Text Marilia Albanese
Editing supervision Maria Valeria Urbani Grecchi
Editorial production Valeria Manferto De Fabianis
Graphic Design Patrizia Balocco Lovisetti
Translation C.T.M., Milan
CONTENTS PREFACE
PAGE
9
THE HISTORY OF INDIA FROM ITS ORIGINS TO THE 13TH CENTURY
PAGE
15
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
PAGE
50
THE SACRED, DAILY LIFE AND ART PAGE
56
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ITINERARIES NORTHEN INDIA CENTRAL INDIA SOUTHERN INDIA
PAGE PAGE PAGE PAGE
128 130 186 238
GLOSSARY
PAGE
286
INTRODUCTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
PAGE
288
INDEX
PAGE
289
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
PAGE
295
WS whitestar® is a registered trademark property of White Star s.r.l. © 2001, 2026 White Star s.r.l. Piazzale Luigi Cadorna, 6 20123 Milan, Italy www.whitestar.it All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. ISBN 978-88-544-2277-3 1 2 3 4 5 6 31 30 29 28 27 Printed in XXXX
6
1 The 6th-7th c. AD lovers from the north of India represent mithuna, “the state of being in two”, which alludes to completeness and happiness (Renzo Freschi Oriental Art). 2-3 The temples at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh are some of the best known Indian buildings in the West. The sensuality and beauty of the countless statues has brought them world attention. Built by the Chandella dynasty in the 10th-11th c. AD, the temples represent the apex of architectural development in northern India. 4-5 In spite of Someswar temple’s poor condition, the cover of it’s magnificent shikhara at Kiradu (11th c.) in Rajasthan has survived. It vibrates with gavaksha the ‘sun arches’ and is encircled by a crown of angashikhara (miniature reproductions of the shikhara itself) on an elaborate moulding.
6 Testimonies of a past world, the frescoes at Ajanta paint a lively portrait of a seemingly rich and pleasurable daily existence. The world of the nobility and wealthy merchants (generous patrons of the monastic community) is displayed on the walls of the caves (this is cave no.17). There are no references to the life of agriculturalists, the humbler levels of society, art or literature. 7 This medallion from the Kushana epoch (1st-2nd c. AD) from the Victoria and Albert Museum in London shows the Buddhist divinity Hariti dressed in a decidedly foreign style. The goddess wears a Hellenic type of blouse held at the waist by a belt, and a Greek style diadem on her head. The cornucopia-alike (horn of plenty) she holds in her left hand has also been influenced by Western iconography but the lotus in her right hand remains an Indian element.
7
Text Marilia Albanese
Editing supervision Maria Valeria Urbani Grecchi
Editorial production Valeria Manferto De Fabianis
Graphic Design Patrizia Balocco Lovisetti
Translation C.T.M., Milan
CONTENTS PREFACE
PAGE
9
THE HISTORY OF INDIA FROM ITS ORIGINS TO THE 13TH CENTURY
PAGE
15
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
PAGE
50
THE SACRED, DAILY LIFE AND ART PAGE
56
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ITINERARIES NORTHEN INDIA CENTRAL INDIA SOUTHERN INDIA
PAGE PAGE PAGE PAGE
128 130 186 238
GLOSSARY
PAGE
286
INTRODUCTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
PAGE
288
INDEX
PAGE
289
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
PAGE
295
WS whitestar® is a registered trademark property of White Star s.r.l. © 2001, 2026 White Star s.r.l. Piazzale Luigi Cadorna, 6 20123 Milan, Italy www.whitestar.it All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. ISBN 978-88-544-2277-3 1 2 3 4 5 6 31 30 29 28 27 Printed in XXXX
6
1 The 6th-7th c. AD lovers from the north of India represent mithuna, “the state of being in two”, which alludes to completeness and happiness (Renzo Freschi Oriental Art). 2-3 The temples at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh are some of the best known Indian buildings in the West. The sensuality and beauty of the countless statues has brought them world attention. Built by the Chandella dynasty in the 10th-11th c. AD, the temples represent the apex of architectural development in northern India. 4-5 In spite of Someswar temple’s poor condition, the cover of it’s magnificent shikhara at Kiradu (11th c.) in Rajasthan has survived. It vibrates with gavaksha the ‘sun arches’ and is encircled by a crown of angashikhara (miniature reproductions of the shikhara itself) on an elaborate moulding.
6 Testimonies of a past world, the frescoes at Ajanta paint a lively portrait of a seemingly rich and pleasurable daily existence. The world of the nobility and wealthy merchants (generous patrons of the monastic community) is displayed on the walls of the caves (this is cave no.17). There are no references to the life of agriculturalists, the humbler levels of society, art or literature. 7 This medallion from the Kushana epoch (1st-2nd c. AD) from the Victoria and Albert Museum in London shows the Buddhist divinity Hariti dressed in a decidedly foreign style. The goddess wears a Hellenic type of blouse held at the waist by a belt, and a Greek style diadem on her head. The cornucopia-alike (horn of plenty) she holds in her left hand has also been influenced by Western iconography but the lotus in her right hand remains an Indian element.
7
The sites in India between the 3rd Millenium b.c. and 13th c. ad
H I M
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72 ver i l X 74 l l l l X l 66 68 l
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INDIAN OCEAN 12
NORTH INDIA 1 Bhimbetka 2 Bhojpur 3 Besnagar 4 Udayagiri 5 Udaypur 6 Gyaraspur 7 Eran 8 Tigava 9 Nacna Kuthara 10 Candrehi 11 Sohagpur 12 Sirpur 13 Rajim 14 Sanci 15 Khajuraho 16 Bodh Gaya 17 Osia 18 Kiradu 19 Jagat 20 Nagda 21 Baroli 22 Modhera 23 Mont Abu CENTRAL INDIA 24 Elephanta 25 Ellora 26 Bhaja 27 Kondane 28 Pitalkhora 29 Bedsa 30 Karla 31 Pandulena 32 Aurangabad 33 Ajanta 34 Udaigiri 35 Bhubaneshvara 36 Puri 37 Konarak
SOUTH INDIA 38 Aihole 39 Badami 40 Pattadakal 41 Mahakuta 42 Gadag 43 Kukkanur 44 Lakkundi 45 Dambal 46 Ittagi 47 Haveri 48 Kuruvatti 49 Alampur 50 Balegamve 51 Belur 52 Halebid 53 Arsikeri 54 Doddagaddavalli 55 Somnathpur 56 Draksharama 57 Bikkavolu 58 Simhacalam 59 Warangal 60 Hanamkonda 61 Palampet 62 Mahabalipuram 63 Kancipuram 64 Uttaramerur 65 Nartamalai 66 Kodumbalur 67 Pullamangai 68 Kumbhakonam 69 Tiruvarur 70 Tiruvaiyar 71 Tanjore 72 Gangaikondacolapuram 73 Cidambaram 74 Darasuram
13 The temples of north India are dominated by pointed coverings (shikhara) that represent the mythical cosmic mountain as well as symbolising the descent of the Divine into material form and the ascent of man to god. The picture shows the shikhara on the 10th c. AD Ghateswar temple in Baroli in Rajasthan.
The sites in India between the 3rd Millenium b.c. and 13th c. ad
H I M
s
L
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A
I
u nd
Brahmap
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17 18
21 20
23
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4
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6
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31
25
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26
16
7
9
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10 11 12 13
32
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30
29
42
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47 48
AB
50
60
46
52
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61
K
s ri
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34
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35
X X X
37
36
d
a
v
a
57
rl i
58
l
56
a
GUL F O F BE NGAL
63
53 54
64
N
55 Ka
SE
70
o
59
49
39 43 41 l l l l 44 l l 45
51
Ma
X
X X 40
A S
G a n g e
1
38
Y
X
33 28
A
ge
X l
X
72 ver i l X 74 l l l l X l 66 68 l
A
65
71
62 73
69
67
INDIAN OCEAN 12
NORTH INDIA 1 Bhimbetka 2 Bhojpur 3 Besnagar 4 Udayagiri 5 Udaypur 6 Gyaraspur 7 Eran 8 Tigava 9 Nacna Kuthara 10 Candrehi 11 Sohagpur 12 Sirpur 13 Rajim 14 Sanci 15 Khajuraho 16 Bodh Gaya 17 Osia 18 Kiradu 19 Jagat 20 Nagda 21 Baroli 22 Modhera 23 Mont Abu CENTRAL INDIA 24 Elephanta 25 Ellora 26 Bhaja 27 Kondane 28 Pitalkhora 29 Bedsa 30 Karla 31 Pandulena 32 Aurangabad 33 Ajanta 34 Udaigiri 35 Bhubaneshvara 36 Puri 37 Konarak
SOUTH INDIA 38 Aihole 39 Badami 40 Pattadakal 41 Mahakuta 42 Gadag 43 Kukkanur 44 Lakkundi 45 Dambal 46 Ittagi 47 Haveri 48 Kuruvatti 49 Alampur 50 Balegamve 51 Belur 52 Halebid 53 Arsikeri 54 Doddagaddavalli 55 Somnathpur 56 Draksharama 57 Bikkavolu 58 Simhacalam 59 Warangal 60 Hanamkonda 61 Palampet 62 Mahabalipuram 63 Kancipuram 64 Uttaramerur 65 Nartamalai 66 Kodumbalur 67 Pullamangai 68 Kumbhakonam 69 Tiruvarur 70 Tiruvaiyar 71 Tanjore 72 Gangaikondacolapuram 73 Cidambaram 74 Darasuram
13 The temples of north India are dominated by pointed coverings (shikhara) that represent the mythical cosmic mountain as well as symbolising the descent of the Divine into material form and the ascent of man to god. The picture shows the shikhara on the 10th c. AD Ghateswar temple in Baroli in Rajasthan.
The principal activity of the populated centres seems to have been trade, in particular with the nearby Sumerian empire as is indicated in some tablets in the archive of Sargon the Great (2370-2344 BC). The tablets refer to Malukka or Maluhha which probably signify the Indus valley being “rich in ivory”. Indeed, one of the commonest animals during this period was the elephant if we are to judge by the iconography of the period; this is currently necessary as the written records have not yet been deciphered. Roughly four hundred thousand seals bearing engraved images have been found in
20 The Indus Valley civilisation was spread over a vast area; its many large cities had highly developed inhabited centres supported
20
by agriculture in the surrounding countryside and made wealthy by intense trading. The majolica earrings and bracelets found in Harappa
the Indus valley, most of them in groups of between four and ten. They no longer have any text as they were probably written in ink on perishable materials such as palm leaves and woven cotton. Scholars consider the seals to be phonetic symbols, graphemes or pictograms that represent a concept by means of figured or symbolic designs but which are never purely phonetic. The most convincing decoding attempt to date has been that of the Institute of Oriental Studies in Moscow which has demonstrated that the language of the Indus valley (proto-Indian) was different from both the contemporary
indicate that the cities’ inhabitants had a high quality of life. The jewellery can be seen in the National Museum of Delhi.
Asiatic languages that surrounded it and from the later Indian and Pakistani languages that developed from the Indo-European block. On the other hand, it has similarities with the Dravidian languages of south India. The seals therefore remain the basis of our knowledge about the Indus valley civilisation. Found in enormous numbers, they are mostly made from steatite, are square in shape with a perforated swelling on the back, and measure about 17 by 30 mm. After the surface of the stone had been cleaned with an abrasive, the motif was inscribed using a thin scalpel and details added with a burin
or punch. The shiny effect was created by spreading alkali over the surface and heating the stone. One of the most frequent motifs is the unicorn (the caparison that covers its torso and the brazier that accompanies it suggest that it was considered a sacred animal); hump-backed bulls, rhinocerosi and tigers are shown before a sort of feeding trough whereas elephants, buffaloes, zebus and crocodiles are not. There are also images of humans, the most famous of which is a god surrounded by a tiger, an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo that seems to anticipate the figure of Shiva Pashupati,
“Lord of the animals”, an important god of the later Hindu world. The iconology of the seals is completely unknown, however, certain elements seem to refer to a substrate of myths that were common to a huge area: the cult of the unicorn, the sacredness symbolised by the horns, its fights with wild beasts (probably connected with the Mesopotamic cycle of Gilgamesh but here the lions are replaced with tigers), fertility rites linked to agriculture, and the worship of animals and trees. The sacrality of nature seems confirmed by the feminine figure whom body produces a
plant; besides, the cult of the Great Goddess seems to have been a feature of Indus valley religion and pottery figures of females with large breasts and an exaggerated navel refer to maternity and fertility. Hairstyles in the form of a “basket” suggest that they were perhaps used as lanterns. Other pottery items were male figures (often caricatures), toys and model chariots that may have been votive offerings. Dance, which was to form an important part of later Hinduism, seems to be suggested in a bronze sculpture of a dancer found in Mohenjo Daro.
21 left The bronze portrait of a naked girl wearing bracelets is displayed in the National Museum of Delhi; it suggests the existence of ritual dancing which was later to be such an important part of temple ceremony. The Negroid features of the girl are a sign of a Proto-Australoid rather than Proto-Mediterranean strain though which of the two the Indus Valley civilisation belonged is not known given the few skeletons found.
21 right This seal was found at Mohenjo Daro; it bears the image of a unicorn, the mythical creature that must have occupied a place of honour in the religion of the Indus valley. The creature is shown with a caparison and preceded by a ritual object that has not been identified. A series of pictograms can be seen in the upper border. Animals frequently appear on Indus valley seals and many were later included in the Hindu pantheon as mounts of the gods.
21
The principal activity of the populated centres seems to have been trade, in particular with the nearby Sumerian empire as is indicated in some tablets in the archive of Sargon the Great (2370-2344 BC). The tablets refer to Malukka or Maluhha which probably signify the Indus valley being “rich in ivory”. Indeed, one of the commonest animals during this period was the elephant if we are to judge by the iconography of the period; this is currently necessary as the written records have not yet been deciphered. Roughly four hundred thousand seals bearing engraved images have been found in
20 The Indus Valley civilisation was spread over a vast area; its many large cities had highly developed inhabited centres supported
20
by agriculture in the surrounding countryside and made wealthy by intense trading. The majolica earrings and bracelets found in Harappa
the Indus valley, most of them in groups of between four and ten. They no longer have any text as they were probably written in ink on perishable materials such as palm leaves and woven cotton. Scholars consider the seals to be phonetic symbols, graphemes or pictograms that represent a concept by means of figured or symbolic designs but which are never purely phonetic. The most convincing decoding attempt to date has been that of the Institute of Oriental Studies in Moscow which has demonstrated that the language of the Indus valley (proto-Indian) was different from both the contemporary
indicate that the cities’ inhabitants had a high quality of life. The jewellery can be seen in the National Museum of Delhi.
Asiatic languages that surrounded it and from the later Indian and Pakistani languages that developed from the Indo-European block. On the other hand, it has similarities with the Dravidian languages of south India. The seals therefore remain the basis of our knowledge about the Indus valley civilisation. Found in enormous numbers, they are mostly made from steatite, are square in shape with a perforated swelling on the back, and measure about 17 by 30 mm. After the surface of the stone had been cleaned with an abrasive, the motif was inscribed using a thin scalpel and details added with a burin
or punch. The shiny effect was created by spreading alkali over the surface and heating the stone. One of the most frequent motifs is the unicorn (the caparison that covers its torso and the brazier that accompanies it suggest that it was considered a sacred animal); hump-backed bulls, rhinocerosi and tigers are shown before a sort of feeding trough whereas elephants, buffaloes, zebus and crocodiles are not. There are also images of humans, the most famous of which is a god surrounded by a tiger, an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo that seems to anticipate the figure of Shiva Pashupati,
“Lord of the animals”, an important god of the later Hindu world. The iconology of the seals is completely unknown, however, certain elements seem to refer to a substrate of myths that were common to a huge area: the cult of the unicorn, the sacredness symbolised by the horns, its fights with wild beasts (probably connected with the Mesopotamic cycle of Gilgamesh but here the lions are replaced with tigers), fertility rites linked to agriculture, and the worship of animals and trees. The sacrality of nature seems confirmed by the feminine figure whom body produces a
plant; besides, the cult of the Great Goddess seems to have been a feature of Indus valley religion and pottery figures of females with large breasts and an exaggerated navel refer to maternity and fertility. Hairstyles in the form of a “basket” suggest that they were perhaps used as lanterns. Other pottery items were male figures (often caricatures), toys and model chariots that may have been votive offerings. Dance, which was to form an important part of later Hinduism, seems to be suggested in a bronze sculpture of a dancer found in Mohenjo Daro.
21 left The bronze portrait of a naked girl wearing bracelets is displayed in the National Museum of Delhi; it suggests the existence of ritual dancing which was later to be such an important part of temple ceremony. The Negroid features of the girl are a sign of a Proto-Australoid rather than Proto-Mediterranean strain though which of the two the Indus Valley civilisation belonged is not known given the few skeletons found.
21 right This seal was found at Mohenjo Daro; it bears the image of a unicorn, the mythical creature that must have occupied a place of honour in the religion of the Indus valley. The creature is shown with a caparison and preceded by a ritual object that has not been identified. A series of pictograms can be seen in the upper border. Animals frequently appear on Indus valley seals and many were later included in the Hindu pantheon as mounts of the gods.
21
THE DIVINE WORLD The phenomenon improperly and later termed “Hinduism” by the West is an extremely complex subject that was formed over a number of stages. The oldest archaeological finds, both prehistoric and those linked to the Indus valley civilisation, are indicative of a chthonic religiousness connected with the land in which the commonest image is that of the Great Mother, a formidable symbolic projection of the archetypal female. Both beneficent and fearsome, she withholds and nourishes, destroys and regenerates in a sequence of positive and negative aspects typical of the primordial Goddess. The figure of the opulent and allembracing female is the first indication of the skilful Indian conjuror of images and it inspired some of the first sculptures, such as the tree nymphs of Didarganj and Besnagar. The association between femaleness and vegetation became traditional in all spheres, in particular in religion and art. The uniqueness and primacy of the Great Mother became progressively overshadowed in India, as elsewhere, by the apparition of a male god at her side who was first her subordinate, then her equal, and finally her superior. A new Indian social structure was reflected in a hierarchy of gods ruled by a male in which the Goddess became reduced to the role of a wife, and then a consort. Once the Indus valley civilisation had waned, the Vedic period (named after the four main texts connected with it, the “Veda”) championed a new dimension of the
60 The seated statue of a female dates from the 2nd-1st c. BC and was found in Bihar and is now in the John Eskenazi Gallery in London. It depicts the Great Goddess, the primal female archetype, the mother of all living creatures and the omnipotent Lady of Life. Her exaggerated breasts emphasise the “nourishing” function of the goddess and her massive and majestic presence alludes to the profound forces of Nature.
61 As Nature is the manifestation of the sacred, water, trees, stones, caves and mountains are worshipped in the Hindu religion. Often the divine power of a place is displayed in anthropomorphic guise as, for example, with the Yakshi or Shalabhanjika, the dryads who live in trees and embody their vital essence. These beings are depicted as lithe as climbing plants and as soft as mature fruit. The example from Rajasthan in the picture has been dated to the 10th c. and can be seen in the Guimet Museum in Paris.
sacred related to the sky in which male deities, the Deva, dominated. Mostly representing cosmic functions and phenomena, they were divided into three main categories: the lords of the earth, the lords of the air and the lords of the sky. The most important of the terrestrial gods was Agni, the god of fire; as king of the gods and the prototype of the warrior, Indra’s dominion was the air; Varuna was lord of the firmament and the sun and he watched over the doings of man. Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, Aditi, the mother of the gods, and Prithivi, the Earth, were the few female gods celebrated. In an eternal struggle against the Asura (demons), the gods protected man and provided a harmonious universe if they were correctly invoked using suitable rites. What had been a simple offer of gifts to propitiate and beseech the gods later developed into an increasingly complex liturgy with the sacrifice of animals, the recitation of formulas and praise, the giving of offerings, a codified ceremonial etc. Only the brahmin (priest) was allowed to officiate at the large celebrations and to orchestrate the divine energies throughout the cosmos for the benefit of man. Ceremonies were not just carried out to bring mundane advantages such as health, wealth, victory and children, but were considered the basic means of restoring vigour to the divine forces themselves. In addition, the firm belief in the identity of man as a microcosm of the universe charged the liturgy with magical and symbolic values so that animal sacrifice represented the occurrence of the great cosmic rite of existence. The multiple, representing the profane world charged with sorrow and imperfection, had originated from the dismemberment of a giant being which resulted in the One becoming the many. The purpose of the sacrifice was to restore the perfect conditions of unity that had existed prior to the manifestation of the world. With the growth in importance of the rite itself, the gods were reduced to catalysing elements that “justified” a sequence of sacred operations that were able to unleash an immeasurable force that formed the origin and support of the universe: the brahmin. From the 8th to the 6th c. BC, the term brahmin took on a more philosophic meaning and was used in the sense of the “Absolute”, “Divine Mystery” and “One beyond the Multiple”.
THE DIVINE WORLD The phenomenon improperly and later termed “Hinduism” by the West is an extremely complex subject that was formed over a number of stages. The oldest archaeological finds, both prehistoric and those linked to the Indus valley civilisation, are indicative of a chthonic religiousness connected with the land in which the commonest image is that of the Great Mother, a formidable symbolic projection of the archetypal female. Both beneficent and fearsome, she withholds and nourishes, destroys and regenerates in a sequence of positive and negative aspects typical of the primordial Goddess. The figure of the opulent and allembracing female is the first indication of the skilful Indian conjuror of images and it inspired some of the first sculptures, such as the tree nymphs of Didarganj and Besnagar. The association between femaleness and vegetation became traditional in all spheres, in particular in religion and art. The uniqueness and primacy of the Great Mother became progressively overshadowed in India, as elsewhere, by the apparition of a male god at her side who was first her subordinate, then her equal, and finally her superior. A new Indian social structure was reflected in a hierarchy of gods ruled by a male in which the Goddess became reduced to the role of a wife, and then a consort. Once the Indus valley civilisation had waned, the Vedic period (named after the four main texts connected with it, the “Veda”) championed a new dimension of the
60 The seated statue of a female dates from the 2nd-1st c. BC and was found in Bihar and is now in the John Eskenazi Gallery in London. It depicts the Great Goddess, the primal female archetype, the mother of all living creatures and the omnipotent Lady of Life. Her exaggerated breasts emphasise the “nourishing” function of the goddess and her massive and majestic presence alludes to the profound forces of Nature.
61 As Nature is the manifestation of the sacred, water, trees, stones, caves and mountains are worshipped in the Hindu religion. Often the divine power of a place is displayed in anthropomorphic guise as, for example, with the Yakshi or Shalabhanjika, the dryads who live in trees and embody their vital essence. These beings are depicted as lithe as climbing plants and as soft as mature fruit. The example from Rajasthan in the picture has been dated to the 10th c. and can be seen in the Guimet Museum in Paris.
sacred related to the sky in which male deities, the Deva, dominated. Mostly representing cosmic functions and phenomena, they were divided into three main categories: the lords of the earth, the lords of the air and the lords of the sky. The most important of the terrestrial gods was Agni, the god of fire; as king of the gods and the prototype of the warrior, Indra’s dominion was the air; Varuna was lord of the firmament and the sun and he watched over the doings of man. Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, Aditi, the mother of the gods, and Prithivi, the Earth, were the few female gods celebrated. In an eternal struggle against the Asura (demons), the gods protected man and provided a harmonious universe if they were correctly invoked using suitable rites. What had been a simple offer of gifts to propitiate and beseech the gods later developed into an increasingly complex liturgy with the sacrifice of animals, the recitation of formulas and praise, the giving of offerings, a codified ceremonial etc. Only the brahmin (priest) was allowed to officiate at the large celebrations and to orchestrate the divine energies throughout the cosmos for the benefit of man. Ceremonies were not just carried out to bring mundane advantages such as health, wealth, victory and children, but were considered the basic means of restoring vigour to the divine forces themselves. In addition, the firm belief in the identity of man as a microcosm of the universe charged the liturgy with magical and symbolic values so that animal sacrifice represented the occurrence of the great cosmic rite of existence. The multiple, representing the profane world charged with sorrow and imperfection, had originated from the dismemberment of a giant being which resulted in the One becoming the many. The purpose of the sacrifice was to restore the perfect conditions of unity that had existed prior to the manifestation of the world. With the growth in importance of the rite itself, the gods were reduced to catalysing elements that “justified” a sequence of sacred operations that were able to unleash an immeasurable force that formed the origin and support of the universe: the brahmin. From the 8th to the 6th c. BC, the term brahmin took on a more philosophic meaning and was used in the sense of the “Absolute”, “Divine Mystery” and “One beyond the Multiple”.
The other epic that deeply coloured Indian iconography is the Ramayana (“Romance of Rama”) that describes the deeds of the just and courageous king Rama, the incarnation of the god Vishnu. It is thought to have been written by the poet Valmiki, a devout hermit who participated in the events, between the 2nd c. BC and 2nd c. AD. In 24,000 stanzas, it tells the story of Rama, the heir to the throne, who was forced into exile in the forest following a conspiracy hatched by one of the queens. Sita, Rama’s beautiful wife whose hand he won during a tournament, followed him into the forest as did Lakshmana, one of the Rama’s brothers. After a number of adventures, Rama and Lakshmana encountered the demoness
Surpanaka who fell in love with the two young men but they rejected and derided her. Hoping to avenge her slight, Surpanaka went in search of her powerful demon brother, Ravana, the lord of Lanka island and an invincible warrior with a thousand heads. Knowing Ravana’s fondness for women, Surpanaka described Sita’s beauty to him and Ravana decided to kidnap her. Conjured up by Ravana, a gazelle with a golden fleece appeared in the forest to which Rama gave chase, closely followed by Lakshmana who feared for his brother’s safety. In their absence, Ravana approached Sita who had been left alone inside a magic circle of protection; in the guise of an old ascetic, Ravana persuaded Sita to approach him and then abducted her. On their return, Rama and Lakshmana were desperate at Sita’s disappearance and involved
70
Sugriva, the king of the monkeys, and his army to aid in searching for Sita. Hanuman, the son of the monkey king, was able to fly and discovered Sita a prisoner on Lanka island where she had continually rejected Ravana’s attempts at seduction. Ravana was unable to take her by force as the god Brahma had once caught him raping a celestial nymph and had threatened to cut off all one thousand of the demon’s heads if he ever dared violate a woman again. Once he knew where Sita was, Rama built a bridge from the mainland to Lanka island and the allied armies marched to the enemy city. After days of hard-pressed battle, Rama and Ravana came face to face and the demon was slain. Rama returned in triumph to his capital
where he reclaimed his kingdom but, as Sita was the prisoner of another man, she was required to face an ordeal by fire to attest her purity. The god of the fire proclaimed the chastity of the queen and returned her to her husband but, shortly after, Rama learns that the common people again questioned the queen’s fidelity and he was forced to repudiate her. Sita takes refuge in the retreat of Valmiki, the wise man (and the author of Ramayana) where she gave birth to Rama’s twins. Several years later, the two boys mettheir royal father with whom they comported themselves with dignity. Asking them about their origins, Rama learned that they were his children so he took them back to his court where he agreed to take back Sita too provided she was willing to undergo another trial of her chastity.
The queen implored the earth to swallow her up as a sign of her innocence, which it did, leaving Rama prostrate with grief. However, a voice from heaven called down telling the king that he was the human incarnation of the god Vishnu and that Sita was his divine consort Lakshmi and that the two would meet again in heaven. Deeply loved by the Indian people, the main characters in the Ramayana represent archetypal heroes: the perfect ruler, the virtuous wife, the loyal brother, the devoted friend and the hardened villain. This is how temple wall sculpture has immortalised them over the centuries, giving the faithful a continual and immediate link with fundamental Hindu myth.
70 left Krishna was another of Vishnu’s avatars and is celebrated in the epic poetry of the Mahabharata (4th c. BC - 4th c. AD) and in the later mythicalritual texts known as the Purana. This scene is taken from a 16th c. manuscript of the Bhagavatapurana and shows the gardener Sudama offering a garland to Krishna. The god, whose name means “Black” as the Divine is immanifest and inscrutable, is portrayed with dark flesh tones. His brother Balarama is shown next to him. 70 right This 10th c. Chola bronze from the Ethnographic Museum in Geneva shows Sita, the virtuous wife of Rama. She was not born naturally but sprang from a furrow when king Janaka was ploughing his field and was evidently a projection of the Great Goddess. Abducted by the demon Ravana, she was freed by her husband but was later repudiated by him, however, already pregnant by him, she gave birth to twins in the retreat belonging to Valmiki who was the mythical compiler of the Ramayana. Just as Rama was the avatar of Vishnu, Sita was considered the incarnation of Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi. Whereas the figure of Rama was the prototype of the virtuous king, Sita symbolised the Earth and the kingdom. 71 The sixth and seventh of Vishnu’s ten most important incarnations were versions of Rama: Ramacandra, the hero of the Ramayana, and Parashamura, who is shown with his parashu (battleaxe) in this Chola bronze displayed in the Ethnographic Museum in Geneva. In one episode of the Ramayana, Parashamura recognises the superiority of Ramacandra.
The other epic that deeply coloured Indian iconography is the Ramayana (“Romance of Rama”) that describes the deeds of the just and courageous king Rama, the incarnation of the god Vishnu. It is thought to have been written by the poet Valmiki, a devout hermit who participated in the events, between the 2nd c. BC and 2nd c. AD. In 24,000 stanzas, it tells the story of Rama, the heir to the throne, who was forced into exile in the forest following a conspiracy hatched by one of the queens. Sita, Rama’s beautiful wife whose hand he won during a tournament, followed him into the forest as did Lakshmana, one of the Rama’s brothers. After a number of adventures, Rama and Lakshmana encountered the demoness
Surpanaka who fell in love with the two young men but they rejected and derided her. Hoping to avenge her slight, Surpanaka went in search of her powerful demon brother, Ravana, the lord of Lanka island and an invincible warrior with a thousand heads. Knowing Ravana’s fondness for women, Surpanaka described Sita’s beauty to him and Ravana decided to kidnap her. Conjured up by Ravana, a gazelle with a golden fleece appeared in the forest to which Rama gave chase, closely followed by Lakshmana who feared for his brother’s safety. In their absence, Ravana approached Sita who had been left alone inside a magic circle of protection; in the guise of an old ascetic, Ravana persuaded Sita to approach him and then abducted her. On their return, Rama and Lakshmana were desperate at Sita’s disappearance and involved
70
Sugriva, the king of the monkeys, and his army to aid in searching for Sita. Hanuman, the son of the monkey king, was able to fly and discovered Sita a prisoner on Lanka island where she had continually rejected Ravana’s attempts at seduction. Ravana was unable to take her by force as the god Brahma had once caught him raping a celestial nymph and had threatened to cut off all one thousand of the demon’s heads if he ever dared violate a woman again. Once he knew where Sita was, Rama built a bridge from the mainland to Lanka island and the allied armies marched to the enemy city. After days of hard-pressed battle, Rama and Ravana came face to face and the demon was slain. Rama returned in triumph to his capital
where he reclaimed his kingdom but, as Sita was the prisoner of another man, she was required to face an ordeal by fire to attest her purity. The god of the fire proclaimed the chastity of the queen and returned her to her husband but, shortly after, Rama learns that the common people again questioned the queen’s fidelity and he was forced to repudiate her. Sita takes refuge in the retreat of Valmiki, the wise man (and the author of Ramayana) where she gave birth to Rama’s twins. Several years later, the two boys mettheir royal father with whom they comported themselves with dignity. Asking them about their origins, Rama learned that they were his children so he took them back to his court where he agreed to take back Sita too provided she was willing to undergo another trial of her chastity.
The queen implored the earth to swallow her up as a sign of her innocence, which it did, leaving Rama prostrate with grief. However, a voice from heaven called down telling the king that he was the human incarnation of the god Vishnu and that Sita was his divine consort Lakshmi and that the two would meet again in heaven. Deeply loved by the Indian people, the main characters in the Ramayana represent archetypal heroes: the perfect ruler, the virtuous wife, the loyal brother, the devoted friend and the hardened villain. This is how temple wall sculpture has immortalised them over the centuries, giving the faithful a continual and immediate link with fundamental Hindu myth.
70 left Krishna was another of Vishnu’s avatars and is celebrated in the epic poetry of the Mahabharata (4th c. BC - 4th c. AD) and in the later mythicalritual texts known as the Purana. This scene is taken from a 16th c. manuscript of the Bhagavatapurana and shows the gardener Sudama offering a garland to Krishna. The god, whose name means “Black” as the Divine is immanifest and inscrutable, is portrayed with dark flesh tones. His brother Balarama is shown next to him. 70 right This 10th c. Chola bronze from the Ethnographic Museum in Geneva shows Sita, the virtuous wife of Rama. She was not born naturally but sprang from a furrow when king Janaka was ploughing his field and was evidently a projection of the Great Goddess. Abducted by the demon Ravana, she was freed by her husband but was later repudiated by him, however, already pregnant by him, she gave birth to twins in the retreat belonging to Valmiki who was the mythical compiler of the Ramayana. Just as Rama was the avatar of Vishnu, Sita was considered the incarnation of Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi. Whereas the figure of Rama was the prototype of the virtuous king, Sita symbolised the Earth and the kingdom. 71 The sixth and seventh of Vishnu’s ten most important incarnations were versions of Rama: Ramacandra, the hero of the Ramayana, and Parashamura, who is shown with his parashu (battleaxe) in this Chola bronze displayed in the Ethnographic Museum in Geneva. In one episode of the Ramayana, Parashamura recognises the superiority of Ramacandra.
Eternally young and portrayed with the bodies of adolescents at the age when the waist gently opens like a lotus bud, they are marked by inner smiles and emanate a mysterious serenity. Beauty was a fundamental vehicle for elevation: celestial nymphs of all kinds – apsaras, yakshi, surasundari, etc. – are the messengers of the Shakti, anima mundi, the female cosmic and erotic power associated with the dynamism of nature. They are present in water, plants, the sky and are the living representation of the divine existence that flows and beats in living forms, but, simultaneously, they are initiates who use their appeal to lead man to God. Union is the aim of every spiritual path followed: the most extreme form of this is the linga, the phallic stone that may have developed from menhir, inserted in the yoni, the female origin. Every deity has its lakshana (attributes) held in the hands, worn as ornaments or accompanying objects; some of the deities may have two aspects: shanta (peaceful and welcoming) and raudra (angry and fearsome). The number of arms a deity has is a powerful way of stressing the strength and expansiveness of the Divine. The lakshana of the Buddha are especially codified. Images of the Buddha in human form began to appear during the 2nd c. AD in the north-west of the country where the Hellenised art of the Gandhara dynasty had its roots. Earlier than this period, no such images of the Enlightened One were permitted as the followers of the Hinayana – the oldest school of Buddhist thought – considered him as a supreme master and not as a divinity. Representations of him would therefore have had no sense both because his human form had been extinguished on attaining nirvana, and because it was not so much the historical figure of the master that was important but the doctrine he preached.
110 The art of Gandhara was the result of a fertile encounter of Hellenic and Indian aesthetics. This 4th c. AD stucco head from the National Museum in Delhi is a fine example: the softness of the hairstyle is reminiscent of Greek
art while the petal form of the half-closed eyes and the fleshy lips are typically Indian. Stucco was a malleable material but as solid as rock and could be painted thanks to its porosity and smoothness.
111 left This moustachioed figure with marked facial features was produced in accordance with the artistic standards of the age but that expressiveness was gradually lost over succeeding periods. The figure was sculpted during the Gupta dynasty of the 3rd-4th c. and is part of the Renzo Freschi collection.
111 right The red sandstone fragment from Bharhut stupa (now at the National Museum in Delhi) may represent a dryad. The light corpulence, the dimple in the chin, and the fold of the lips give her face the appearance of an adolescent. Divine beings were generally represented with youthful features considered aesthetically perfect because human body is like a blossom not contamined.
Eternally young and portrayed with the bodies of adolescents at the age when the waist gently opens like a lotus bud, they are marked by inner smiles and emanate a mysterious serenity. Beauty was a fundamental vehicle for elevation: celestial nymphs of all kinds – apsaras, yakshi, surasundari, etc. – are the messengers of the Shakti, anima mundi, the female cosmic and erotic power associated with the dynamism of nature. They are present in water, plants, the sky and are the living representation of the divine existence that flows and beats in living forms, but, simultaneously, they are initiates who use their appeal to lead man to God. Union is the aim of every spiritual path followed: the most extreme form of this is the linga, the phallic stone that may have developed from menhir, inserted in the yoni, the female origin. Every deity has its lakshana (attributes) held in the hands, worn as ornaments or accompanying objects; some of the deities may have two aspects: shanta (peaceful and welcoming) and raudra (angry and fearsome). The number of arms a deity has is a powerful way of stressing the strength and expansiveness of the Divine. The lakshana of the Buddha are especially codified. Images of the Buddha in human form began to appear during the 2nd c. AD in the north-west of the country where the Hellenised art of the Gandhara dynasty had its roots. Earlier than this period, no such images of the Enlightened One were permitted as the followers of the Hinayana – the oldest school of Buddhist thought – considered him as a supreme master and not as a divinity. Representations of him would therefore have had no sense both because his human form had been extinguished on attaining nirvana, and because it was not so much the historical figure of the master that was important but the doctrine he preached.
110 The art of Gandhara was the result of a fertile encounter of Hellenic and Indian aesthetics. This 4th c. AD stucco head from the National Museum in Delhi is a fine example: the softness of the hairstyle is reminiscent of Greek
art while the petal form of the half-closed eyes and the fleshy lips are typically Indian. Stucco was a malleable material but as solid as rock and could be painted thanks to its porosity and smoothness.
111 left This moustachioed figure with marked facial features was produced in accordance with the artistic standards of the age but that expressiveness was gradually lost over succeeding periods. The figure was sculpted during the Gupta dynasty of the 3rd-4th c. and is part of the Renzo Freschi collection.
111 right The red sandstone fragment from Bharhut stupa (now at the National Museum in Delhi) may represent a dryad. The light corpulence, the dimple in the chin, and the fold of the lips give her face the appearance of an adolescent. Divine beings were generally represented with youthful features considered aesthetically perfect because human body is like a blossom not contamined.
Archaeological itineraries 126-127 This niche in the 6th c. Dashavatara temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, shows Vishnu, the Lord of life, with his bride Lakshmi at his feet. The
god’s sleep alludes to the moment that occurs between the disappearance of one universe and the birth of the next. Time is viewed by the Hindu world as cyclical.
128
INTRODUCTION
186 CENTRAL INDIA
238 SOUTHERN INDIA
130
NORTHERN INDIA
130
Madhya Pradesh:
186 Elefanta and Ellora: the cave and the mountain, the abodes of shiva
238 From Aihole to Alampur: the experiments of the Chalukya
134
Sanchi: the Buddha in the centre of the universe
198 From Bhaja to Aurangabad: the rock monasteries of Buddhism
254 From Belur to Somnathpur: the temples of the Hoysala
146
Khajuraho: the erotic enigma of the Chandella
204 Ajanta: the fresco of life
260 Andhra Pradesh: a region
160
Magadha:the heart of empires
164
From Osia to Mount Abu:
from prehistory to the year 1000
the pavilions of paradise
222 Bhubaneswar: the forest of shikhara 232 Konarak: a hymn to the sun carved in the stone
to be discovered
262 Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram: the chariots of the Gods 272 From Tanjore to Chidambaram: the divine cities of the Chola
Archaeological itineraries 126-127 This niche in the 6th c. Dashavatara temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, shows Vishnu, the Lord of life, with his bride Lakshmi at his feet. The
god’s sleep alludes to the moment that occurs between the disappearance of one universe and the birth of the next. Time is viewed by the Hindu world as cyclical.
128
INTRODUCTION
186 CENTRAL INDIA
238 SOUTHERN INDIA
130
NORTHERN INDIA
130
Madhya Pradesh:
186 Elefanta and Ellora: the cave and the mountain, the abodes of shiva
238 From Aihole to Alampur: the experiments of the Chalukya
134
Sanchi: the Buddha in the centre of the universe
198 From Bhaja to Aurangabad: the rock monasteries of Buddhism
254 From Belur to Somnathpur: the temples of the Hoysala
146
Khajuraho: the erotic enigma of the Chandella
204 Ajanta: the fresco of life
260 Andhra Pradesh: a region
160
Magadha:the heart of empires
164
From Osia to Mount Abu:
from prehistory to the year 1000
the pavilions of paradise
222 Bhubaneswar: the forest of shikhara 232 Konarak: a hymn to the sun carved in the stone
to be discovered
262 Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram: the chariots of the Gods 272 From Tanjore to Chidambaram: the divine cities of the Chola
AJANTA: THE FRESCO OF LIFE
Ajanta, one of the most famous places in India, lies fifty five kilometres from Jalgaon and one hundred from Aurangabad in the state of Maharashtra. Its thirty caves are evidence of the importance of Buddhism and the transformations it underwent during the period from the 2nd c. BC to the 5th c. AD. The caves were dug out of a natural rocky amphitheatre seventy six metres high that overlooks the Wagora, a torrent that descends the hill in seven waterfalls during the rainy season, forming the satkund (“seven pools”).
Local tradition says that this idyllic place was consecrated to a Naga, one of the mythical creatures that were part human, part serpentine, but it was chosen by Buddhist monks as a place to retire to during the monsoon period when it wasn’t longer possible to continue the nomadic life required by their rules. The painting of the superb works of art at Ajanta was made possible by donations to the monastic community by kings, ministers and merchants who hoped to acquire spiritual merit by doing so. At one time, each cave was connected individually to the torrent by steps cut in the rock or by wooden ladders. Today they are
204
The plan of the 29 caves at Ajanta shows the square and rectangular vihara (monasteries) and apsidal caityagriha (places of worship).
204 centre The 29 caves at Ajanta were dug out of a basalt amphitheatre that overlooks the Waghora river; they were connected to the
water by wooden steps that no longer exist. The site was separate, but not far, from the caravan route that connected the western ports with the Deccan.
united by a winding concrete path over half a kilometre long. The caves are either caitya (sanctuaries) or vihara or sangharama (monasteries): caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29 are of the first type, and the rest are monasteries. The entrance portals to Ajanta’s caitya often have the addition of a portico supported by two columns; a large horse-shoe shaped skylight in each caitya is surrounded with rows of kudu, small round windows filled with human faces like people looking down from garret windows. At a later date, when the Hinayana form of Buddhism developed into the Mahayana, figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattva appeared on the facade.
204-205 Excavation of the rock caves was performed from the top downwards and from the facade towards the back; the decorative techniques of engraving, lining with stucco, and painting were carried out at the same time. In order to provide sufficient lighting inside the cave for the work to go ahead, mirrors were used to reflect natural light. The caisson ceiling shown is from cave no.2.
205 bottom left Ajanta is famous for its frescoes, the nucleus of which was painted in the 5th c. AD. The themes are mostly taken from the life of the historical Buddha and from accounts of his previous lives. The detail in the picture is from cave no.1 in which the Buddha is represented in his life as prince Mahajanaka.
205 bottom Excavated between the 2nd c. BC and the 5th c. AD, the caves at Ajanta mirror the evolution of Buddhism, one attribute of which was the progressive enhancement of the iconography. Yaksha, beneficent tree spirits, were often portrayed as guards to a sacred site, as illustrated in the image from cave no.26.
205
AJANTA: THE FRESCO OF LIFE
Ajanta, one of the most famous places in India, lies fifty five kilometres from Jalgaon and one hundred from Aurangabad in the state of Maharashtra. Its thirty caves are evidence of the importance of Buddhism and the transformations it underwent during the period from the 2nd c. BC to the 5th c. AD. The caves were dug out of a natural rocky amphitheatre seventy six metres high that overlooks the Wagora, a torrent that descends the hill in seven waterfalls during the rainy season, forming the satkund (“seven pools”).
Local tradition says that this idyllic place was consecrated to a Naga, one of the mythical creatures that were part human, part serpentine, but it was chosen by Buddhist monks as a place to retire to during the monsoon period when it wasn’t longer possible to continue the nomadic life required by their rules. The painting of the superb works of art at Ajanta was made possible by donations to the monastic community by kings, ministers and merchants who hoped to acquire spiritual merit by doing so. At one time, each cave was connected individually to the torrent by steps cut in the rock or by wooden ladders. Today they are
204
The plan of the 29 caves at Ajanta shows the square and rectangular vihara (monasteries) and apsidal caityagriha (places of worship).
204 centre The 29 caves at Ajanta were dug out of a basalt amphitheatre that overlooks the Waghora river; they were connected to the
water by wooden steps that no longer exist. The site was separate, but not far, from the caravan route that connected the western ports with the Deccan.
united by a winding concrete path over half a kilometre long. The caves are either caitya (sanctuaries) or vihara or sangharama (monasteries): caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29 are of the first type, and the rest are monasteries. The entrance portals to Ajanta’s caitya often have the addition of a portico supported by two columns; a large horse-shoe shaped skylight in each caitya is surrounded with rows of kudu, small round windows filled with human faces like people looking down from garret windows. At a later date, when the Hinayana form of Buddhism developed into the Mahayana, figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattva appeared on the facade.
204-205 Excavation of the rock caves was performed from the top downwards and from the facade towards the back; the decorative techniques of engraving, lining with stucco, and painting were carried out at the same time. In order to provide sufficient lighting inside the cave for the work to go ahead, mirrors were used to reflect natural light. The caisson ceiling shown is from cave no.2.
205 bottom left Ajanta is famous for its frescoes, the nucleus of which was painted in the 5th c. AD. The themes are mostly taken from the life of the historical Buddha and from accounts of his previous lives. The detail in the picture is from cave no.1 in which the Buddha is represented in his life as prince Mahajanaka.
205 bottom Excavated between the 2nd c. BC and the 5th c. AD, the caves at Ajanta mirror the evolution of Buddhism, one attribute of which was the progressive enhancement of the iconography. Yaksha, beneficent tree spirits, were often portrayed as guards to a sacred site, as illustrated in the image from cave no.26.
205
H
G
B
G
G
H
F
H
D E
258 top The star plan, with its many projections, increases the surface area available for decoration. The sculptures were placed below carved arches or leafy canopies and are distinguished by opulent ornamentation. The wheel and shell in the image in the foreground on Somnathpur temple identify the figure as Vishnu.
258 bottom Complete with coverings, Keshava temple (1268) is one of the most perfect examples of Hoysala architecture. The series of recesses and projections seems to allude to the alternating expansion and retraction of the universe and to the inhalation and exhalation that gives life to man.
258-259 The registers of the friezes are arranged in order: from the bottom, animals, plant ornamentation, human figures, makara and hamsa. The hamsa are at the top as they refer to the soul. Note the successful resolution of the corner with the frontal representation of the animal and the kirtimukha (a sort of mask).
C
B
KESHAVA TEMPLE A
Gopura, A
entrance portal
B Enclosure wall
with colonnade and cells
C Courts D Platform of the pradakshina
Somnathpur is the location of one of the most perfect examples of Hoysala architecture, Keshava temple, built by Somnath, a minister of king Narasimha III, in 1268. Unlike the constructions at Belur and Halebid, Keshava temple has kept its superstructures and therefore its appearance is better balanced than the other two famous temples. The rectangular enclosure wall contains sixty four bays and has a hypostyle veranda in front. By climbing up to the terraces, one can get a view of the whole complex and admire the star shape of the temple plan and the vertical thrust of the buildings which appear to rise in a spiral. The three cellas that form the complex dedicated to Vishnu radiate from a rectangular mandapa on a plan that looks like a Latin cross. A portico leads to the mandapa split into two sections, one with twelve columns and the other with four. It is onto the latter that the cellas open, each preceded by a vestibule. Unusually, they are rectangular in shape. The centre one has an image of Keshava (VishnuKrisha “Radiant”) and those at the sides Venugopala (Krishna the shepherd with a flute) and Janardana (Vishnu who “bestows rewards”). The base of the temple is divided into bands as is customary with elephants, horses, climbing plants, mythical scenes, makara and hamsa below leafy niches for the gods and rows of miniature buildings. Wide eaves edged with festoons and pendants form the base of the superstructure that continues the star shape from the walls below on which four storeys of reproductions of the temple roof
258
Mukhamandapa, E portico
F Mandapa,
double hypostyle pavilion ipostilo doppio
G Antarala, vestibule
H Garbhagriha, cella
are piled, all topped by a double lotus flower with raised petals. The profusion of statues, the minutiae of the details, the omnipresent decoration and the continuous relationship of projections and recesses all come together at the top of the temple in the water vase that forms the pivot around which the temple revolves in its representation of the beginning and end of the spiral of existence.
259
H
G
B
G
G
H
F
H
D E
258 top The star plan, with its many projections, increases the surface area available for decoration. The sculptures were placed below carved arches or leafy canopies and are distinguished by opulent ornamentation. The wheel and shell in the image in the foreground on Somnathpur temple identify the figure as Vishnu.
258 bottom Complete with coverings, Keshava temple (1268) is one of the most perfect examples of Hoysala architecture. The series of recesses and projections seems to allude to the alternating expansion and retraction of the universe and to the inhalation and exhalation that gives life to man.
258-259 The registers of the friezes are arranged in order: from the bottom, animals, plant ornamentation, human figures, makara and hamsa. The hamsa are at the top as they refer to the soul. Note the successful resolution of the corner with the frontal representation of the animal and the kirtimukha (a sort of mask).
C
B
KESHAVA TEMPLE A
Gopura, A
entrance portal
B Enclosure wall
with colonnade and cells
C Courts D Platform of the pradakshina
Somnathpur is the location of one of the most perfect examples of Hoysala architecture, Keshava temple, built by Somnath, a minister of king Narasimha III, in 1268. Unlike the constructions at Belur and Halebid, Keshava temple has kept its superstructures and therefore its appearance is better balanced than the other two famous temples. The rectangular enclosure wall contains sixty four bays and has a hypostyle veranda in front. By climbing up to the terraces, one can get a view of the whole complex and admire the star shape of the temple plan and the vertical thrust of the buildings which appear to rise in a spiral. The three cellas that form the complex dedicated to Vishnu radiate from a rectangular mandapa on a plan that looks like a Latin cross. A portico leads to the mandapa split into two sections, one with twelve columns and the other with four. It is onto the latter that the cellas open, each preceded by a vestibule. Unusually, they are rectangular in shape. The centre one has an image of Keshava (VishnuKrisha “Radiant”) and those at the sides Venugopala (Krishna the shepherd with a flute) and Janardana (Vishnu who “bestows rewards”). The base of the temple is divided into bands as is customary with elephants, horses, climbing plants, mythical scenes, makara and hamsa below leafy niches for the gods and rows of miniature buildings. Wide eaves edged with festoons and pendants form the base of the superstructure that continues the star shape from the walls below on which four storeys of reproductions of the temple roof
258
Mukhamandapa, E portico
F Mandapa,
double hypostyle pavilion ipostilo doppio
G Antarala, vestibule
H Garbhagriha, cella
are piled, all topped by a double lotus flower with raised petals. The profusion of statues, the minutiae of the details, the omnipresent decoration and the continuous relationship of projections and recesses all come together at the top of the temple in the water vase that forms the pivot around which the temple revolves in its representation of the beginning and end of the spiral of existence.
259
279 top Chandeshanugrahamurti is the name given to the figure of Shiva with his wife Parvati as he ties the turban of his worshipper Chandesha; the image is carved in an exterior niche of Gangaikondacolapura temple. The god holds the symbols that distinguish him in the traditions of southern India: an axe and an antelope.
278-279 Evidently inspired the vimana at Tanjore, the one in Gangaikondacolapura temple (11th c.) – also
dedicated to Shiva – seems less square and more convex. The cella is preceded by the vestibule and a mandapa of 150 columns that was a foretaste of the “room of a thousand columns” that was to appear in city-temples in later centuries. 278 bottom left The dedication of Gangaikondacolapuram is reasserted by guardians armed with tridents like Shivas; guardian similar to the God for the menacing features of fangs and fiery hair.
278
Wishing to emulate his father by creating his own capital, Rajendra I (1014-44) founded Gangaikondacholapuram in the second half of his reign near Kumbhakonam to celebrate the victorious military campaigns he had led as far as Bengal and Benares. Gangaikondacoleswar temple, meaning the “Lord of the Chola king, bringer of the Ganges” was built in just ten years between 1025-35 in honour of Shiva with the specific aim of holding the waters of the Ganges requested by Rajendra as tribute from the defeated kings of north India. This was in order to “erect a liquid column of victory” as the inscriptions say. A place of pilgrimage and important power centre, Gangaikondacholapuram survived until the
end of the 13th c. when it was sacked by the Pandyas of Madurai. The temple faces east-west on a high base more richly decorated than the one in Tanjore; it stands inside an enclosure wall fortified with bastions with a mahamandapa in poor condition, a connecting vestibule, a deambulatory and a cella that contains a 4 metre linga. The vimana is nine floors and fifty metres high but seems more graceful and more feminine than the one in Tanjore as it is wider at the base and slightly curved in profile; the impression is strengthened by the octagonal structures at the corners that round out the covering. Two floors that project from the vimana on the roof of the mandapa suggest
that the building had a greater number of floors at one stage, like at Tanjore, and the statuary in the niches of the outer walls is of superb quality. The large figure of Nandi made from plasterlined brick in front of the temple is a later addition as is the gigantic lion at the entrance to the pool built to collect the waters of the Ganges which was incorporated in the 19th century. Four other sanctuaries stand in the Gangaikondacoliswar complex: the 15th c. temple dedicated to Durga Mahisasuramardini, the 11th c. temple dedicated to Chandikeswar, the 13th c. temple dedicated to Ganesh, and the lovely temple of the Goddess that has many statues inside and a replica of the goddess herself, these last two were built by the two queens of Rajendra I.
279 bottom Rajendra I, the founder of Gangaikondacolapura temple, had a water tank built to hold the water of the Ganges that he demanded as tribute from northern kings that he had defeated in battle. The statue of the lion that incorporates the entrance is a recent reconstruction of the probable original motif.
279 top Chandeshanugrahamurti is the name given to the figure of Shiva with his wife Parvati as he ties the turban of his worshipper Chandesha; the image is carved in an exterior niche of Gangaikondacolapura temple. The god holds the symbols that distinguish him in the traditions of southern India: an axe and an antelope.
278-279 Evidently inspired the vimana at Tanjore, the one in Gangaikondacolapura temple (11th c.) – also
dedicated to Shiva – seems less square and more convex. The cella is preceded by the vestibule and a mandapa of 150 columns that was a foretaste of the “room of a thousand columns” that was to appear in city-temples in later centuries. 278 bottom left The dedication of Gangaikondacolapuram is reasserted by guardians armed with tridents like Shivas; guardian similar to the God for the menacing features of fangs and fiery hair.
278
Wishing to emulate his father by creating his own capital, Rajendra I (1014-44) founded Gangaikondacholapuram in the second half of his reign near Kumbhakonam to celebrate the victorious military campaigns he had led as far as Bengal and Benares. Gangaikondacoleswar temple, meaning the “Lord of the Chola king, bringer of the Ganges” was built in just ten years between 1025-35 in honour of Shiva with the specific aim of holding the waters of the Ganges requested by Rajendra as tribute from the defeated kings of north India. This was in order to “erect a liquid column of victory” as the inscriptions say. A place of pilgrimage and important power centre, Gangaikondacholapuram survived until the
end of the 13th c. when it was sacked by the Pandyas of Madurai. The temple faces east-west on a high base more richly decorated than the one in Tanjore; it stands inside an enclosure wall fortified with bastions with a mahamandapa in poor condition, a connecting vestibule, a deambulatory and a cella that contains a 4 metre linga. The vimana is nine floors and fifty metres high but seems more graceful and more feminine than the one in Tanjore as it is wider at the base and slightly curved in profile; the impression is strengthened by the octagonal structures at the corners that round out the covering. Two floors that project from the vimana on the roof of the mandapa suggest
that the building had a greater number of floors at one stage, like at Tanjore, and the statuary in the niches of the outer walls is of superb quality. The large figure of Nandi made from plasterlined brick in front of the temple is a later addition as is the gigantic lion at the entrance to the pool built to collect the waters of the Ganges which was incorporated in the 19th century. Four other sanctuaries stand in the Gangaikondacoliswar complex: the 15th c. temple dedicated to Durga Mahisasuramardini, the 11th c. temple dedicated to Chandikeswar, the 13th c. temple dedicated to Ganesh, and the lovely temple of the Goddess that has many statues inside and a replica of the goddess herself, these last two were built by the two queens of Rajendra I.
279 bottom Rajendra I, the founder of Gangaikondacolapura temple, had a water tank built to hold the water of the Ganges that he demanded as tribute from northern kings that he had defeated in battle. The statue of the lion that incorporates the entrance is a recent reconstruction of the probable original motif.
Top Depending on the cultural circle in which it was produced, the lion figure occurs in indian art in association with concepts as royalty and with deities like Visnu, Durga and Parvati; it was also a metaphor of teaching the buddhist doctrine. Here a lion of the outside of Saciyamata, one of the temples of Osia’s complex in Rajasthan (8th-9th cent. a.D.)