The 2025–2026 Argus Commission, comprised of the five previous AACP presidents and current AACP CEO and Executive Vice President, was charged by AACP President Robin Zavod, PhD, FAPhA, to develop this edition of the AACP Argus Commission Forecast. The intent of the Forecast is to provide substantive guidance to colleges and schools of pharmacy in their strategic, academic, and research planning and visioning. This third edition of the AACP Argus Commission Forecast offers insights into emerging trends that will impact colleges and schools of pharmacy and the profession of pharmacy, as a whole. The 2025–2026 Argus Commission is grateful to all who facilitated the process of creating a tool that will serve as a guiding light for the pharmacy academy going forward. It is important to note that the recommendations included in this Forecast are the opinions of the authors, meant to be provocative and encourage thoughtful discussion, but are not official policy statements of AACP or its Board of Directors.
The Argus Commission acknowledges that your comments and suggestions are essential to this process and to future Forecasts. Please send your comments about this process, suggestions for improving future forecasts, and any recommendations for topics to include in subsequent forecasts to Lee Vermeulen, AACP CEO and Executive Vice President, at LVermeulen@aacp.org.
2025–2026 Argus Commission Members
Anne Y.F. Lin, PharmD, Chair, Co-Editor
Craig D. Cox, PharmD
Stuart T. Haines, PharmD
Anandi V. Law, B.Pharm, PhD
Russell B. Melchert, RPh, PhD
Lee C. Vermeulen, BSPharm, MS, Staff Liaison, Co-Editor
Acknowledgments
The editors recognize the time, effort, and expertise of the many contributors who participated in making this Forecast a resounding success. The editors are grateful to Bill Zellmer and the ASHP Foundation for their work in creating the ASHP Forecast, which served as the methodological model for this AACP process. The editors also appreciate Adam Jackson, AACP Director of Governance; Tricia Gordon, AACP Design Director; Elizabeth Alida Stern; AACP Editorial Director; and the AACP Board of Directors for their contributions to several aspects of this project.
Citation Format
The bibliographic citation for this report is as follows:
Lin AYF, Cox CD, Haines ST, Law AV, Melchert RB, Chen AMH, Ferreri SP, Giacomini K, Gums JG, Rhoney DH, Vermeulen LC. AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026. Am J Pharm Educ. Forthcoming 2026. Full PubMed citation elements will be provided at publication.
Introduction and Methods
Anne Y.F. Lin, PharmD Chair, 2025–2026 AACP Argus Commission
Chin Ling & Sallie Wang Endowed Dean & Professor
College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences
St John’s University Queens, New York
Introduction
Lee C. Vermeulen, BSPharm, MS
Executive
Vice President and CEO
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Arlington, Virginia
While academic pharmacy, like much of higher education, faces many challenges, the pace and extent of external changes affecting pharmacy education during the past year have been unprecedented since the Argus Commission Forecast began in 2023–2024. The philosophical, fiscal, and political shifts that have occurred over the past year have created even more uncertainty, as well as potential opportunities, across the overall landscape of the academy and higher education. Given this environment, it is imperative that our colleges and schools are well informed and well prepared for both challenges and opportunities during these turbulent times. Structured, recurrent forecasting that explores the environment in which our colleges and schools operate is essential so that academic leaders can adapt and align their organizations for success.
Following the success of the past two AACP Argus Commission Forecasts, the 2025–2026 Argus Commission set out to provide another edition to assist AACP members with creating well informed, stakeholder-driven, visionary, and strategic plans. The AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026 was developed to bolster strategic planning and decision-making efforts at member institutions and in the academy, as a whole.
Methods
The use of “wise crowds” is a tool for forecasting that leverages broad-based groups in which each panelist provides input based on their locally- and globally-informed perspective. The collective view of the crowd is more informative than that of any one individual. James Surowiecki’s The Wisdom of Crowds1 has been used by other health-related organizations to synthesize the power of diverse groups of individuals. The AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026 is modeled on the successful methods and approach used by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP)2 and the American Hospital Association (AHA)3 in their forecasting efforts over many years. Their forecasts have provided health-system pharmacy leaders and hospital and health system executives with critical guidance, just as this report supports the pharmacy academy. Forecasting is not well suited to quantitative methods, though the use of “wise crowds” provides informed predictions. The 2025–2026 Argus Commission mapped out a process that harnesses these evaluative strengths by obtaining the perspective of key members of the pharmacy academy, thereby synthesizing those individual perspectives into a strong, collective view.
Comprised of the 5 most recent AACP presidents and the AACP Executive Vice President and CEO, the Argus Commission provides an ongoing and informed membership for this Forecast. The Argus Commission conducted an environmental scan that focused on the 3 “legs” of the academic stool: education, practice, and research. The continued impor-
tance of pharmacy education financing, amid ongoing enrollment concerns and increasing reductions in research funding, was chosen as a fourth topic. The final topic stemmed from rising concerns about public trust in science, higher education, and health care, as well as emerging social and political issues significantly affecting pharmacy education.
Once these 5 themes were identified as the starting point for developing the survey, specific scenario statements from the broader environmental scan were categorized within these themes and used to establish a baseline survey. These specific scenario survey items and their perceived impact on the pharmacy academy over the next 5 years guided the development of survey items within each theme. The Argus Commission began with nearly 100 concepts and nascent survey items, which were then refined to delve into these areas and subsequently pilot tested for clarity and face validity. The final survey included 32 items. The 2025–2026 Argus Commission is grateful to the AACP Board of Directors for serving as the pilot group.
Across the 5 themed areas, the 32 items reflected scenarios that survey respondents were instructed to consider and rate according to the likelihood that they would occur in the next 5 years. Survey respondents were asked to consider their “top-of-mind” reaction to the likelihood of the scenarios occurring on a four-point agreement scale (very likely, somewhat likely, somewhat unlikely, or very unlikely). Additional details regarding respondent composition and demographics are provided below.
It is important to recognize that the Argus Forecast survey is designed to explore broad concepts that are often complex and multifaceted. The intent is not to create an accurate prediction of the future, but rather to consider potential future events and circumstances. This work is not designed using conventional survey research methods, as such methodological rigor is neither appropriate nor feasible when exploring the likelihood of future events, and predictive accuracy is not the primary goal of this report. Instead, the Forecast is intended to foster provocative discussion, exploring “what-if” dialogue among faculty and professional staff at AACP member institutions, with the hope of informing more robust strategic planning at colleges and schools of pharmacy.
Results
Forecasting using the “wisdom of the crowd” depends a great deal on the breadth of experience—not necessarily expertise—of the survey respondents. Although the characteristics of the respondent group do influence survey results, conceptually, a crowd of individuals with knowledge of the space being forecasted, regardless of cohort makeup, can provide very strong combined predictions. Nonetheless, it is valuable to consider the makeup of the respondent group, including their background and involvement in the pharmacy academy. The Argus Commission identified informed, learned, and actively involved members of the pharmacy academy to participate in the Forecast survey. Respondents came from several select groups, including CEO deans, past AACP presidents, individuals who volunteered to serve on AACP standing committees, and graduates of the AACP Academic Leadership Fellows Program, among others. More than 1000 individuals were invited to serve as survey respondents, and 466 accepted. Survey participation rate for this Forecast was substantial, with 397 respondents completing the survey (response rate, 85.2%), demonstrating the commitment of the pharmacy academy. As active members of AACP, survey respondents possess great insight into the pharmacy academy and knowledge of the challenges and opportunities facing the profession, as well as informed perspectives regarding its future. At every stage of development and implementation for
this Forecast enthusiasm for the Forecast project remained strong, as it has been during the past 2 years of producing the AACP Argus Commission Forecasts.
Information about the composition of the survey respondent pool is provided in the accompanying graphs. Note that responses to demographic questions in the survey were optional; therefore, the percentages presented here do not total 100%. Regional distribution of respondents varied, with greater representation in the South Atlantic and Great Lakes regions than from New England and Mountain regions (see Figure 1). This distribution is consistent with the geographic distribution of colleges and schools of pharmacy across the US, and the results of the previous AACP Argus Commission Forecast surveys. A larger proportion of survey respondents were from public institutions (59.9%) than private institutions (40%; see Figure 2).
More women (57%) than men (33%) responded to the survey (see Figure 3), and most survey respondents (65%) had worked in the pharmacy academy for more than 15 years (see Figure 4), and most (62%) had been AACP members for over 15 years (see Figure 5). More than 80% of survey respondents identified themselves as pharmacists (see Figure 6). The largest group of survey respondents (54%) indicated they were in pharmacy practice, while 25.3% reported serving in administrative roles. A smaller proportion (15.5%) identified themselves as basic science faculty at their colleges or schools of pharmacy (see Figure 7). Of those respondents who indicated they were practice-based faculty, 57.7% reported being in ambulatory or community practice care roles, while 42.3% were in acute care (see Figure 8).
Forecast Highlights
Results from the survey statements are included in the themed sections of this Forecast. Using the outcomes, authors—consisting of one Argus Commission member and one or two additional experts in the relevant area selected by that Commission member— provide discussion and recommendations that build upon the individual scenarios and overall conclusions therein to enhance strategic planning within the pharmacy academy and at individual colleges and schools of pharmacy.
The financing of higher education and colleges and schools of pharmacy continues to be explored in the Argus Commission reports. This year, Anandi Law and John Gums explore strategies to support institutional viability and financial sustainability. This section discusses the possibility of closures and mergers, alternative revenue streams to offset the operating expenses, such as faculty salaries, and the use of adjunct faculty and nonfaculty administrators.
Stuart Haines, Aleda Chen, and Denise Rhoney explore the potential adoption of a competency education model in greater depth in this year’s report. The survey examined the likelihood that colleges and schools would adopt a time-variable, competency-based curriculum and rely primarily on online learning for knowledge acquisition. With many schools adopting entrustable professional activities (EPAs), the report also discusses the question of using EPAs to determine graduation eligibility and to develop a competency examination.
Recognizing that new pharmacy practice models and the need to rethink the role of pharmacy technicians will be important to advancing practice, Craig Cox and Stefanie Ferreri discuss the likelihood of adopting the standard-of-care regulatory model. Survey participants were asked about the education and training of pharmacy technicians, as
Figure 1
Regions where Respondents are Employed
South Atlantic (MD, DC, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL, PR)
Great Lakes (OH, IN, IL, MI, WI)
Southeast (KY, TN, AL, MS)
Middle South (AR, LA, OK, TX)
Mid-Atlantic (DE, NY, NJ, PA)
Pacific (WA, OR, CA, AK, HI)
Western Plains (MN, IA, MO, ND, SD, NE, KS)
New England (ME, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT)
Mountain (MT, ID, WY, CO, NM, AZ, UT, NV)
Reported
2
Figure 3
Gender of Respondents
Figure 4 Number of Years Respondents have Worked in the
Figure 5
Number of Years as AACP Member
Figure 6
Proportion of Respondents who are Pharmacists
Figure 7
Figure 8
Practice Setting of Respondents who are Practice Faculty
well as expansion of their current roles. The survey also explored payment for advanced patient care services and the potential for colleges and schools to offer skill-development programs for practicing pharmacists seeking to deliver advanced patient care services.
Changes to the research funding landscape continue to challenge the academic pharmacy research enterprise. This year, Russ Melchert and Kathy Giacomini focused on the potential erosion of research dissemination pathways resulting from changes in the peer review process, as well as curricular revisions needed to develop skills not traditionally included or emphasized in graduate education, such as communication and interpersonal skills.
Finally, in response to the rapidly changing political climate and views on the value of higher education, Argus Commission members explore the potential ramifications of a broad range of political and societal phenomena currently affecting higher education and the nation as a whole. Recommendations are provided to assist AACP member colleges and schools of pharmacy in strategically planning for these challenges.
Each section is accompanied by graphs summarizing the Forecast survey results. Collectively, this report provides insight into the future of the pharmacy academy through the narratives of these exceptional leaders and their specific recommendations for colleges and schools of pharmacy.
How to Use the Forecast
This Forecast is intended to provide innovative and provocative predictions that may inform proactive strategic planning. It is also designed to stimulate reasoned discourse that will enhance that planning in the academy at individual colleges and schools of pharmacy. As academics, we love a good debate, and this report should provide excellent fodder for meaningful dialogue across the academy. Considering the challenges we face, we cannot afford to be reactive or insufficiently prepared for what may lie ahead. This Forecast is intended to strengthen our ability to pursue and achieve successful planning grounded in transformative views of what lies ahead.
Strategic plans may be trending toward shorter overall plan lengths, generally ranging from 3 to 5 years. With intentionality, the 2025–2026 Argus Commission selected a 5-year horizon for evaluating survey scenario statements. Similarly, it is important to consider that there may be topics that are subject to abrupt changes in very short timeframes; as such, we refrained from emphasizing these within the themed sections.
Best practices in strategic planning call for broad-based, grassroots stakeholder involvement. As this Forecast can inform colleges and schools of pharmacy with our focus on the 3 “legs” of the academic stool, member institutions are encouraged to share the report with all strategic planning participants—internally and externally. This will only strengthen those planning processes.
Given the importance of strategic planning in the current environment, institutions should consider a thorough implementation process with iterative evaluation and follow-up throughout the year. Individual colleges and schools of pharmacy are multifaceted, complex organizations facing myriad difficulties related to population demographics, a political landscape that provides several challenges to higher education, and changes within health care in general. These challenges occur continually and must be evaluated in real time. Restricting strategic planning solely to measuring outcomes, without considering emerging developments that may warrant or necessitate incorporation into the
plan, may prove shortsighted. Ongoing efforts to remain proactive and adaptable are essential to achieving desired outcomes. When faced with rapidly changing circumstances, this and future Forecasts can be used during interim revisions of strategic plans and strategic decision-making processes.
Rigorous discussion about the overall landscape of higher education and health care remains essential to effective strategic planning. These Forecasts may serve as tools for identifying both common ground and areas of disagreement. It should also be noted that, while the authors for the various themes were thoughtful in the writing of their sections, disagreement with conclusions and recommendations is both possible and appropriate. The Commission welcomes dialogue and encourages differing views and recommendations as part of the constructive counter-discourse.
New processes, even those rooted in proven methods, must be continually refined over time. It is our sincere hope that this third edition of the Forecast will support and guide colleges and schools of pharmacy, as well as academy leadership, in their strategic planning. The next step beyond its creation is ensuring that the AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026 is shared broadly with all stakeholders involved in strategic planning. Undoubtedly, the ultimate value of this effort will hinge upon its integration into the planning process, potentially transforming the way we approach strategic planning.
References
1 Suroweicki J The wisdom of crowds New York: Anchor; 2005
2 DiPiro JT, Hoffman JM, Schweitzer P, et al Pharmacy forecast 2024: strategic planning guidance for pharmacy departments in hospitals and health systems Am J Health Syst Pharm 2024;81(2):5-36 doi:10 1093/ajhp/zxad231
3 American College of Healthcare Executives, Society for Health Care Marketing and Strategy Development Futurescan 2023: Healthcare trends and implications American Hospital Association, 2023 Accessed August 10, 2024 https://www shsmd org/resources/futurescan-2023
The Impact of Financial Constraints, Pressures and Challenges on Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy
Anandi V. Law, BPharm, MS, PhD Dean and Professor Jefferson College of Pharmacy
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Introduction
John G. Gums, PharmD
Executive Associate Dean and Professor of Pharmacy and Medicine
College
of Pharmacy
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
Financial pressures are increasingly threatening the sustainability of US colleges and schools of pharmacy. Focus areas discussed in this section include institutional viability, leadership and administrative structures, curricular delivery models, and faculty roles in revenue generation, with particular attention to emerging strategies for cost containment and revenue diversification.
Current Environment
Colleges and schools of pharmacy across the US are experiencing unprecedented financial strain driven by multiple, interrelated factors. Reductions in research funding and institutional support, along with declining applicant interest and enrollment, have led to significant decreases in tuition revenue, which represents the primary revenue source for most institutions. Although alternative sources of revenue exist, including clinical service revenue, grants and contracts, continuing education and professional development, online programs, and philanthropy, these sources are often insufficient or inconsistently accessible. Challenges associated with the lack of compensation for clinical services provided by faculty further compound the issue. Together, these factors create a destabilizing cycle: declining enrollment reduces institutional revenue, while unclear or limited compensation pathways for clinical services hinder the expansion of alternative income streams. Because many private institutions do not have an affiliation with a primary healthcare system, they may be disproportionately affected. Consequently, many colleges and schools of pharmacy face difficult decisions regarding resource allocation, program sustainability, and faculty retention.
The Forecast survey questions in this section explore the impact of the current financial environment on colleges and schools of pharmacy autonomy and survival, leadership structures, curricular delivery models, and faculty expectations related to revenue generation.
Program Closures and Mergers
In response to Forecast survey item proposing that at least 25 colleges and schools of pharmacy will close, respondents were nearly evenly divided, with 51.6% indicating agreement with this statement (see Figure 9, Item 1). This split may reflect hesitation related to the magnitude of the scenario, which represents approximately 18% of all US colleges and schools of pharmacy. Results from the 2024 Forecast survey indicated that a scenario posing fewer potential closures was more likely. More ominously, nearly two-thirds of respondents (65.5%) in the current survey anticipated that programs would instead merge with other health-related academic units (see Figure 9, Item 2).1 Such mergers may represent intermediary steps preceding closure, though they may also function as strategies to delay or prevent program discontinuation. When a college or school of pharmacy
9
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
least 25 colleges and schools of pharmacy will close due to financial challenges .
At least 25 colleges and schools of pharmacy will be merged with other health-related programs into single academic units
At least 25% of colleges and schools of pharmacy will require all full-time members of the faculty to offset 50% of their salaries from external funding sources (e g , research grants, payment for clinical care, service contracts, etc .) .
At least 50% of colleges and schools of pharmacy will expect pharmacy practice faculty to generate revenue from billing for patient care services .
To control costs, and with the support of ACPE, the percentage of the didactic curriculum delivered by adjunct faculty will double at colleges and schools of pharmacy .
5 At nearly all colleges and schools of pharmacy, a majority of the administrative roles will be filled by professional staff who are not former faculty members .
is absorbed into a larger university infrastructure, the financial, administrative, and hiring decisions are made outside the college or school (ie, at the university level), increasing the risk that key strategic and tactical decisions are made without insight into the priorities of the profession. The risk of eventual closure is also higher, as programs must compete for resources within the broader university budget. In the past two years, at least two independent pharmacy schools have closed, and two have been merged into or acquired by larger universities.2-5 This trend may accelerate if financial pressures continue to increase.
External Funding and Revenue Generation
Faculty participation in generating new external funding for the college or school of pharmacy was also considered in the survey (see Figure 9, Item 3). Requiring all full-
time faculty to offset 50% of their salaries through grants, contracts, or clinical service payments was viewed as unlikely (61.2%). In contrast, expectations for pharmacy practice faculty to generate revenue were viewed as more plausible, though respondents remained equally divided. (see Figure 9, Item 4). This difference may reflect respondent composition (54% pharmacy practice faculty; 60% from public institutions) and greater familiarity with clinical payment environments among practice faculty. Pharmacy practice faculty may be more aware of the need for them to generate payment for clinical services, given the breadth of discussion on this topic in the literature and the ever-changing status of pharmacists as providers at the state level. Faculty from public institutions are more likely to be affiliated with an academic health center, increasing opportunities to generate revenue through clinical services. This is consistent with prior research indicating that faculty billing is more common in publicly funded institutions compared to private.6,7 Increases in new external funding and new revenue from practice faculty would directly result in greater financial stability. However, this must be balanced against faculty responsibilities for teaching, research, and service. Further, increasing clinical revenue generation will require greater reliance on instructors or adjunct faculty for teaching and a shift of administrative responsibilities to professional staff, which may introduce additional costs and present challenges within the current accreditation environment, discussed further below. Ultimately, securing new revenue streams will necessarily require careful analysis at each college and school of pharmacy.
Cost Control Measures
The potential shift from primarily full-time faculty to increased reliance on adjunct faculty for curricular delivery models was also surveyed (see Figure 9, Item 5). This question assumes that accreditation standards would support such a transition. Most respondents (54.2%) viewed this shift as unlikely. Recently, the Accreditation Council on Pharmacy Education (ACPE) cautioned against the increased use of adjunct faculty, stating that adjunct faculty are generally not integrated in the program, may not have input into the curriculum decisions, may lack skills in student assessment and test preparation, do not participate in student advising, may not be available on campus for student meetings, and are not consistently supported with access to professional organizations. However, in the evolving environment of online and virtual learning in higher education and its expansion, coupled with AI-abetted curricula and programs, utilizing adjunct faculty may continue to rise, especially if it helps alleviate financial pressures. Ensuring quality will require the careful selection of appropriate adjunct faculty (eg, experienced preceptors, graduate students who are pharmacists), along with implementing faculty development programs to prepare adjuncts for teaching. The academy will also need to work closely with ACPE to ensure accreditation standards allow for an appropriate balance of full-time and adjunct faculty to deliver quality curricula while addressing the financial challenges of colleges and schools.
Administrative and Leadership Structure
Financial challenges facing colleges and schools of pharmacy may lead to structural changes, including increased utilization of professional staff in administrative roles as a cost-containment strategy or to offset expanded teaching responsibilities among faculty. However, most respondents (75.6%) considered such changes unlikely (see Figure 9, Item 6), perhaps reflecting reluctance to transfer administrative responsibilities to non-pharmacist personnel or confidence in faculty to absorb additional leadership functions. Should schools and colleges expand the use of non-faculty members, institutions should consider investing in development programs to build their understanding of phar-
macy education and create career development pathways for non-pharmacist personnel. Cross-training and leadership development will be critical to supporting these roles effectively. As colleges and schools rely more on professional staff, it will be important to ensure faculty participation in functions that require faculty expertise, such as promotion and tenure decisions. It will also be essential to consider the cultural impact of these shifts, as it may lead to administrative and leadership styles and structures that are more common in corporations and health systems.
Conclusion
Respondents clearly recognize the financial threats facing colleges and schools of pharmacy. Compared to findings from previous AACP Argus Commission Forecasts, there is diminished optimism regarding long-term viability absent mergers and closures. While cost containment remains necessary, respondents did not identify expanded adjunct faculty utilization or administrative restructuring as primary solutions. Instead, there appears to be greater openness to revenue diversification, particularly through clinical service compensation and other externally funded activities.
Recommendations
1. Colleges and schools of pharmacy should prioritize the developing systems and programs that enable clinical faculty to generate revenue, with the goal that clinical services offset a substantial portion of faculty salaries .
2. AACP should work with members to develop the tools, resources, and networking opportunities that support colleges and schools of pharmacy in successfully establishing and maintaining sustainable payment models for clinical faculty patientcare services .
3. AACP should explore training and mentorship programs to help elevate professional staff and full-time faculty into leadership and administrative pathways to help alleviate gaps in institutions and improve succession planning across the academy in response to constrained budgetary environments .
4. AACP should partner with colleges and schools of pharmacy that are considering or are in the process of program closures or mergers to provide support for students and faculty who would be impacted .
References
1 Allen DD, Lin AYF, Haines ST, Sorensen TD, Melchert RB, Blouin RA, Austin Z, Moore GD, Poloyac SM, Vermeulen LC AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2024 Am J Pharm Educ 2024;88(10):100763 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2024 100763
2 Harsa C Husson University to close its pharmacy school News Center Maine February 17, 2025 Accessed May 6, 2026 https://www newscentermaine com/article/news/education/husson-university-pharmacy-school-program-university-of-new-england-students-maine/97-665e64a5ecb9-44ea-a1ed-187e6fb495a7v
3 Marling S A bitter pill to swallow: struggling industry leads to closure of UC’s pharmacy school Charleston Gazette-Mail February 26, 2026 https://www wvgazettemail com/news/education/a-bitter-pill-to-swallow-struggling-industry-leads-to-closure-of-uc-s-pharmacy-school/article_b5bd5a5c-bd5e-11ef-ab90-47151674e67b html
4 Washington University plans to acquire St Louis College of Pharmacy STLPR February 4, 2026 https://www stlpr org/health-science-environment/2026-02-24/washington-university-plans-to-acquire-st-louis-college-of-pharmacy
5 Russell Sage College and Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences Agree to Pursue Strategic Merger - Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences April 22, 2025 https://www acphs edu/news/russell-sage-college-andalbany-college-pharmacy-and-health-sciences-agree-pursue/
6 Gums JG, Henchey CP, Dowling TC, et al National Assessment of Reimbursement Models for Clinical Faculty Services in Academic Pharmacy Practice J Am Coll Clin Pharm 2025 doi:10 1002/jac5 70134
7 Wiisanen K, Gubbins PO, Gums JG, et al Recognizing the Value of the Practice Enterprise: Billing for Faculty Patient Care Services to Strengthen Education and Advance the Profession Am J Pharm Educ 2025:101924 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2025 101924
Moving from Ambivalence to Action
Stuart T. Haines, PharmD
Professor and Director, Pharmacy Professional Development
Department of Pharmacy Practice
University of Mississippi School of Pharmacy
Jackson, Mississippi
Aleda M. H. Chen, PharmD, MS, PhD
Professor and Director of Assessment
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
College of Pharmacy
Little Rock, Arkansas
Introduction
Denise H. Rhoney, PharmD Professor
University of North Carolina Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill
North Carolina
The AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026 included several items related to pharmacy education. Drawing on three years of Forecast responses, this report explores three interconnected forces that will influence the future of Doctor of Pharmacy programs: ambivalence, assessment, and technology.
Ambivalence About Competency-based Education
Despite continuing progress toward competency-based pharmacy education (CBPE) and its inclusion in the 2026 AACP Strategic Plan, results from the AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2026 suggest that the majority of the academy’s members remain uncertain about the feasibility of implementing time-variable CBPE for the PharmD curriculum— or are not convinced it is necessary (see Figure 10, Item 1). In the 2024, 2025, and now 2026 Forecast surveys, respondents were asked about the likelihood that at least 20 pharmacy programs would adopt a time-variable CBPE curriculum within five years. Positive responses have remained consistently below 50% across all three surveys; in 2026, the proportion of respondents indicating this was likely or very likely declined by 8.8 percentage points from 2025.1,2
This ambivalence may reflect uncertainty about logistics, compounded by cultural and structural inertia. Faculty roles, learner expectations, and institutional frameworks are deeply entrenched in course-based progression. Yet time serves as a proxy for—rather than direct evidence of—mastery. Transitioning to CBPE will require coordinated change across a broad spectrum of stakeholders.3
The profession may be approaching a pivotal inflection point, analogous to the conversion to the all-PharmD degree. That transition succeeded through early adopters demonstrating feasibility, followed by coordinated, profession wide adoption, and corresponding revisions in accreditation standards. CBPE may now be at a similarly critical juncture. In undergraduate medical education, a consortium of schools studied time-variable education with a focus on practice readiness, generating evidence that has informed broader adoption.4 A comparable consortium of pharmacy programs could pilot CBPE and produce the outcomes and implementation data needed to move the academy from ambivalence to decisive action.
Figure 10
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
At least 20 colleges or schools of pharmacy will adopt a time-variable, competency-based curriculum where tuition is not based on credit hours .
A nationally recognized list of entrustable professional activities (EPAs) will be formally adopted as the primary basis for determining eligibility for graduation from a PharmD program
A nationally recognized competency examination based on EPAs will be administered by an independent agency to all PharmD candidates .
Those colleges and schools of pharmacy that deliver a competency-based curriculum will primarily use on-line learning for knowledge acquisition
At least 50% of colleges and schools of pharmacy will leverage artificial intelligence (AI)-driven adaptive learning technology to analyze each student’s fundamental knowledge and provide student-specific instruction .
(Note: Adaptive learning technology uses data and algorithms to personalize a student’s learning experience in realtime, adjusting content, pacing, and difficulty based on their individual needs, performance, and knowledge gaps )
Assuring the Competence of Our Learners
Multistakeholder studies in pharmacy education describe a meaningful misalignment between education and practice preparedness: employers report that graduates demonstrate strong foundational knowledge yet struggle with clinical reasoning, systems thinking, and decision making in complex care environments.5 Survey results also reveal an important distinction in how the academy conceptualizes competence assurance. Panelists expressed willingness to adopt a nationally recognized list of entrustable professional activities (EPAs) as a common basis for graduation decisions (see Figure 10, Item 2), but did not envision a single, nationally administered EPA-based competency examination (see Figure 10, Item 3). This divergence is consistent with what EPAs are designed to do. As integrated units of authentic professional work, EPAs require the synthesis of
knowledge, skills, and professional judgment; they inform entrustment and supervision decisions grounded in observed performance, rather than checklist-based curricular mapping or standardized examination blueprints.6
EPAs are most powerful when operationalized as a continuum framework. Pharmacy’s Curricular Outcomes and Entrustable Professional Activities (COEPA) establish core activities relevant across settings and developmental stages, enabling a coherent view of readiness from student to practitioner.7 A longitudinal approach documents the progressive reduction in supervision needed across introductory and advanced practice experiences, residency training, and professional practice, rather than creating disconnected EPA sets at each transition.8 This shared language of work supports clearer signaling to learners and employers about what graduates can be trusted to do, while also creating a pathway for post-graduate entrustment renewal as pharmacists’ scope and practice context evolve.
Entrustment-based readiness and standardized examinations measure different, though interrelated, qualities. Evidence from pediatric medicine confirms limited correlation between readiness judgments and board examination outcomes, underscoring that competence assurance should not rely solely on examinations.5 Defensible assurance relies on longitudinal workplace-based observations, rater calibration, and structured synthesis by competency committees.6 Accordingly, the profession should pursue a distributed model: nationally aligned expectations for core pharmacist work, locally implemented assessment systems, and mechanisms to externally validate competency decisions to ensure consistency and maintain public trust. Building the necessary infrastructure, governance, and cross-organizational alignment—across PharmD programs, residency training, and professional development—remains the central challenge ahead.
Technology to Move Faculty from Knowledge Providers to Coaches
The growing sophistication and affordability of instructional technologies may be a critical enabler of the transition to CBPE. Two survey items (see Figure 10, Items 4 and 5) anticipate a shift toward online learning for knowledge acquisition and widespread adoption of AI-driven adaptive learning—suggesting that technology is not merely a tool, but an essential condition for making competency-based education viable at scale.
The pairing of CBPE and online learning is logical and mutually reinforcing. CBPE requires flexible pacing because students must demonstrate mastery before progressing. Online environments uniquely facilitate asynchronous access, content repetition, and individualized pathways that a single-cohort, time-fixed curricula cannot.9 AI-driven adaptive learning extends this further by analyzing individual student performance in real time, identifying knowledge gaps, and adjusting content delivery to create personalized learning pathways and continuous formative feedback–reducing reliance on summative assessments alone.10
Important limitations must be acknowledged. The quality and rigor of online knowledge acquisition must match or exceed that of traditional instruction; simply digitizing lectures is insufficient. AI systems cannot replace human judgment in evaluating complex clinical reasoning or professional behaviors—competencies that require direct observation by skilled faculty and preceptors. This shift toward technology-mediated instruction demands significant faculty development. Educators must be fluent in both CBPE principles and instructional technology, enabling them to redirect their expertise toward
coaching learners through authentic, practice-relevant experiences. Colleges and schools of pharmacy that make strategic investments in both infrastructure and faculty development will be better positioned to deliver more efficient, personalized, and effective curricula while addressing the financial pressures facing academic pharmacy.
Conclusion
Transforming pharmacy education requires moving beyond ambivalence to coordinated action. This will necessitate deliberate investment in technology and faculty development, alongside a shared commitment across the profession to ensure graduates are fully prepared for the complex demands of contemporary practice.
Recommendations
1. AACP should convene and facilitate a consortium of partner schools committed to advancing CBPE implementation .
2. The profession should articulate a unified set of competencies spanning the full continuum of pharmacy education—professional degree, residency training, and ongoing professional development . Similar to the development of the Pharmacist Patient Care Process, such an effort would require endorsed from multiple organizations and could be coordinated by the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners
3. Faculty should engage in scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL) projects using AI-driven learning technologies and report implementation outcomes—including enablers, barriers, uptake, efficiency, fidelity, and cost—rather than focusing solely on learning outcomes
References
1 Allen DD, Lin AYF, Haines ST, Sorensen TD, Melchert RB, Blouin RA, Austin Z, Moore GD, Poloyac SM, Vermeulen LC AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2024 Am J Pharm Educ 2024;88(10):100763 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2024 100763
3 Rhoney DH, Chen AMH, Thornby KA, et al Assessing the Current State of Pharmacy Education: A Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats Analysis Am J Pharm Educ 2026;90(1)101898 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2025 101898
4 Haines ST, Rhoney DH, Chen AMH Thinking Like Tree Farmers, Not Muffin Makers: Competency-Based Education Requires Different Processes and Structures J Am Coll Clin Pharm 2025;8(12):1218-1222 doi:10 1002/jac5 70127
5 Schwartz A, Schumacher DJ, Dwyer A, Poitevien P, Turner DA Pediatric Residents’ Readiness for Practice and Performance on the Initial Certifying Examination Pediatrics 2026;157(2):e2025073517 doi:10 1542/peds 2025-073517
6 Ten Cate O, Taylor DR The recommended description of an entrustable professional activity: AMEE Guide No 140 Med Teach 2021;43(10):1106-1114 doi:10 1080/0142159X 2020 1838465
7 Medina MS, Farland MZ, Conry JM, et al The AACP Academic Affairs Committee’s Guidance for Use of the Curricular Outcomes and Entrustable Professional Activities (COEPA) for Pharmacy Graduates Am J Pharm Educ 2023;87(8):100562 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2023 100562
8 Jarrett JB, Elmes-Patel AT, Allen SM, et al Longitudinal Preceptor Assessment of Entrustable Professional Activities Across Introductory and Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences Pharmacy (Basel) 2025;13(3):72 Published 2025 May 21 doi:10 3390/pharmacy13030072
9 McMullen J, Arakawa N, Anderson C, Pattison L, McGrath S A systematic review of contemporary competency-based education and training for pharmacy practitioners and students Res Social Adm Pharm 2023;19(2):192-217 doi:10 1016/j sapharm 2022 09 013
10 Liu Y, Zhang Y, Wang X, et al Revolutionizing biotech and pharmaceutical education with adaptive learning Front Educ 2025;10:1679222 doi:10 3389/feduc 2025 1679222
Advancing Pharmacy Practice: Standard of Care, Workforce Evolution, and the Path Forward
Craig D. Cox, PharmD Professor and Regional Dean (Lubbock Campus)
Division
Head, Medicine
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center
Jerry H . Hodge School of Pharmacy
Lubbock, Texas
Introduction
Stefanie P. Ferreri, PharmD Distinguished Professor
Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education
University of North Carolina
Eshelman School of Pharmacy
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Pharmacy practice is expanding with new patient care service opportunities, but uncertainties about implementation persist. New regulatory models, such as standard of care, have been widely discussed; however, many may not fully understand its meaning, are skeptical of its support, or fear what significant change like this would mean.1 For the profession to evolve, pharmacists must be prepared to confidently deliver new patient care services. Pharmacy accreditation standards ensure that Doctor of Pharmacy graduates are prepared, but there remains a need to educate pharmacists in practice. Additionally, pharmacists will need the assistance of pharmacy support staff (ie, technicians) to deliver these services.
The profession agrees that we must evolve, but how we do this seems to be in question.2 Data from the Argus Forecast survey offers meaningful insight, suggesting that education, regulatory change, and role definition are essential to the future direction of the profession.
Standard of Care
There was overall support for education on the standard of care, with 75% of survey respondents acknowledging that direct instruction of this regulatory model will be incorporated into nearly all colleges and schools of pharmacy (see Figure 11, Item 1). However, there is a gap in thinking this will become a reality, since only 57.7% of respondents stated that at least 25 states will adopt the model (see Figure 11, Item 2). In a similar question posed in the 2025 AACP Argus Commission Forecast survey (see Figure 13, Item 3), 67.1% of respondents indicated that 25 states would adopt the standard of care, suggesting that our understanding of the complexity of the model and challenges of its implementation are becoming clearer.3 Although a few states have adopted the standard of care, more states need to consider deregulation to allow pharmacists to use professional judgment in clinical decision-making. Survey results indicate that there is skepticism that states will enact such changes. Discovering the reasons for this apprehension is critical— concerns about losing the structure and protection provided by current regulations may be holding us back.
Advancing Patient Care Services
In the Argus survey, there was support for educating practicing pharmacists to advance patient care services. Nearly 78% of survey respondents indicated that at least 25% of colleges and schools of pharmacy will provide skills development programs for current pharmacists, coupled with competency-based assessment, to support the delivery of these services (see Figure 11, Item 3). This is a substantial increase from 32.9% and 39.9% agreement with the
Advancing Pharmacy Practice: Standard of Care,
Figure 11
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
Nearly all colleges and schools of pharmacy will provide direct instruction regarding the standard of care regulatory model and the connection between education, training and experience, and their personal scope of practice .
At least 25 states will adopt a standard of care regulatory model (for pharmacists)
(Note: A standard of care regulatory model for pharmacists holds them to the level of a “prudent and reasonable” professional with similar education, training, and experience, instead of rigid, prescriptive rules This flexible model allows pharmacists to practice to the top of their license, adapting to new patient care opportunities and professional judgment, while still being held accountable for providing care that aligns with professional consensus )
At least 25% of colleges and schools of pharmacy will provide current practicing pharmacists skills development programs, coupled with a competency-based assessment, to deliver advanced patient care services
In at least 25 states, legislation will be passed that require payers to pay for advanced patient care services to pharmacists who are privileged to provide them (i e , provider parity legislation)
In at least 5 states, pharmacy technicians who hold a four-year Baccalaureate-level degree in pharmacy will be licensed to independently dispense medications
statement for similar items surveyed in the 2024 (see Figure 10, Item 8) and 2025 Argus Forecasts (see Figure 13, Item 6), respectively.3,4 Based on differences among the past two and the current Forecast, it seems likely that greater flexibility on how colleges and schools of pharmacy offer training to align with an employee’s competence should be considered.
Only 52.6% of Forecast survey respondents felt that legislation will be passed in 25 states to require payer compensation for advanced patient care services provided by pharmacists who are privileged to provide them (see Figure 11, Item 4). Several states already
have regulations and laws supporting pharmacists in providing patient care services.5,6 Data shared by Dr. M. Scott (April 13, 2026), indicated that, as of April 2026, 44 states had pharmacist provider status laws, and 46 states mandated reimbursement for pharmacist-provided services through commercial or Medicaid payers.7 These findings suggest that respondents may not be fully aware of this information. This gap may be indicative of the difference between what regulations permit and the degree to which advanced care practices have been adopted in practice.
As educators, we are confident we can inform the future generation of pharmacists and those practicing currently about the standard of care models and advanced patient care services.5 However, survey respondents do not appear as confident that legislation for a standard of care regulatory model will become a reality. Most concerning is the lack of awareness that payment for these services for pharmacists currently exists. One thing is certain: survey respondents believe education must come before meaningful practice change and that education must also include training for pharmacy support staff.
Defining Roles for Pharmacy Support Staff
Forecast survey findings reflect a profession that is both forward-looking and cautious when considering the evolution of pharmacy technician roles. A significant majority of survey respondents (76.6%) believed that at least five states will adopt uniform requirements for education, experience, and licensure of pharmacy technicians for pharmacy support staff (see Figure 11, Item 5). This would both facilitate interstate portability and strengthen the foundation of technician preparation, leading to a more efficient and effective workforce.
Yet, the pharmacy profession exhibits greater hesitation when considering expanding technician autonomy. In the 2025 Argus survey (see Figure 13, item 8), a majority of respondents supported the concept of “tech-check-tech,” in which technicians check the accuracy of prescription dispensing, yet did not support hiring non-pharmacists (eg, nurse practitioners, physician assistants) to dispense medications.3 In the current survey, an overwhelming number of respondents (76%) indicated that it is unlikely that, in at least five states, pharmacy technicians holding a four-year baccalaureate-level degree in pharmacy will be licensed to independently dispense medications (see Figure 11, Item 6). This highlights a potential disconnect within the profession: while there is the acknowledgment of the need for additional technician support to manage workload, there is a hesitancy or lack of clarity regarding the appropriate scope of technician responsibilities.8 This is not unlike the tension that exists across healthcare, where any role expansion can contribute to concerns about professional identity and scope overlap. For the profession to evolve effectively, continued efforts are needed to better define the roles of pharmacy services support staff, including technicians. This provides an opportunity for colleges and schools of pharmacy to develop or expand technician pathway programs to support technician career advancement, increase pharmacy student enrollment, and potentially create sustainable revenue streams.
Conclusion
Advancement of pharmacy practice requires an intentional, aligned process focused on education, regulatory change, and role alignment. There must also be a focus on translating newly acquired knowledge and skills into action. Challenges such as complex payment structures, slow legislative processes, and deeply entrenched regulatory models have consistently limited progress. Colleges and schools of pharmacy, alongside pharma-
Advancing Pharmacy Practice: Standard
cy organizations like AACP, must play an active role in this process. Preparing both current and future practitioners remains a key priority, yet educators must also collaborate with payers, policymakers, and employers to influence change. Implementation science principles can serve as a cornerstone for success, helping to accelerate the adoption and sustainability of practice evolution within the profession.9 In parallel, we must also cultivate a growth mindset within to reduce resistance to change and encourage the workforce to embrace evolving roles.10 Without a culture that welcomes change, meaningful transformation will remain limited despite well-intentioned efforts.
Recommendations
1. Every college and school of pharmacy should train pharmacy students and key stakeholders (faculty, preceptors, practitioners) on the standard of care model .
2. Colleges and schools of pharmacy must collaborate with AACP and other pharmacy organizations to foster a change-ready mindset among students and stakeholders to ensure that practice advancement efforts are successful .
3. Colleges and schools of pharmacy, in collaboration with AACP and other stakeholders (eg, practice organizations, employers, payors, etc .), should conduct a comprehensive environmental scan to assess the pharmacy profession’s readiness to perform patient care services within the standard of care or other practice models . This assessment should focus on potential barriers, attitudes, knowledge, and skills that influence willingness to change at the individual, employer, and system levels .
4. AACP should lead a coordinated process involving all colleges and schools of pharmacy to identify and catalog programs that have been designed to train pharmacists in delivering advanced patient care services to ensure a more streamlined and scalable approach to workforce development .
5. AACP should work closely with colleges and schools of pharmacy to develop defined roles for pharmacy services support staff, including technicians, to demonstrate that teambased care is essential for pharmacists to provide patient care services .
References
1 Frost TP, Eid D, Adams AJ Frequently asked questions (FAQs) on pharmacists’ standard of care (SOC) regulation Res Soc Adm Pharm 2026 doi:10 1016/j sapharm 2026 01 002
2 Wagner JL, Boyle J, Boyle CJ, et al Overcoming Past Perceptions and Profession-Wide Identity Crisis to Reflect Pharmacy’s Future Am J Pharm Educ 2021:8829 doi:10 5688/ajpe8829
4 Allen DD, Lin AYF, Haines ST, Sorensen TD, Melchert RB, Blouin RA, Austin Z, Moore GD, Poloyac SM, Vermeulen LC AACP Argus Commission Forecast 2024 Am J Pharm Educ 2024;88(10):100763 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2024 100763
5 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Roundtable on Quality Care for People with Serious Illness; Global Forum on Innovation in Health Professional Education; Forum on Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders; Forum on Drug Discovery, Development, and Translation, Lin Chow E, Forstag EH, Cuff P, eds Innovations in Pharmacy Training and Sustainable Practice to Advance Patient Care: Proceedings of a Workshop Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); December 31, 2025
6 Advancing Pharmacist Payment Parity Workgroup State of the union: A review of state-based laws and regulations supporting pharmacist payment for clinical services J Am Coll Clin Pharm 2024;7(9):908-925 doi:10 1002/jac5 2008
7 Baxter M, Huynh D, Whetzel C, et al (2026, March 27-30) Rated R for Regulation: Annual Legal and Regulatory Update Presentation at: American Pharmacists Association Annual Meeting; March 27, 2026 Los Angeles, CA
8 Summerlin J, Duvall L, Hopton S, Vasko A, Graham A, Mehta BH Pharmacy technician development: Insight into training, preparedness, and career-path perceptions J Am Pharm Assoc 2023 doi:10 1016/j japh 2023 09 006
9 Garza KB, Abebe E, Bacci JL, et al Building Implementation Science Capacity in Academic Pharmacy: Report of the 2020-2021 AACP Research and Graduate Affairs Committee Am J Pharm Educ 2021:8718 doi:10 5688/ajpe8718
10 Ferreri SP, Cross LB, Hanes SD, Jenkins T, Meyer D, Pittenger A Academic Pharmacy: Where is Our Influence? Am J Pharm Educ 2017;81(4):63 doi:10 5688/ajpe81463
Challenges and Opportunities in Pharmacy Research and Graduate Education
Kathy Giacomini, PhD, BSPharm Dean and Troy C Daniels Distinguished Professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of California San Francisco School of Pharmacy
San Francisco, California
Introduction
Russell B. Melchert, PhD, BSPharm Dean and Professor
University of Missouri—Kansas City School of
Pharmacy
Kansas City, Missouri
The search for new knowledge is not only critical for the advancement of health and well-being of humankind but also for driving our academy’s mission by engaging learners, promoting a curious mindset of our future practitioners, scientists, and leaders, and contributing to the advancement of the profession. Unfortunately, perhaps no other section of the AACP Argus Commission Forecast has faced as much uncertainty over the past three years as research and graduate education. Changes in the landscape of federal funding and proposed budget cuts threaten our research mission. At the same time, advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence increasingly impact research approaches and efficiency, as well as the dissemination of findings. Collectively, these challenges affect graduate education and how best to engage student scientists.
Research Discoveries
Research in colleges and schools of pharmacy spans the full continuum, from discovery through translational and clinical research. In all our endeavors, artificial intelligence (AI) tools are increasingly integrated and developed to advance our discoveries. For example, computational drug discovery now includes AlphaFold to predict precise protein structures, enabling in silico discovery of candidate drugs. Pharmacoepidemiology increasingly leverages AI to rapidly query the scientific literature, as well as real-world data, such as electronic health records, to generate new knowledge in drug utilization, safety, and outcomes. The next few years will undoubtedly usher in additional AI tools across the spectrum of research, further enabling discoveries and new therapeutic modalities for the treatment and prevention of human disease.
Research Dissemination
Significant change in production, review, and dissemination of research findings is underway. If used appropriately and transparently disclosed, AI tools will be deployed to generate new knowledge, which in turn will advance the profession. Furthermore, AI may prove to be a valuable tool in the peer review of scientific work and could potentially help remove bias. In the 2025 Argus Forecast survey, an overwhelming majority (94.1%) of panelists indicated that it was unlikely that high-impact journals would eliminate peer review.1 This year, respondents were nearly evenly split, with approximately half indicating it was likely and half unlikely (see Figure 12, Item 1) that high-impact journals would replace expert peer review with AI-based review. This shift suggests that many respondents anticipate significant changes in the peer review process with the
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
At least 10 high-impact biomedical journals (e g , NEJM, JAMA, BMJ) will replace expert peer review with artificial intelligence (AI)-based review prior to manuscript publication
At least 50% of graduate education programs at colleges and schools of pharmacy will add interpersonal skills (e g , communication, relationship-building, teamwork, etc ) as competency requirements for their students
At least 1 college or school of pharmacy will create a non-thesis Master’s degree in collaboration with a school of journalism and new media to develop graduates with competency in science communication .
In response to increasing article processing charges (APCs), universities (individually or as consortia) will create additional open-access journal publishing companies that will compete with for-profit publishers
At least 25% of PhD programs at colleges and schools of pharmacy will eliminate all required didactic coursework for their students
incorporation of AI. We anticipate much more use of AI in the dissemination of primary research findings over the next five years, potentially giving rise to new opportunities. For example, AI tools may augment secondary literature production by assisting with literature review, meta-analyses, and possibly clinical guideline synthesis.
Table 1
UCSF School of Pharmacy-Led PhD Graduate Programs
Graduate Education
Universities in the US have long been highly sought destinations for student scientists around the world, and we have benefited greatly from the diversity they bring. However, recent changes in immigration policy and geopolitical unrest have challenged our destination status and impacted graduate student and faculty recruitment in many disciplines.
Despite these challenges, some colleges and schools of pharmacy have seen increases in applications to their graduate programs. For example, the University of California, San Francisco has witnessed a substantial rise in graduate student applications to its PhD programs within the School of Pharmacy, with increased enrollment in four of five PhD over the last year (see Table 1). Though speculative, these increases may have been driven by the integration of AI and data-driven biology into programs, a sluggish economy, as well as more applications from international students.
Over the past 50 years, the transition to the Doctor of Pharmacy as the entry-level degree, coupled with high demand for pharmacists, has reduced the number of pharmacy graduates pursuing Doctor of Philosophy degrees and research careers.2 As a result, fewer research scientists in colleges and schools of pharmacy have a pharmacy background. Importantly, funding mechanisms to support pharmacist-scientist development are not as prevalent as in medicine. For example, the Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, supports joint MD/PhD degrees for medical students by providing significant financial support for stipends, travel, tuition, and fees. A significant percentage of MSTP graduates go on to pursue academic medicine research careers.3 Although NIH programs are open to applications from other disciplines, to date, no awards have been made to colleges and schools of pharmacy.4 Expanding funding to support graduate programs in pharmacy in a manner similar to the MSTP could significantly increase the number of pharmacists pursing research careers.
In addition to growing the demand for graduate programs in colleges and schools of pharmacy, there are opportunities to reconsider the structure of our doctoral programs to develop more meaningful and efficient curricula. Communication skills are desperately needed for every scientist—not just to disseminate research findings, prepare grant applications, and teach student pharmacists and scientists—but also to educate the general public about the importance of biomedical and pharmaceutical research. Forecast survey results show that greater than 75% of panelists believed it was likely that at least 50% of graduate education programs would incorporate interpersonal skills (eg, communication, relationship-building, teamwork, etc.) into their graduate curricula (see Figure 12, Item 2). Furthermore, greater than 74% of panelists responded that it was likely or highly
likely that colleges and schools of pharmacy would partner with journalism programs to develop non-thesis master’s degree programs, potentially producing scientists who can become spokespersons for our scientific enterprise (see Figure 12, Item 3).
Intellectual Property Ownership
Ownership of intellectual property (IP) is increasingly being questioned in academic institutions. For example, faculty inventors are generally required by their institutions to assign IP rights to the institution, while sharing licensing revenue with their department or school, as well as with the university at large. Under the Bayh-Dole Act, universities may retain ownership of inventions from all federally funded research, and the government does not collect royalties. However, in the current climate, there is increasing concern among faculty and institutions that the funding agencies may encroach in this area. A more optimistic view may be shared here, as the majority of respondents (62.7%) indicated it was unlikely that IP from publicly funded research will be owned solely by the government funding agency (see Figure 12, Item 4).
Conclusions
The last few years have ushered in significant uncertainty in research and graduate student education within colleges and schools of pharmacy. At the same time, opportunities are significant, and it is timely for the academy to act in meaningful ways to strengthen and improve our graduate education and research programs.
Recommendations
1 . AACP and member institutions should convene a meeting with NIH leaders, including leaders of the MSTP program and T32 leaders, to advocate for the development of a specific pharmacist-scientist training program .
2 . AACP should encourage research across all domains relevant to the profession of pharmacy, particularly in drug discovery, delivery, development, and therapeutic use, as well as in novel therapeutic modalities, and diagnostics, and AI-driven and computational research programs .
3 . Colleges and schools of pharmacy should continue to expand their PhD programs across the research spectrum, recognizing that such growth advances the profession of pharmacy by adding new knowledge and supporting the education and training of our PharmD students .
4 . Colleges and schools of pharmacy should play leadership roles in research and education in AI and computational drug discovery and development, as well as across the continuum of medication use, including pharmacoepidemiology, pharmacoeconomics, outcomes, and policy .
2 Hagemeier NE, Murawski MM Economic Analysis of Earning a PhD Degree After Completion of a PharmD Degree Am J Pharm Educ 2011;75(1):15 doi:10 5688/ajpe75115
3 Harding CV, Akabas MH, Andersen OS History and Outcomes of 50 Years of Physician–Scientist Training in Medical Scientist Training Programs Acad Med 2017;92(10):1390-1398 doi:10 1097/acm 0000000000001779
4 Giacomini K, Surratt C, Edwards K, et al Bridging the Gap: NIH-funded Institutional Training Programs at Schools of Pharmacy Am J Pharm Educ 2025;89(11):101503 doi:10 1016/j ajpe 2025 101503
Navigating Mistrust: Higher Education, Health Care, and Pharmacy in an Age of Polarization
Anne Y.F. Lin, PharmD
Chair, 2025-2026 AACP Argus Commission
Chin Ling & Sallie Wang Endowed Dean and Professor College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences
St John’s University Queens, New York
Craig D. Cox, PharmD
Professor and Regional Dean (Lubbock Campus)
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center
Jerry H . Hodge School of Pharmacy Lubbock, Texas
Stuart T. Haines, PharmD
Professor and Director, Pharmacy Professional Development Department of Pharmacy Practice
University of Mississippi School of Pharmacy Jackson, Mississippi
Anandi V. Law, BPharm, MS, PhD
Dean and Professor
Jefferson College of Pharmacy
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Russell B. Melchert, PhD
Dean and Professor School of Pharmacy
University of Missouri–Kansas City Kansas City, Missouri
Lee C. Vermeulen, BSPharm, MS
Executive Vice President and CEO
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy
Arlington, Virginia
Introduction
The past decade has been marked by rapidly developing social, cultural, and political upheaval worldwide. Information has never been more readily accessible to so many, yet misinformation (false or inaccurate information that is spread regardless of intent to mislead) and disinformation (deliberately fabricated or manipulated information intended to deceive, harm, or exploit) have become commonplace. The willingness of members of society to accept falsehoods from political figures, celebrities, and others—fueled by endless streams of information on mainstream and social media, and now enhanced through artificial intelligence (AI) and other technologies—has led to an erosion of the value of expertise and trust in science, and, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic, in health care providers, educational institutions, and scientific evidence. The perceived value of higher education has declined and has been particularly vulnerable during this turbulent time. Since information, accurate or not, can be easily found on nearly any topic online, everyone has become an “expert,” thereby devaluing the expertise and training of health care professionals.
At the same time, universities and colleges are struggling with issues that have been developing over many years, including the impact of demographic shifts, declining enrollment, and doubt among young people about the value of a college degree. The full impact of these changes continues to evolve and will not be known for some time. In this edition of the AACP Argus Commission Forecast, several phenomena related to trust in science, expertise, and health care are considered, along with their implications for colleges and schools of pharmacy. It is worth noting that these societal issues are rapidly evolving,
and the relevance of some items in the Forecast survey may be short-lived. However, it is essential to consider these issues as leaders develop and implement strategic plans.
Impact of Polarization on Academic Freedom and Freedom of Speech
Many of the challenges facing higher education today stem from the polarization of our society. Ideological, political, and societal divisions in a disinformation-rich environment have led to significant divisiveness and loss of civility in our interactions. This environment leads to challenges in the classroom, in patient care settings, and in everyday interactions with colleagues, friends, and family. We must proactively manage these challenges. In the Argus Forecast survey, nearly 75% of respondents agreed that all colleges and schools of pharmacy, or their universities, will require training for their faculty and professional staff to manage polarization among students, their colleagues, and communities (see Figure 13, Item 1).
Dr. Sigal Ben-Porath, the MRMJJ Presidential Professor of Education at the University of Pennsylvania, spoke at the 2026 AACP Interim Meeting about current polarization on our campuses and the increasing demand for adherence from in-group members. She urged the academy to take the long view and find common ground during difficult moments. Engaging university constituents in developing the skills needed to navigate polarizing conversations is important. How do we build trust between groups with divergent points of view? As Dr. Aaron E. Carroll, President and CEO of Academy Health, noted in his presentation at the 2025 AACP Annual Meeting, providing factual information alone is not enough. Differences in points of view cannot be meaningfully addressed without trust. Faculty and professional staff must model behavior that demonstrates constructive ways of engaging with, and building trust among, people and particularly with patients who distrust the expertise of pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists.
Despite the current polarization, over 70% of respondents indicated it is unlikely that 25% of colleges and schools will rescind their support of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) 1942 Statement on academic freedom (see Figure 13, Item 2). More than 75% of respondents felt that it was unlikely that at least 10 faculty members will be dismissed for including curricular material regarding FDA-approved medications that are illegal in some states (see Figure 13, Item 3). Nearly 70% of respondents indicated that it was unlikely that half of colleges and schools of pharmacy will prohibit their faculty and professional staff from interacting with media or posting on social media platforms (see Figure 13, Item 4). These findings may reflect confidence in the value of academic freedom and its resilience against external factors.
Academic freedom empowers faculty to discuss all matters relevant to patient care with students and protects faculty from institutional censorship or discipline when speaking or writing as citizens. In contrast to the findings for items 2, 3 and 4, more than 30% of Argus Forecast survey respondents believe it is likely that at least 25 states will require faculty at colleges or schools of pharmacy to submit their curricular materials to regulatory bodies for review and approval (see Figure 13, Item 5). This suggests concern about the potential erosion of academic freedom. We must be able to teach student pharmacists about fundamental concepts related to vaccination, gender-affirming care, and health disparities, and we must be able to conduct research that drives innovation in the way we deliver care. Advocacy at the federal and, perhaps more importantly, state levels to protect students’ ability to study topics that some consider distasteful or discriminatory is needed, and we must act to protect those engaged in educating our students and conducting research related to these controversial issues.
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
Nearly all colleges and schools of pharmacy, or their universities, will have required training for their faculty and professional staff to manage polarization among students, their colleagues and communities
At least 25% of colleges and schools of pharmacy, or their universities, will be required to rescind their support of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) 1942 Statement on academic freedom . (Note: See https://www .aaup .org/reports-publications/aaup-policiesreports/policy-statements/1940-statement-principles-academic for more information about the 1940 Statement )
At least 10 faculty members at colleges or schools of pharmacy will be dismissed for including curricular material regarding FDA-approved medications that are considered illegal in some states 4.3%
At least 50% of colleges and schools of pharmacy, or their universities, will prohibit their faculty and professional staff to interact with the media or post on social media platforms .
At least 25 states will require their college or school of pharmacy faculty to submit their curricular materials to regulatory bodies in their states for review and approval .
At least 5 biomedical journals will close to avoid lawsuits or prosecution for violations of executive orders or guidance issued by departments of the Administration
How likely is it that the following conditions or circumstances will occur in the next 5 years in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy?
At least 20 faculty members or deans at colleges or schools of pharmacy are required to resign their elected or appointed positions on state association boards of directors due to the advocacy positions of those associations
To address rising costs of medications, direct-to-consumer advertising by the pharmaceutical industry will no longer be permitted .
Attacks on Evidence and Knowledge
Nearly 65% of Forecast survey respondents thought it was unlikely the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) would be dismantled (see Figure 13, Item 6). Although the CDC has not been taken apart completely, the presidential budget request to Congress in April 2026 called for a 41% reduction in its budget and the elimination of many programs essential to public health.1 Other developments, such as changes to the pediatric immunization schedule by the CDC and membership on the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), raise questions about where health care providers and the public can obtain reliable, accurate, and evidence-based information. The lack of authoritative, evidence-based information on health care for both providers and patients will become increasingly problematic in the years to come. Due to the decline in trust in governmental agencies, our pharmacy educators must help fill that credibility gap.
Addressing this gap may become more challenging because our primary mechanisms for producing and disseminating evidence are also under attack. As noted in this and previous Argus Commission Forecasts, research funding has been substantially reduced, with more cuts on the horizon. Though fewer than half of Forecast survey respondents believed it was likely that at least 5 biomedical journals would close to avoid lawsuits or prosecution for violating executive orders (see Figure 13, Item 7), the loss of journals would be catastrophic for those seeking rigorous evidence to guide patient care. We will need to advocate for ways to publish research on topics critical to patient health that may be deemed unacceptable by the current federal government.
Value of Association Partnerships
Professional associations have an important role to play in addressing the challenges our society currently faces. AACP is an institutional member of several associations, not only in pharmacy (such as the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners [JCPP], which comprises nearly all national pharmacy organizations) but in health sciences education (such as the Federation of Associations of Schools of the Health Professions
[FASHP], which includes organizations representing health professions education across disciplines). Collaboration among professional associations is critical to addressing challenges that affect health care professionals and to driving innovation in healthcare. In the Argus Forecast survey, while most respondents did not believe at least 20 faculty members or deans would be required to resign their positions on state association boards due to the association’s advocacy positions, 42% believed this outcome was possible (see Figure 13, Item 8). If this were to occur, collaboration between educational institutions and professional organizations could be weakened at a time when unity is what is needed to advance the profession. Steps must be taken to ensure that engagement in professional associations is protected.
The risk that the current political environment poses to associations is real. Recently, one AACP member college of pharmacy faced a requirement to withdraw from the association to comply with an agreement with the Department of Education regarding activities considered discriminatory. While that threat has since been resolved, it is clear that additional threats may emerge. We must be prepared to face them.2
Conclusion
In the current political environment, one of the greatest challenges facing higher education and health professions is the unpredictability of what may come next. Since the launch of the Argus survey in January 2026, changes to student loan policies have continued to impact the pharmacist pipeline during a period of workforce shortage. While we may not know what is to come, it will be important for schools to collaborate with diverse organizations and groups and to rethink how we approach our work. Higher education is not known for agility, adaptability, or risk-taking. We will need to take strategic risks to move forward. There are differences of opinion within our own academy and across our campuses. Our ability to rebuild trust with one another and with the public will be key to our ability to forge ahead. Equally important, we must prepare our graduates to function effectively in this new reality.
Recommendations
1. Leaders and faculty at colleges and schools of pharmacy should foster open discussion and thoughtful consideration of academic freedom, viewpoint diversity, and institutional neutrality .
2. AACP should provide programming that helps faculty prepare students to engage in civil discourse and manage polarization in our colleges and schools of pharmacy, and in their communities
3. AACP should partner with other pharmacy associations and associations representing higher education in health care to support the dissemination of evidence-based information in clinical areas in which misinformation is becoming increasingly widespread .
References
1 Slasher sequel: Trump again proposes major cuts to U S science spending Science Insider American Association for the Advancement of Science https://www science org/content/article/slasher-sequel-trump-again-proposes-major-cuts-u-s-science-spending Accessed April 8 2026
2 Why One Campus Told the Government It Has Ties With 1,200 Groups That ‘May’ Discriminate Chronicle of Higher Education https://www chronicle com/article/why-one-campus-told-the-government-it-has-ties-with-1-200-groups-that-may-discriminate Accessed April 8, 2026
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