, implementation challenges, and contributions to sustainability.
Challenges include strain specificity— not all probiotics survive processing— and initial costs. However, advancements like microencapsulation ensure viability, and long-term savings from reduced vet interventions make them economical. Environmentally, they minimize manure pathogens, reducing pollution in water-scarce regions.
2 Phytogenic additives: Nature’s 1
Probiotics and prebiotics: Harnessing the gut microbiome for natural defense
Probiotics are live beneficial microorganisms (e.g., Lactobacillus and Bacillus, and Bifidobacterium strains) administered via feed or water, while prebiotics are non-digestible fibers (like inulin or fructo-oligosaccharides, mannan-oligosaccharides, β-glucan) that nourish these microbes. Together, they form a symbiotic ‘synbiotic’ approach, restoring balance to the poultry gut microbiome disrupted by stress or poor diet.
antimicrobial arsenal
Phytogenics derive from plants— essential oils, powder, and extracts from oregano, cinnamon, garlic, and thyme, etc.—offering broad-spectrum antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory effects. Essential oils have a gut epithelial protective role through mucus production and promote gut morphology. Unlike antibiotics, they target multiple bacterial pathways without fostering resistance.
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These additives work by disrupting bacterial cell membranes (e.g., carvacrol in oregano perforates E. coli walls), inhibiting biofilm formation, and enhancing digestive enzyme activity for better nutrient uptake.
Amid population surges, their scalability shines—herbal extracts are locally sourced in India and Africa, reducing import reliance and supporting smallholder farmers who produce a large quantity of the world’s poultry.
Multiple articles highlighted their role in replacing ionophores, with blends reducing necrotic enteritis in trials.
Drawbacks? Volatility in active compounds due to plant variability requires standardized extracts, and high doses can affect palatability.
Oriental Chaff flower extract has improved body weight by 3.5% as compared to the control group in research conducted by Park and Kim (2020).
Supplementation of black cumin seeds in the broiler diet resulted in increased body weight by 3% as compared to the control positive group. Data shows phytogenics boost growth performance comparably to antibiotics. For example, in several studies, oregano oil has shown a positive effect on body weight gain and FCR when supplemented in the feed of broilers. For layers, they improve egg quality and shell strength, addressing protein needs in egg-dependent diets.
Yet, modern formulations (e.g., nano-emulsions or encapsulation) may mitigate this problem. Sustainability-wise, they promote biodiversity by encouraging herbal cultivation, aligning with regenerative farming to combat climate impacts on feed crops.
3
Nutrition
Thyme powder has also shown a positive effect on body weight and average daily feed intake by 4.6% and 3.3% respectively, in a study conducted on broilers by Hassan and Awad (2017).
Storage stability is also a challenge because, with the passage of time, the activity of the extracts perishes.
Vaccines and biosecurity technologies: Precision prevention in the digital age
Vaccines provide targeted immunity against specific pathogens, while biosecurity tech encompasses physical (e.g., footbaths) and digital tools (AI sensors, UV disinfection) to block disease entry. Recombinant vaccines, like those for avian influenza or Newcastle disease, use weakened pathogens or DNA to prime the immune system without live risks.
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They achieve 80-95% protection rates, per WOAH guidelines, far surpassing antibiotics’ broad but temporary effects. Nahed, Awad et al. (2021) found that challenging chickens with an H5N8 clade 2.3.4.4b virus at an older age, followed by a booster vaccine, reduced mortality rates to 0%, compared to 50-60% mortality in younger chicks that did not receive a booster.
Nutrition
Vaccines are available for bacterial diseases in poultry, including those for Salmonella (using liveattenuated or killed bacteria), infectious Coryza (caused by Avibacterium paragallinarum), and E. coli (colibacillosis). Other bacterial vaccines target infections like Mycoplasma (M. gallisepticum, M. synoviae), fowl cholera (Pasteurella multocida), and Campylobacter jejuni. These vaccines can be live, killed (inactivated), subunit, or even recombinant, and are administered through methods like drinking water, injection, or spray. Artificial Intelligence (AI) can help reduce antibiotic use in poultry farming by enabling early disease detection and precision management. For global demand, these prevent outbreaks that could halt production— e.g., the 2022 African swine fever analog in poultry cost billions. Implementation hurdles include vaccine cold chains in tropical climates and tech costs but grants and pay-per-use models are bridging gaps.
Long-term, they foster herd immunity, ensuring stable supplies for urban populations and cutting waste from diseased birds.
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Organic acids and enzymes: Biochemical boosters for feed and health
Organic acids (formic, propionic, lactic, acetic, and citric acid) and enzymes (phytases, xylanases, amylase, and beta-glucanase) optimize digestion and preserve feed integrity. Acids lower gut pH to inhibit bacterial growth like Salmonella, while enzymes break down anti-nutritional factors in grains, enhancing bioavailability. Mechanisms involve acidification that mimics stomach conditions, reducing pathogen loads by 2-3 log units. Enzymes liberate phosphorus and energy, improving absorption by 10-15%. In population contexts, they address feed scarcity—enzymes allow cheaper, local grains, vital as corn prices rise with climate change. Challenges like acid corrosion in equipment are solved by buffered blends.
Ecologically, they reduce antibiotic residues in manure, protecting waterways and supporting sustainable intensification.
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Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs):
5 Molecular weapons against
Bacteriophages (phages): Viral
6 allies for bacterial targeting
pathogens
In poultry, AMPs like defensins or cathelicidins are delivered via feed supplements or genetic enhancement of birds (Zhang and Sunkara 2014). Their mechanism is multifaceted: AMPs insert into bacterial membranes, forming pores that leak cellular contents, leading to lysis. They also bind DNA or proteins inside cells, halting replication, and exhibit low resistance potential due to their broad, non-specific action— bacteria struggle to mutate against such diverse targets. Unlike antibiotics, AMPs are less toxic to host cells because they preferentially target negatively charged bacterial membranes. Challenges include production costs and stability in the gut environment, where enzymes can degrade them. Research into host-derived AMPs—e.g., breeding birds with upregulated genes—addresses this, with trials showing 10% better resilience. Environmentally, they leave no residues, minimizing AMR spread via manure, and their biocompatibility aligns with organic farming trends.
Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically infect and destroy bacteria, acting as natural predators without harming animals or the environment. In poultry, phage cocktails (mixtures targeting multiple strains) are sprayed on farms, added to water, or incorporated into feed. Phages work by attaching to bacterial receptors, injecting their DNA to hijack replication, and lysing the host cell to release progeny— a self-amplifying process. This specificity avoids disrupting beneficial microbiota, unlike broadspectrum antibiotics. They evolve alongside bacteria, maintaining efficacy against resistant strains.
Nutrition
Antimicrobial peptides are short chains of amino acids (typically 1050 residues) naturally produced by animals, plants, and microbes, or synthetically engineered to combat bacteria.
Amid population-driven intensification, phages offer outbreak control without shutdowns, ensuring steady supply chains—crucial for regions like Southeast Asia where Campylobacter outbreaks disrupt 10-15% of production annually. Drawbacks involve phage specificity (requiring cocktails for diverse pathogens) and regulatory approval, though the FDA granted GRAS status in 2018. Costs are low, but storage needs refrigeration. Sustainability benefits include zero chemical residues and biodegradability, reducing environmental AMR reservoirs.
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Egg yolk antibodies (IgY): Passive immunity from nature’s reservoir
Egg yolk antibodies, or IgY, are immunoglobulins extracted from yolks of hens immunized against specific poultry pathogens. This passive transfer provides immediate, targeted protection to chicks or flocks via oral supplements. IgY works by binding to bacterial antigens or toxins, neutralizing them before infection—e.g., anti-E. Coli IgY prevents adhesion to gut linings. Unlike mammalian IgG, IgY is noninflammatory and stable in the gut, avoiding immune overreactions.
Nutrition
Challenges include immunization costs for hens and shelf-life (up to two years when powdered). Purification tech is advancing, making it scalable. Ecologically, it is a by-product of egg production, promoting waste reduction and aligning with circular economy principles for sustainable food systems.
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Quorum-sensing inhibitors: Disrupting bacterial communication networks
Quorum sensing (QS) is how bacteria ‘talk’ via signaling molecules to coordinate behaviors like virulence or biofilm formation. QS inhibitors (QSIs), such as furanones from algae or synthetic analogs, block these signals, preventing collective attacks without killing bacteria—thus avoiding resistance.
In poultry, QSIs are added to feed or water to dismantle pathogen communities; for instance, they inhibit Salmonella swarming or Clostridium toxin production. This subtle interference keeps bacterial populations in check, mimicking prophylactic antibiotics. Implementation issues include dosage optimization and molecule stability. Ongoing research into natural QSIs from plants enhances accessibility. Environmentally, they preserve microbiome diversity, supporting soil health via cleaner manure and contributing to low-input farming resilient to climate variability.
CHARTING THE PATH FORWARD: A CALL TO COLLECTIVE ACTION As the world grapples with population growth, antibiotic-free alternatives offer a blueprint for resilient poultry systems. By integrating probiotics, phytogenics, vaccines, biosecurity, and organic aids, farms can achieve productivity gains without compromising health or the planet. The transition demands investment—R&D funding, farmer training, and policy support—but the rewards are immense: safer food, economic stability, and a legacy of innovation. Stakeholders, from policymakers to producers, must prioritize adoption. Explore resources from the WHO and FAO, attend industry webinars, or pilot these solutions in your operation. The future flock awaits— healthier, sustainable, and ready to nourish generations.
Future Flock: Antibiotic-Free Solutions for a Rising Population
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Interview
DR. NIVIN NASSER
INTERVIEW
An interesting and informative conversation with Dr. Nivin Nasser, a food safety researcher. On the second day of the International Production and Processing Exhibition held in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, the aviNews International team had the opportunity to speak with Dr. Nivin Nasser, a food safety researcher and expert, with emphasis on foodborne pathogens control in poultry products from the Poultry Science Department at Auburn University. 76 aviNews International March 2026 | Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
Many poultry farms in the MENA region struggle with high temperatures and limited ventilation. How do these conditions influence Campylobacter spread inside broiler houses? High temperatures and weak ventilation — both common challenges in MENA
This heavy, long-term use creates strong selection pressure, and the review shows consistently high resistance levels: Ciprofloxacin resistance in poultry isolates often exceeds 60–90% Tetracycline resistance commonly ranges from 70–95%
poultry houses — create ideal conditions for Campylobacter to spread. Heat stress
Countries such as Algeria, Egypt, Iran,
weakens gut integrity in birds, making them
Iraq, Morocco, and Jordan all show this
more susceptible to colonization. At the same
pattern. In some cases, resistance is
time, poor airflow increases humidity and
driven by cross-use of related drugs — for
moisture in the litter, allowing Campylobacter
example, enrofloxacin use in poultry driving
to survive longer in the environment.
ciprofloxacin resistance, or tylosin use
In many countries in the region, litter is
contributing to macrolide resistance.
already heavily contaminated due to high under heat stress, they drink more, produce wetter droppings, and the pathogen
Realistic alternatives for farms include:
Interview
baseline prevalence. When birds pant
circulates more easily through water lines, litter, and equipment. These environmental
Improving water sanitation, litter
pressures help explain why Campylobacter
management, and ventilation to
prevalence in poultry across the region
reduce disease pressure
often exceeds 40–70%, as reported in Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Morocco, and others.
Fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines are widely used across the region. How does this routine use shape resistance patterns in Campylobacter, and what realistic alternatives can farms adopt? Across the MENA region, fluoroquinolones (like ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin) and
Using vaccination and better respiratory disease control to reduce reliance on tylosin and fluoroquinolones Applying probiotics, organic acids, and competitive exclusion products to reduce colonization pressure Implementing targeted treatments only when necessary, instead of routine flockwide medication
tetracyclines are widely used for prophylaxis,
These steps are more feasible than expecting
growth promotion, and treatment of common
farms to eliminate antibiotics overnight,
poultry diseases.
especially in low-resource settings.
77 aviNews International March 2026 | Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
Water quality varies significantly across rural and peri urban areas. How does poor water sanitation contribute to Campylobacter persistence on farms, and what low-cost treatment options are most effective? Contaminated water is a major exposure route in developing countries, including many parts of the MENA region. Poor sanitation in rural and periurban areas allows Campylobacter to persist in: Untreated drinking water
Interview
Surface water used for cleaning Water lines with biofilm buildup When birds drink contaminated water, the pathogen quickly spreads through the flock. Waterline biofilms also protect Campylobacter from environmental stress, allowing it to survive between cycles.
Effective low-cost interventions include: Chlorination of drinking water Acidifiers to reduce pH and inhibit bacterial survival Regular flushing and descaling of water lines Ensuring water tanks are covered and cleaned to prevent contamination These are inexpensive and immediately reduce pathogen load.
78 aviNews International March 2026 | Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
Many farms lack structured biosecurity programs. From your experience, which single biosecurity upgrade gives the highest return on investment for reducing Campylobacter introduction? Based on patterns across the region, the most impactful single upgrade is controlled entry with proper hygiene barriers — specifically, a functional “clean–dirty” entry system with boots, handwashing, and dedicated clothing. Why this one? Many MENA farms lack structured biosecurity, so human movement is a major introduction route. Campylobacter is easily carried on shoes, equipment, and clothing. Countries with high prevalence (Egypt, Algeria, Iran, Morocco) often report weak farm-level biosecurity as a key driver.
A simple, enforced entry protocol dramatically reduces pathogen introduction without requiring major infrastructure changes.
Considering the high Campylobacter prevalence in MENA poultry, which farm level interventions—such as catching crew hygiene, thinning practices, feed withdrawal timing, or equipment sanitation—have the greatest impact before birds reach processing?
Live bird markets remain part of the poultry supply chain in several MENA countries. How do these markets influence Campylobacter circulation between farms, and what practical interventions could reduce cross-farm contamination?
Birds from multiple farms mix in crowded conditions Equipment and cages are reused without proper sanitation Birds return to farms or traders after exposure Transport crates move between farms and markets, carrying contamination This creates a continuous loop of cross-farm transmission.
Given the consistently high prevalence in MENA poultry (often 40–70%), the most impactful interventions before birds reach the plant are: 1. Catching crew hygiene Catching crews often move between farms with minimal sanitation. Clean boots, gloves, and equipment can significantly reduce crossfarm spread.
Interview
Live bird markets are still common in Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, Syria, and parts of the Arab Gulf. They act as amplifiers of Campylobacter because:
2. Thinning practices Thinning introduces external crews and equipment midcycle, which is a major contamination point. Reducing or eliminating thinning lowers risk.
Practical interventions include: Cleaning and disinfecting transport crates between uses Avoiding the return of unsold birds to farms Separating farms supplying live bird markets from those supplying processing plants Implementing basic hygiene rules for market workers These steps reduce circulation without requiring the elimination of live bird markets, which is unrealistic in many countries.
3. Feed withdrawal timing Overly long withdrawal increases fecal shedding during catching and transport. Optimizing timing reduces contamination of crates and carcasses. 4. Equipment sanitation Transport crates and modules are major reservoirs. Proper washing and disinfection between loads reduce contamination entering the plant. These interventions are practical, costeffective, and directly address the contamination pathways highlighted across the region. 79 aviNews International March 2026 | Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
Conclusions This insightful interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
Finally, addressing contamination
highlights the complex, interconnected factors
loops created by live bird markets
driving Campylobacter persistence across
and transport equipment remains
poultry systems in the MENA region.
essential for long‑term progress. Together, these interventions
From environmental pressures such as
form a roadmap for reducing
heat stress and inadequate ventilation
Campylobacter prevalence and
to structural challenges like poor water
improving food safety across the
sanitation and weak biosecurity, the
region’s poultry sector.
pathogen thrives in conditions that many farms struggle to control. Dr. Nasser’s insights underscore
Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
that antimicrobial resistance is not
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an isolated issue but a predictable
Interview
outcome of long‑term reliance on fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, and macrolides—patterns consistently documented across Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Morocco, and Jordan. Yet the solutions she outlines are both realistic and attainable. Improvements in water treatment, litter management, and ventilation, combined with targeted antibiotic use and the adoption of probiotics and organic acids, offer immediate pathways to reduce disease pressure. Equally important are practical biosecurity upgrades, especially controlled entry systems and better hygiene among catching crews, which can significantly limit pathogen introduction and spread.
80 aviNews International March 2026 | Interview with Dr. Nivin Nasser
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